Atkinson & Shiffrin (1971)

The Control of Short-Term Memory
Author(s): Richard C. Atkinson and Richard M. Shiffrin

Source: Scientific American , Vol. 225, No. 2 (August 1971), pp. 82-91
Published by: Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc.
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/24922803
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The Control of Short-Term Memory
Me1nory has two components: short-tenn and long-term�. Control
processes such as "rehearsal" are essential to the transfer
of information fr01n the short-term store to the long-term one
by Richard C. Atkinson and Richard M. Shiffl'in
T
he notion that the system by World Series may be in your memory, the growth of interest in the two-process
which information is stored in but to retrieve it takes some effort, viewpoint, which is now undergoing
- memory and retrieved from it can an d you may not be able to retrieve it considerable theoretical development
be divided into two components dates at all.) and is the subject of a large research
back to the 19th century. Theories dis The two-component concept of mem effort. In particular, the short-term
tinguishing between two different kinds ory was intuitively attractive, and yet it memory system, or short-term store
of memory were proposed by the En was largely discarded when psychology (STS), has been given a position of piv
glish associationists James Mill and John turned to behaviorism, which empha otal importance. That is because the
Stuart Mill and by such early experi sized research on animals rather than processes carried out in the short-term
mental psychologists as Wilhelm Wundt humans. The distinction between shOlt store are under the immediate control
and Ernst Meumann in Germany and term memory and long-term memory re of the subject and govern the flow of in
William James in the U.S. Reflecting on ceived little further consideration until formation in the memory system; they
their own mental processes, they dis the 1950's, when such psychologists as can be called into play at the subject's
cerned a clear difference between Donald E. Broadbent in England, D. O. discretion, with enormous consequences
thoughts currently in consciousness and Hebb in Canada and George A. Miller for performance.
thoughts that could be brought to con in the U.S. reintroduced it [see "Infor Some control processes are used in
sciousness only after a search of mem mation and Memory," by George A. many situations by everyone and others
ory that was often laborious. (For exam Miller; SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, August, are used only in special circumstances.
ple, the sentence you are reading is 1956]. The concurrent development of "Rehearsal" is an overt or covert repeti
in your current awareness; the name of computer models of behavior and of tion of information-as in remembering
the baseball team that won the 1968 mathematical psychology accelerated a telephone number until it can be writ-
SHORT-TERM STORE
(STS)
SENSORY REGISTERS
TEMPORARY
WORKING MEMORY
I VISUAL
I ,----------------------, LONG-TERM STORE
(LTS)
I
�
ENVIRONMENTAL
I
I I
INPUT I AUDITORY
I -7 I
I
CONTROL PROCESSES: I
I PERMANENT
-7
I I
I REHEARSAL I MEMORY STORE
I I
I CODING I
I I
I DECISIONS
I I
I
HAPTIC I I
I RETRIEVAL STRATEGIES I
I I
L ______________________ J
RESPONSE OUTPUT
INFORMATION FLOW through the memory system is conceived formation that is in the long-term store may he activated and en
of as heginning with the processing of environmental inputs in tered into the short.-term store. If a triangle is seen, for example,
sensory registers (receptors plus internal elements) and entry into the name "triangle" may he called up_ Control processes in the
the short-term store (STS). While it remains there the information short-term store affect these transfers into and out of the long-term
may he copied into the long-term store (LTS), and associated in- store and govern learning, retrieval of information and forgetting.
82
© 1971 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

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ten down, rememberin g the names of a the long-term store (L TS), which is as current subset, and so the retrieval proc
group of people to whom one has just sumed to be a relatively permanent mem ess becomes a search in which various
been introduced or copying a passage ory from which information is not lost. subsets are successively activated and
from a book. "Coding" refers to a class While an image is in short-term storage, scann ed [see illustration below J. On the
of control processes in which the infor closely related information in the long basis of the information presented to
mation to be remembered is put in a term store is activated and entered in the him the subject selects the appropriate
context of additional, easily retrievable short-term store too. Information enter "probe information" and places it in the
information, such as a mnemonic phrase ing the short-term store from the sensory short-term store. A "search set," or sub
or sentence. "Imaging" is a control proc systems comes from a specific modality set of information in the long-term store
ess in which verbal information is re visual, auditory or whatever-but asso closely associated with the probe, is
membered through visual images; for ciations from the lon g-term store in all then activated and put in the short-term
example, Cicero suggested learnin g lon g modalities are activated to join it. For store. The subject selects from the
lists (or speeches) by placing each mem instance, an item may be presented visu search set some image, which is then
ber of the list in a visual representation ally, but immediately after input its ver examined. The information extracted
of successive rooms of a well-known bal "name" and associated meanings will from the selected image is utilized for a
building. There are other control proc be activated from the long-term store decision : has the desired information
esses, including decision rules, organi and placed in the short-term one [see
zational schemes, retrieval strategies illustration on opposite page J.
and problem-solving techniques; some Our account of short-term and long
of them will be encountered in this ar term storage does not require that the
PRESENTATION
OF INFORMATION
ticle. The point to keep in mind is the two stores necessarily be in different
optional nature of control processes. In parts of the brain or involve different
contrast to permanent structural com physiological structures. One might con
ponents of the memory system, the con
trol processes are selected at the sub
sider the short-term store simply as
being a temporary activation of some t
ject's discretion; they may vary n ot only portion of the long-term store. In our
with different tasks but also from one thinking we tend to equate the short CHOICE OF
encounter with the same task to the term store with "consciousness," that is, RETRIEVAL STRATEGY
next. the thoughts and information of which
t
we are currently aware can be consid
e believe that the overall memory
W system is best described in terms
ered part of the conten ts of the short
term store. (Such a statement lies in the
of the flow of information into and out realm of phenomenology and cannot be
of short-term storage and the subject's verified scientifically, but thinking of SELECTION OF
P PROBE INFORMATION
control of that flow, and this conception the short-term store in this way may
has been central to our experimental and help the reader to conceptualize the sys
t
theoretical investigation of memory. All tem.) Because consciousness is equated
phases of memory are assumed to con with the short-term store and because
sist of small units of information that are control processes are centered in and act
associatively related. A set of closely in through it, the short-term store is con ACTIVATION OF RELATED
terrelated information units is termed SEARCH SET IN L TS
AND ITS TRANSFER TO S T S
sidered a working memory: a system in
an image or a trace. Note that "image" which decisions are made, problems are
does not necessarily imply a visual rep solved and information flow is directed.
resentation; if the letter-number pair
TKM-4 is presented for memory, the
Retrieval of information from short
term storage is quite fast and accurate. t
image that is stored might include the Experiments by Saul Sternberg of the
size of the card on which the pair is print Bell Telephone Laboratories and by oth DECISION TO CONTINUE
OR TO TERMI NATE SEARCH
'---
ed, the type of print, the sound of the ers have shown that the retrieval time
various symbols, the semantic codes and for information in short-term storage
numerous other units of information. such as letters and numbers ranges from
Information from the environment is 10 to 30 milliseconds per character.
accepted and processed by the various The retrieval of information from
sensory systems and is entered into the lon g-term storage is considerably more
RESPONSE CHOICE
AND ITS OUTPUT
short-term store, where it remains for a complicated. So much information is
period of time that is usually under the contained in the long-term store that the
control of the subject. By rehearsin g one major problem is finding access to some
or more items the subject can keep them small subset of the information that con
RETRIEVAL from the long·term store reo
in the short-term store, but the number tains the desired image, just as one must
quires a choice of strategy and selection of
that can be maintained in this way is find a particular book in a library before
certain information as a "probe" that is
strictly limited; most people can main it can be scanned for the desired infor
placed in the short·term store. The probe
tain seven to nine digits, for example. mation. vVe propose that the subject activates a "search set" of information in
Once an image is lost from the short-term activates a likely subset of information, the long·term store. The search set is placed
store it cannot thereafter be recovered places it in the short-term store and then in the short·term store and is examined for
from it. While information resides in scans that store for the desired image. the desired information. If it is not found,
short-term storage it may be copied into The image may not be present in the search is halted or recycled with new probe.
83

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Bennet Murdock of the University of
Toronto, Endel Tulving of Yale Univer
sity and Murray Glanzer of New York
University. The result of principal inter
est is the probability of recallin g each
item in a list as a function of its place
in the list, or "serial-presentation posi
tion." Plotting this function yields a .75
U-shaped curve [see "a" in illustration on
opposite pagel. The increased probabil
-'
ity of recall for the first few words in the -'
<l:
list is called the primacy effect; the large U
w
increase for the last eight to 12 words is a:
called the recency effect. There is con LL
0
siderable evidence that the recency ef >-
f- .5
.fect is due to retrieval from short-term -'
(l)
storage and that the earlier portions of <l:
(l)
the serial-position curve reflect retrieval 0
a:
from long-term storage only. In one ex CL
perimental procedure the subject is re
quired to carry out a difficult arithmetic
task for 30 seconds immediately follow .25
ing presentation of the list and then is
asked to recall. One can assume that the
arithmetic task causes the loss of all the
words in short-term storage, so that re
call reflects retrieval from lon g-term
storage only. The recency effect is elim
inated when this experiment is per O L-____________ -L__________________L-________________ -'
formed; the earlier portions of the serial 5 10 15
position curve are unaffected [IJ l. If SERIAL PRESENTATION POSITION
variables that influence the lon g-term
store but not the short-term one are ma EFFECT OF DELAY is tested by asking snbjects to recall at the end of a session all words
from the entire session, and then plotting probability of recall against serial position within
nipulated, the recency portion of the
each list. An experiment by Fergus Craik compares immediate recall (black) with delayed
serial"position curve should be relatively
recall (color). The delayed·recall curve emphasizes transitory nature of recency effect.
unaffected, whereas the earlier portions
of the curve should show chan ges. One
such variable is the number of words in
the presented list. A word in a lon ger ing the recency region reflects retrieval postulated to be a function of the length
list is less likely to be recal led, but the from long-term storage only. of time an item resides in the rehearsal
recency effect is quite unaffected by list buffer; the lon ger the time period, the
length [cl. Similarly, increases in the n 1965, at a conference sponsored by more rehearsal the item receives and
rate of presentation decrease the likeli I the New York Acadcmy of Sciences, therefore the greater the transfer of in
hood of recalling words precedin g the we put forward a mathematical model formation to lon g-term storage. Since
recency region but leave the recency ef explaining these and other effects in items presented first in a list enter an
fect largely unchanged [ell. terms of a rehearsal process. The model empty or partly empty rehearsal buffer,
In free recall experiments many lists assumed that in a free-recall task the they remain longer than later items and
are usually presellted in a session. If the subject sets up a rehearsal buffer in th � consequently receive additional rehears
subject is asked at the end of the session short-term store that can hold only a al. This extra rehearsal causes more
to recall all the words presented durin g fixed number of items. At the start of transfer of information to lon g-term stor
the session, we would expect his recall the presentation of a list the buffer is age for the first itcms, givin g rise to the
to reflect retrieval from long-term stor empty; successive items are entered un primacy effect.
age only. The probability of recalling til the buffer is filled. Thereafter, as each This rehearsal model was given a for
words as a function of their serial posi new item enters the rehearsal buffer it mal mathematical statement and was
tion within each list can be plotted for replaces one of the items already there. fitted to a wide array of experiments,
end-of-session recall and compared with (Which item is replaced depends on a and it provided an excellent quantita
the serial-position curve for recall im number of psychological factors, but in tive account of a great many results in
mediately following presentation [see il the model the decision is approximated free recall, including those discussed in
lustration on this pagel. For the delayed by a random process.) The items that are this article. A more direct confirmation
recall curve the primacy effect remains, still being rehearsed in the short-term of the model has recently been provided
but the recency effect is eliminated, as store when the last item is presented are by Dewey Rundus of Stan ford Univer
predicted. In summary, the recency re the ones that are immediately recalled sity. He carried out free-recall experi
gion appears to reflect retrieval from by the subject, giving rise to the recency ments in which subjects rehearsed aloud
both short-term and long-term storage effect. The transfer of information from durin g list presentation. This overt re
whereas the serial-position curve preced- the short-term to the long-term store is heal'sal was tape-recorded and was com-
85

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greatly reduced. Again, you are more In order to distinguish between the
likely to remember a "John Smith" if you retrieval and the interference explana
met him at a party with five other people tions, we presented lists of varying
than if there had been 20 people at the lengths and had the subject attempt to
Unusual party. This effect can be explained on recall not the list just studied (as in the
grounds other than a failure of memory typical free-recall procedure) but the
tools , hard search, however. It could be argued that list before the last. This procedure
more attention was given to "John makes it possible to separate the effect
to - fi nd item s . Smith" at the smaller party. Or if the
permanence of lon g-term storage is not
of the size of the list bein g recalled from
the effect of the number of words inter
accepted, it could be argued that the venin g between presentation and recall.
names of the many other people met at A large or a small list to be recalled can
Send for the larger party erode or destroy the be followed by either a large or a small
memory trace for "John Smith." Are intervening list. The retrieval model
catalog ! these objections reasonable? The John predicts that recall probability will be
j Smith example is analogous to the situa dependent on the size of the list being
'\
tion in free recall where words in long recalled. The interference model pre
lists are less well recalled from lon g-term dicts that performance will be largely
s torage than words in short lists. determined by the number of words in
The problem, then, is to show that the the in terven ing list.
list-len gth effect in free recall is depen We used lists of five and of 20 words
dent on the choice of probe information and presented them i n four combina
rather than on either the number of tions : 5-5, 5-20, 20-5, 20-20; the first
words in tervenin g between presentation number gives the size of the list bein g
and recall or the differential storage giv recalled and the second number the size
en words in lists of differen t size. The of the intervenin g list. One result is that
second issue is disposed of rather easily : there is no recency effect [ see illustra
in many free-recall experiments that vary tion on preceding pa ge] , This would be
Camera list length, the subjects do not know at expected since there is another list and
the beginning of the list what the length another recall intervening between pre
of the list will be. It is therefore unlikely sentation and recall; the intervening ac
that they store different amounts of in tivity causes the words in the tested list
formation for the first several words in to be lost from short-term storage and
lists of differing length. Nevertheless, as so the curves represent retrieval from
we pointed out, the first several words long-term storage only. The significant
are recalled at differen t levels. finding is that words in lists five words
America was To dispose of the "interference" ex long are recalled much better than words
planation, which implicates the number in lists 20 words long, and the len gth of
visited by Old
of words between presentation and re the intervening list has little, if any, ef
World explorers call, is more difficult. Until fairly re fect. The retrieval model can predict
cently, as a matter of fact, interference these results only if a probe is available
a l m ost 5,000 theories of forgetting have been pre to access the requested list. It seems
yea rs ago ! dominant [ see "Forgetting," by Benton likely in this experiment that the subject
J. Underwood, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, has available at test appropriate cues
A n d R O B E RT G RAV E S says t h i s i s
" i rref u t a b l y s u bstanti ated a n d d ated March, 1964, and "The Interference (probably temporal in nature) to enable
by one of the wo r l d ' s m ost d e p e n d Theory of Forgetting," by John Ceraso, him to select probe information pertain
a b l e s c h o l a r s , " D r . Cyrus G o r d o n
p i e ces t o g et h e r t h e c l u e s a n d r e
October, 1967 ] . In these theories forget ing to the desired list. If the experimen
v e a l s e v i d e n c e of J a p a n e s e i n ting has often been seen as a matter of tal procedure were chan ged so that the
E c u a d o r i n 3000 B . C " M i n o a n s i n erosion of the memory trace, usually by subject was asked to recall the 10th pre
G e o rg i a i n 1 500 B . C . - a n d Jews i n
K e n t u c ky i n 1 32 A . D ,
items presented following the item to cedin g list, then selection of an adequate
" S ets forth s o m e of t h e c e n t ra l r i d be remembered but also by items preced probe would no longer be possible. The
d l es i n a fas c i n at i n g c o n t roversy . " results demonstrate the importance of
ing the item to be remembered. (The list
- K A R L E. M E E R , a u t h o r of
Y
The Pleasures o f Archaeology length effect might be explained in these probe selection, a control process of the
" U n shackles ancient American his terms, since the average item in a long short-term store.
t o r y f r o m t h e c o n s t r i ct i o n s so l o n g list is preceded and followed by more The model of memory we have de
i m p o s e d o n i t . " - C O N STA N C E I RW I N ,
a u t h o r o f Fair Gods a n d Stone Faces
items than the average item in a short scribed, which integrates the system
list.) O n the other hand, the retrieval around the operations of the short-term
model presented in this article assumes store, is not in any sense a final theory.
Before long-term storage to be permanent; it As experimental techniques and mathe
maintains that the strength of long-term matical models have become increasing
Col u m bus
L i n ks Between t h e O l d Wo r l d
traces is independent of list length and ly sophisticated, memory theory has un
and Ancient America
that forgetting results from the fact that dergone progressive chan ges, and there
by CYRUS H. GORDON
$6. 50 ,
the temporal-contextual probe cues used is no doubt that this trend will continue.
now at your bookstore, or We nevertheless think it is likely that
C R O W N P U B L I S H E R S , 4 t 9 Par Ave. , So.
to access any given list tend to elicit a
k
Y k N Y
N e w or ' •.••
.........
. l.00.l.6�� .... larger search set for longer lists, thereby
producing less efficient retrieval.
the short-term store and its control proc
esses will be found to be cen tral.
90

155.33.16.124 on Mon, 06 Jan 2020 17:38:36 UTC
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155.33.16.124 on Mon, 06 Jan 2020 17:38:36 UTC

Atkinson &amp; Shiffrin (1971)

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Atkinson &amp; Shiffrin (1971)

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The Control of Short-Term Memory

Author(s): Richard C. Atkinson and Richard M. Shiffrin

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processes such as "rehearsal" are essential to the transfer

of information fr01n the short-term store to the long-term one

by Richard C. Atkinson and Richard M. Shiffl'in

© 1971 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

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next. the thoughts and information of which

© 1971 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

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© 1971 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

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Atkinson & Shiffrin (1971)

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