Learning

Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Chapter 3
 A Life without Learning

Learning is more than school, books and

tests. Without learning our lives would
simply be a series of reflexes and instincts.
 Wewould not be able to communicate, we
would have no memory of our past or
goals for the future.
 Learning
Learning is a lasting change in behavior or
mental process as the result of an experience.

There are two important parts:

 a lasting change…a simple reflexive reaction is not learning
 learning regarding mental process is much harder to
observe and study.
 Learning & It’s Effect on Behavior

In humans, learning has a much larger influence

on behavior than say instincts.
Types of Learning

SIMPLE AND COMPLEX

LEARNING
 Simple Learning

Habituation: Learning not to respond to the

repeated presentation of a stimulus.
 Example: Emergency sirens in the city

How often do
you look when
a car alarm
goes off?
 Simple Learning
Mere Exposure Effect: A learned preference for
stimuli to which we have been previously exposed.
 Ex-A coach/parent’s voice

Which do you
prefer?

Which did your

parents drink when
you were a little kid?
 Complex Learning

Behavioral Learning: Forms of learning, such

as classical and operant conditioning which can be
described in terms of stimuli and responses.

 Classical conditioning is more simple learning, operant

conditioning is more complex learning.
Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

 One of most famous people in the study of learning is

Ivan Pavlov.

 Originally studying salivation and digestion, Pavlov

stumbled upon classical conditioning while he was
experimenting on his dog.

 Classical Conditioning: A form of learning in which a previously

neutral stimulus (stimuli w/o reflex provoking power) acquires the
power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus.
 Pavlov’s Findings Explained

 Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus, when paired with

a natural reflex-producing stimulus, will begin to produce a
learned response, even when it is presented by itself.

 Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that produces no

conditioned response prior to learning.
Pavlov’s Experiment
 Components of Conditioning

There are 5 main components of conditioning.

Classical Conditioning always involves these parts.
They are:
 Neutral Stimulus
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

 Unconditioned Response (UCR)

 Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

 Conditioned Response (CR)

 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
UCS: A stimulus that
automatically-without conditioning
or learning- provokes a reflexive
response.

In Pavlov’s experiment, food was

used as the UCS because it
produced a salivation reflex.
 Classical conditioning cannot happen without UCS. The only
behaviors that can be classically conditioned are those that are
produced by unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)

UCR: A response resulting from

an unconditioned stimulus
without prior learning.

In Pavlov’s experiment, the UCR

was the dog salivating when its
tongue touched food.

 Realize that the UCS-UCR

connection involves no learning or
acquisition.
 From Unconditioned to Conditioned

 During acquisition, a neutral stimulus is paired with the

unconditioned stimulus.

 After several trials the neutral stimulus will gradually begin to

elicit the same response as the UCS.

 Acquisition: The learning stage during which a conditioned

response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

=
 Conditioned Stimulus

A CS is the originally neutral stimulus that gains the

power to cause the response.

In Pavlov’s experiment, the bell/tone began to produce

the same response that the food once did.
 Conditioned Response
 A CR is a response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus
that has become associated with the unconditioned
stimulus.

 Although the response to the CS is essentially the same as

the response originally produced by the UCS, we now call it
a conditioned response.
 Extinction

Extinction: The diminishing (or lessening) of a

learned response, when an unconditioned stimulus
does not follow a conditioned stimulus.

 To acquire a CR, we repeatedly pair a neutral stimulus with the

UCS. But, if we want to reverse this learning, we must weaken the
strength of the connection between the two stimuli.

 It is important to realize that extinction does not mean complete

elimination of a response.
 Spontaneous Recovery

 Extinction merely suppresses the conditioned response,

and the CR can reappear during spontaneous recovery.

 Spontaneous Recovery: The response after a rest period of

an extinguished conditioned response.
 Spontaneous recovery is weaker than the original CR.
 Classical Conditioning

Acquisition
Strength (CS+UCS)
of CR
Spontaneous
Extinction recovery of
(CS alone) CR

Extinction
(CS alone)

Pause
 Reinforcement Procedures

 What if we could not distinguish between stimuli that were

similar?
 The bell ending class vs. fire alarm

 The door bell vs. our cell phones

 Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between two

similar signals stimulus.
 Operant
Conditioning
 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

With classical conditioning you can teach a dog to

salivate, but you cannot teach it to sit up or roll
over. Why?

Salivation is an involuntary reflex, while sitting up

and rolling over are far more complex responses
that we think of as voluntary.
 Operant Conditioning

An operant is an observable behavior that an

organism uses to “operate” in the environment.

Operant Conditioning: A form of learning in

which the probability of a response is changed by
its consequences…that is, by the stimuli that
follows the response.
Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning
 B.F. Skinner

B.F. Skinner became famous

for his ideas in behaviorism
and his work with rats.

 Law of Effect: The idea that

responses that produced desirable
results would be learned, or
“stamped” into the organism.
B.F. Skinner and The Skinner Box
 Reinforcement

A reinforcer is a condition in which the

presentation or removal of a stimulus, that occurs
after a response (behavior) and strengthens that
response, or makes it more likely to happen again
in the future.

Positive Reinforcement: A stimulus presented

after a response that increases the probability of
that response happening again.

 Ex: Getting paid for good grades

 Negative Reinforcement

 Negative Reinforcement: The removal of an

unpleasant or averse stimulus that increases the
probability of that response happening again.
 Ex: Taking Advil to get rid of a headache.
 Ex: Putting on a seatbelt to make the annoying seatbelt
buzzer stop.

 The word “positive” means add or apply;

“negative” is used to mean subtract or remove.
 Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcement

schedule under which all correct responses are
reinforced.

This is a useful tactic early in the learning process.

It also helps when “shaping” new behavior.

Shaping: A technique where new behavior is

produced by reinforcing responses that are similar
to the desired response.
 Punishment
A punishment is an averse/disliked stimulus
which occurs after a behavior, and decreases the
probability it will occur again.
 Punishment

Negative Punishment: When a desirable event

ends or is taken away after a behavior.
 Example: getting grounded from your cell phone after
failing your progress report, it is the taking away from a
fun activity
Reinforcement/Punishment Matrix

The consequence The consequence

provides something takes something away
($, a spanking…) (removes headache,
timeout)

The consequence
Positive Negative makes the behavior
Reinforcement Reinforcement more likely to happen
in the future.

Positive Negative
The consequence
makes the behavior
Punishment Punishment less likely to happen in
the future.
 Reinforcement vs. Punishment

Unlike reinforcement, punishment must be

administered consistently. Intermittent punishment
is far less effective than punishment delivered after
every undesired behavior.

In fact, not punishing every misbehavior can have

the effect of rewarding the behavior.
Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement

Punishment and negative reinforcement are

used to produce opposite effects on behavior.
 Punishment is used to decrease a behavior or reduce its
probability of reoccurring.

 Negative reinforcement always increases a behavior’s

probability of happening in the future (by taking away an
unwanted stimuli).

 Remember, “positive” means adding something and

“negative means removing something.
 Uses and Abuses of Punishment

 Punishment often produces an immediate change in

behavior, which ironically reinforces the punisher.
 However, punishment rarely works in the long run for four reasons:

1. The power of punishment to suppress behavior usually disappears

when the threat of punishment is gone.

2. Punishment triggers escape or aggression

3. Punishment makes the learner apprehensive: inhibits learning.

4. Punishment is often applied unequally.

 Making Punishment Work

To make punishment work:

 Punishment should be swift.
 Punishment should be certain-every time.
 Punishment should be limited in time and intensity.
 Punishment should clearly target the behavior, not the person.
 Punishment should not give mixed messages.
 The most effective punishment is often omission training-
negative punishment.
 Reinforcement Schedules

Intermittent Reinforcement: A type of

reinforcement schedule by which some, but not all,
correct responses are reinforced.

Intermittent reinforcement is the most effective way

to maintain a desired behavior that has already been
learned.
 Continuous Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement:
A schedule of reinforcement
that rewards every correct
response given.
 Example: A vending machine.

What are other examples?

Schedules of Intermittent Reinforcement

Interval schedule: rewards subjects after a

certain time interval.

Ratio schedule: rewards subjects after a certain

number of responses.

 There are 4 types of intermittent reinforcement:

 Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)
 Variable Interval Schedule (VI)
 Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)
 Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)
 Interval Schedules

Fixed Interval Schedule (FI):

 A schedule that a rewards a learner only for the first correct
response after some defined period of time.

 Example: B.F. Skinner put rats in a box with a lever connected to a feeder. It
only provided a reinforcement after 60 seconds. The rats quickly learned that it
didn’t matter how early or often it pushed the lever, it had to wait a set amount of
time. As the set amount of time came to an end, the rats became more active in
hitting the lever.
 Interval Schedules

Variable Interval Schedule (VI):

A reinforcement system that rewards a correct
response after an unpredictable amount of time.

 Example: A pop-quiz
 Ratio Schedules

Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR):

A reinforcement schedule that rewards a response
only after a defined number of correct answers.
 Example: At Safeway, if you use your Club Card to buy 7
Starbucks coffees, you get the 8th one for free.
 Ratio Schedules

Variable Ratio Schedule (VR):

A reinforcement schedule that rewards an
unpredictable number of correct responses.
 Example: Buying lottery tickets
Primary and Secondary reinforcement

 Primary reinforcement: something that is naturally

reinforcing: food, warmth, water…

 Secondary reinforcement: something you have learned is a

reward because it is paired with a primary reinforcement in the
long run: good grades.
Is This Setting a Bad Example?
 Two Important Theories

 Token Economy: A therapeutic method based on operant conditioning

that where individuals are rewarded with tokens, which act as a
secondary reinforcer.
 Token economy systems (TES) are a form of psychological therapy
based on operant conditioning, which uses a reward system to manage
maladaptive behaviours. Good behaviours earn tokens (secondary
reinforcers) that can be exchanged for a reward (primary reinforcers),
such as magazines or favourite foods.
 Premack Principle: The idea that a more preferred activity can be used
to reinforce a less-preferred activity.
Cognitive Learning:A Third Type of Learning

Sometimes we have “flashes of insight” when dealing

with a problem where we have been experiencing
trial and error.

This type of learning is called cognitive learning,

which is explained as changes in mental processes,
rather than as changes in behavior alone.
 Cognitive Learning

 Cognitive learning is a powerful mechanism that provides

the means of knowledge, and goes well beyond simple
imitation of others.
 Conditioning can never fully explain what you are learning
 Cognitive learning is defined as the acquisition of
knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive processes — ;the
procedures we have for manipulating information 'in our
heads'.
 Cognitive processes include creating mental
representations of physical objects and events, and other
forms of information processing
 Latent Learning
Learning that depends on mental activity that is
not directly observable
It involves such processes as attention,
expectation, thinking, and memory

 Latent learning: Learning that occurs but is not

apparent until the learner has an incentive to
demonstrate it.
 Latent learning is learning that takes place before the
subject realizes it and is not immediately reflected in
behavior
Latent Learning
 Cognitive Map

A cognitive map is latent learning stored as a mental

image
 Insight and Learning Sets

Insight is when learning seems to occur in a sudden

“flash” as elements of a situation come together
Insight Learning: type of learning or problem solving
that happens all-of-a-sudden through understanding
the relationships of various parts of a problem rather
than through trial and error.
Learning sets refer to increasing effectiveness at
problem solving through experience, i.e., organisms
“learn how to learn”
Mirror Neurons

Mirror Neurons= frontal lobe neurons that some

scientists believe fire when performing certain
actions or when observing another doing so.
The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable
imitation and empathy.
Cognitive explanation for social phenomena
Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the
brains of animals and humans that are active
during observational learning.
 Social Learning Theory/Observational Learning

You can think of observational learning as an

extension of operant conditioning, in which we
observe someone else getting rewarded but act as
thought we had also received the reward.
Observational Learning= learning by observing
others. Also called social learning.
 Observational learning: Learning in which new
responses are acquired after other’s behavior and the
consequences of their behavior are observed.
 Modelling = the process of observing and imitating a
specific behavior.
 SLT

 Albert Bandura is a Canadian psychologist. •Bandura emphasized

modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, as a
powerful source of development
 Bandura developed the Social Learning Theory: which suggests that
observation and modeling play a primary role in this process
 His theory integrates a continuous interaction between behaviors,
personal factors- including cognition- and the environment
 A major concept of Bandura’s theory is reciprocal determinism which is
a model composed of 3 factors that influence behaviours; the individual
(including how they think and feel), the environment, and the behavior
itself
 Albert believed that a child's behavior and personality are largely
learned from observing and imitating everyday models.
SLT/SGT
 SLT/SGT
Social learning theory is based upon the work of Albert Bandura.
It is also referred to as Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
This theory attempts to understand the process that is involved
in explaining how we learn from each other
It focuses on learning that occurs by direct experience by
observing, imitating, and modeling
All 3 play an important role in the learning process; they are
constantly influencing each other(see figure on the previous
slide)
Environmental factors would include:
 Social aspects - peers, family and teachers and
 Physical factors - the layout or size of the class room
or the temperature of the room or other setting where learning
takes place
or the temperature of the room
Bobo Doll Experimental Design
 Results

 Children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in

physically aggressive ways than those who were not exposed to the
aggressive model. (Boys averaged 38.2 with 12.7 for girls)
 Children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to engage in
novel hostile acts.
 Children are more influenced by same-sex models.
 Results showed that boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to
aggressive male models than boys exposed to aggressive female models.
 When exposed to aggressive male models, the number of aggressive
instances exhibited by boys averaged 104 compared to 48.4 aggressive
instances exhibited by boys who were exposed to aggressive female
models.
 Learning by Observing

 The likelihood of acting on vicarious learning changes when we see the

consequences of other people’s behavior
 Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment affects the
willingness of people to perform behaviors they learned by watching
others
 Vicarious Learning: Learning by seeing the consequence of
another’s behavior
 Learning through vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment
 Observational learning, or “modeling,” according to Bandura occurs
when one person learns by observing the behaviors – including results
of those behaviors – of others.
 Bandura’s theory is supported by numerous empirical studies on
observational learning. The “bobo-doll” studies are the most famous.
 Self Efficacy

 Self efficacy simply refers to an individual’s belief in his or her

ability to carry out a particular course of action.
“Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to
organize and execute the courses of action
required to manage prospective situations.”
(Bandura, 1986)
What does self-efficacy do?
 The choices we make
 The effort we put forth
 How long we persist when difficulty arises
 How we feel
 Sources of Self-Efficacy

.
MASTERY EXPERIENCES – (Most
powerful) Successful experiences

VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES –
Accomplishments modeled by someone else

SOCIAL PERSUASION –
“pep talk” or encouragement

AROUSAL – Physical and

psychological reactions – excited, tense
 Goal Setting

Goal setting is another central process

within SCT (Bandura, 1986; Schunk, 1990).
Goals reflect cognitive representations of
anticipated, desired, or preferred outcomes.
 Live and Virtual Models
Live
Virtual Model
Model
 Four conditions are necessary for effective modeling
to occur(Process in OL/SLT)

 Attention: the person must first pay attention to the

model.
 Retention: the observer must be able to remember the
behavior that has been observed. One way of increasing this
is using the technique of rehearsal.
 Motor reproduction: the third condition is the ability to
replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated.
 Motivation: the final condition for modeling to occur is
motivation, learners must want to demonstrate what they
have learned.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (MODELING)
 Media and Violence
Does violence on TV/movies/video games have an
impact on the learning of children?

Correlation evidence from over 50 studies shows that

observing violence is associated with violent
behavior.

In addition, experiment evidence shows that viewers

of media violence show a reduction in emotional
arousal and distress when they subsequently observe
violent acts-a condition known as psychic
numbing.
 Classroom Discipline

 Reinforcing one particular behavior may actually be reinforcing the

opposite behavior.
 Ignoring students who misbehave in class rather than yelling at them
(works most generally in the elementary level).
 Peer approval= more powerful than teacher approval
 Cognitive Factors in Learning

Learning is purposeful & not mechanical.

Person can learn by thinking about something or
watching others.
People search for information, weigh evidence, &
then make decisions.

Exercise That
Brain!!
 Self-Control

People set up personal systems of rewards and

punishment to shape their own thoughts and actions.
 First step to develop some self control is to define
the problem.
Set up a behavioral contract.
What do all of these
behaviors have in
common? What
kinds of behaviors
are they?
 Improving Study Habits

Pay attention, read/recite information you have

heard.
Make flash cards—USE THEM
Redo problems or questions on a lengthy assignment
or test.
Make meaningful connections with the information
you are learning.
Find a study partner—you haven’t mastered
something until you can teach it to someone else.
Study material in small dose—not the night of the
exam.
 Reinforcement

 Primary: stimuli that increases the probability of a response

because they satisfy a biological need, such as food or water.
 Secondary: stimuli that increases the probability of a
response because of their learned value, such as money and
material possessions.
 Positive: adding or presenting a stimulus which strengthens
a response and makes it more likely to occur.
 Negative: taking away or removing a stimulus, which
strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur.
 Schedules of Reinforcement Examples

Fixed Ratio: employee receives $10 for every 4

customers he/she helps at Best Buy.
Variable Ratio: slot machine at Caesars’ Palace
pays out after an average number of responses,
maybe every 15 minutes.
Fixed Interval: Intel employee receives a paycheck
every two weeks for their service as an engineer.
Variable Interval: Chemistry class gives pop
quizzes, student studies at a slow but steady rate
because they can’t anticipate the next quiz.
 Reinforcement Example

You want to teach a dog to shake hands. One way

would be to give the animal a treat every time it lifts
its paws up to you. The treat is called a positive
reinforcer.
Your dog will stop shaking hands when you forget to
reward it for the trick as extinction will occur
because the reinforcement is withheld; But will take
a period of time
 Response Chain

Learned reactions that follow one another in

sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the
next.
Example—in swimming, you would have three
separate chains to make up the pattern (arm stroke,
breathing, leg kick).
Punishment
 Punishment

The most obvious form of aversive control.

An unpleasant consequence occurs & decreases the
frequency of the behavior that produced it.
Behavior that is punished decreases or is not
repeated—that is the goal of punishment.
Effective Punishment?
 Disadvantages of Punishment

1. Aversive stimuli can produce unwanted side effects—rage,

aggression, fear.
2. Instead of one behavior to change, multiple behaviors could
emerge.
3. People learn to avoid the person delivering the aversive
consequences—children learn to stay away from parents or
teachers who often punish them.
4. Can just merely “suppress” the undesired behavior, not
totally eliminate it.
5. A child may not learn “correct” behaviors by punishment
alone—coaching/training is needed.
 Questions

1. How do you learn?

2. What environment is most suitable for you to
learn?
3. Are you a visual or auditory learner?
4. What can you do to improve your ability to learn
new material?
5. What causes you not to learn?
6. Is there some material or information that people
just simply cannot grasp?
Is This You?
 Self-Control

Personal systems of rewards and punishments—

helps shape one’s own thoughts and actions.
First step in self-control is to define the problem.
People who have a very poor opinion of themselves
would have to define the problem more concretely.
Keep track of self-deprecating thoughts and remarks
you make—may lead to a start in changing behavior.
Which Road Are You Taking?
 Improving Study Habits

Studying in a new place—free from distractions.

Don’t study too much at any one given time.
Attempt to study at the same time each day.
Set specific goals.
Tell friends not to call during study times.
 Summary

1. Human behavior influenced by one’s history of

rewards and punishments.
2. Behavior can be reinforced according to continuous
or partial reinforcement schedules.
3. Punishments are stimuli that actually decrease the
likelihood of certain behaviors from repeating
themselves.
 Questions

1. What are appropriate punishments for teenagers

who commit crimes?
2. How would you go about “modifying” teenagers or
even younger children’s behavior?
3. What are two advantages and two disadvantages of
punishment