Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning

 In the1930s, B.F. Skinner introduce another type of

conditioning called operant conditioning.
 Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which
responses come to be controlled by their
consequences.
 The term was derived from his belief that in this type
of responding an organism “operates” on the
environment instead of simply reacting to the stimuli.
 Classical vs. operant conditioning
 Classical conditioning best
explain reflexive  In operant conditioning the
responding that is largely behavior is mainly
controlled by stimuli that influenced by stimulus
precede the response. events that follow the
response—specifically
 Classical conditioning consequences.
regulates reflexive,  Whereas operant
involuntary responses. conditioning regulate
 In this type of responding voluntary responses.
individual simply react to  In this type of responding
the stimuli. an organism operates on
 In classical conditioning the environment.
responses are elicited.  In operant conditioning
responses are emitted.
Instrumental learning

 Another name of operant conditioning is instrumental

learning, a term introduced by Edward L. Thorndike
(1913).
 Thorndike wanted to emphasize that this kind of
responding is often instrumental in obtaining some
desired outcome.
 His pioneering work provided the foundation for
many of the ideas proposed later by Skinner.
 Thorndike’s law of effect
 The law of effect principle developed by Thorndike
suggested that responses closely followed by
satisfaction will become firmly attached to the
situation and therefore more likely to occur, when the
situation is repeated. Conversely , if the situation is
followed by discomfort, the connections to the
situation will become weaker and the behavior of
response is less likely to occur when the situation is
repeated.
Thorndike’s law of effect
 Skinner’s demonstration
 Skinner demonstrated that organism tend to repeat those
responses that are followed by favorable consequences.
 This fundamental principle is embodied in Skinner’s
concept of reinforcement.
 Reinforcement occurs when an event following a
response increases an organism’s tendency to make that
response. In other words, a response is strengthened
because it leads to rewarding consequences.
Experiment and procedures
 Skinner created an experimental procedure in which, an
animal, typically a rat or a pigeon, is placed in an operant
chamber that has to be known as a Skinner box.
 In the boxes designed for rats, the main response made
available is pressing a small lever mounted on one side
wall.
 In the boxes designed for pigeons, the designed response
is pecking a small disk mounted on aside of wall.
 The skinner box permits the experimenter to control the
reinforcement contingencies that are the circumstances or
rules that determine whether responses lead to the
presentation of reinforcers.
The Skinner Box
Basic processes in operant
conditioning
 Acquisition and shaping: As in classical
conditioning , acquisition refers to the initial stage of
learning some new pattern of responding.
 Operant responses are usually established through a
gradual process called shaping, which consists of
closer and closer approximations of a desired
response.
Basic processes in operant
conditioning
Extinction: refers to the gradual weakening and
disappearance of a response tendency because
the response is no longer followed by a
reinforcer.
 Resistance to extinction: it occurs when an
organism continues to make a response after
delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated.
The greater the resistance to extinction the
longer the responding will continue.
Basic processes in operant conditioning
Discriminative : operant responses are
regulated by discriminative stimuli. When a
response is consistently followed by a reinforcer
in the presence of a particular stimulus, that
stimulus comes to serve as a “signal” indicating
that the response is likely to lead a reinforcer.
That stimulus is called a discriminative
stimulus, discriminative stimuli are cues that
influence operant behavior by indicating the
probable consequences of a response.
Basic processes in operant conditioning
Reactions to a discriminative stimulus are
governed by the processes of stimulus
generalization and stimulus discrimination.
Stimulus generalization: responding increases
in the presence of new stimulus that resembles
original discriminative stimulus.
Stimulus discrimination: responding does not
increase in the presence of new stimulus that
resembles original discriminative stimulus.
Reinforcement: consequences that
strengthen responses
Skinner said reinforcement occurs whenever an
outcome strengthen a response, as measured by
an increase in the rate of responding.
Delayed reinforcement: In operant
conditioning, a favorable outcome is much more
likely to strengthen a response if the outcome
follows immediately. If a delay occurs between
a response and a positive outcome, the response
may not be strengthened.
Types of reinforcement
Primary reinforcer: are reinforcer that
are inherently reinforcing because they
satisfy biological needs. For e.g., food,
water, sex.
Types of reinforcement
Secondary reinforcer: are events that
gains it reinforcing power through its
association with a primary reinforcer. For
e.g., money, good grades, attention, praise
and applause.
Types of reinforcement
 Positive reinforcement: In operant conditioning, positive
reinforcement involves the addition of a reinforcing stimulus following
a behavior that makes it more likely that the behavior will occur again
in the future. When a favorable outcome, event, or reward occurs after
an action, that particular response or behavior will be strengthened.
 For your psychology class, you watch a video about the human brain
and write a paper about what you learned. Your instructor gives you 20
extra credit points for your work.
 Negative reinforcement: is a term described by B. F. Skinner in his
theory of operant conditioning. In negative reinforcement, a response or
behavior is strengthened by stopping, removing or avoiding a negative
outcome or aversive stimulus.
 Before heading out , you apply sunscreen (the behavior) to avoid
getting sunburned (removal of the aversive stimulus).
 You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen (the behavior) to avoid
getting into a fight with your roommate (removal of the aversive
stimulus).
 You use pain killer to avoid headache(removal of the aversive
stimulus).
 Reinforcement Schedules
A schedule of reinforcement determines which
occurrence of a specific response result in the
presentation of a reinforcer.
Continuous reinforcement: it is the simplest
pattern that occurs when every instance of a
designated response is reinforced.
Intermittent or partial reinforcement: occurs
when a designated response is reinforced only
some of the time.
 Partial reinforcement schedules
Fixed- ratio schedule: a schedule by which
reinforcement is given only after a specific
number of responses are made.
The faster the subject responds, the more
reinforcements they will receive.
For e.g., a rat is reinforced after every tenth
lever press, a salesman receive a bonus for
every five dresses sold.
 Partial reinforcement schedules
Variable-ratio schedule: a schedule by which
reinforcement occurs after a varying number of
responses rather than after a fixed number.
High rates of responding with little pause in
order to increase chances of getting
reinforcement.
A telephone salesperson’s job is a good
example, she might make a sale during the third,
ninth, and twentieth calls without being
successful during any call between.
 Partial reinforcement schedules
Fixed-interval schedule: a schedule that
provide reinforcement for a response only if a
fixed time period has elapsed.
Produces responses that increases as you get
closer to the time of reinforcement.
Example: a known weekly quiz in a class,
checking cookies after the 10 minute baking
period.
 Partial reinforcement schedules
Variable-interval schedule: a schedule by
which reinforcement occurs after varying time
intervals.
Produces slow and steady responses.
Example: “pop” quiz in a class (surprise tests)
Schedules of Reinforcement