EDUC 201 | Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
TOPIC | Behaviorist Perspective
A. Definition of Terms
 Behaviorist perspective – is a theory of
psychology that states that human behaviors are
learned, not innate.
 Behaviorism - a theory of behaviorism that
focuses on the study of observable and
measurable behavior. It emphasizes that behavior
is mostly learned through conditioning and
reinforcement (rewards and punishment).
 Conditioning - a way of training a person or
animal to behave in a certain way.
 Stimulus – something that exists of presented
to someone or something.
 Response – how an animal or human responds to
a stimulus.
 Reward - given in recognition of one’s effort or
achievement.
 Punishment - rough treatment or handling
inflicted on or suffered by a person, thing, or
animal
B. Classical Conditioning by Pavlov and Watson
 Ivan Pavlov
- A Russian physiologist
- September 26, 184-February 27, 1936
- best known in psychology for his discovery of
classical conditioning.
- During his studies on the digestive systems of
dogs, Pavlov noted that the animals salivated
naturally upon the presentation of food.
 John B. Watson
- January 9, 1878-September 25, 1958
- The first American psychologist to work with
Pavlov’s idea.
- involved in animal studies, then later became
involved in human behavior research.
- During his studies on the digestive systems of
dogs, Pavlov noted that the animals salivated
naturally upon the presentation of food
 Classical Conditioning is a type of learning that
happens unconsciously. When you learn through
classical conditioning, an automatic conditioned
response is paired with a specific stimulus. This
creates a behavior.
o Unconditioned Stimulus – produces a natural
response or reaction (something that you don’t
have to learn but it causes you to react.)
o Unconditioned Response – a natural reaction to
an unconditioned stimulus occurs (just like seeing
an attractive person you become excited.)
o Neutral Stimulus – It does not produce a
response
o Conditioned Stimulus – an original stimulus that
is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and
eventually produces the desired response in an
organism when presented
o Conditioned Response - is a learned response or
a response that is created where no response
existed before.
o Extinction - disappearance of a previously
learned behavior when the behavior is not
reinforced.
o Spontaneous recovery - is a phenomenon that
involves suddenly displaying a behavior that was
thought to be extinct
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o Discrimination - is the ability to tell the
difference between two stimuli and similar
stimulus
o Higher-order conditioning - refers to a situation
in which a stimulus that was previously neutral
(e.g., a light) is paired with a conditioned
stimulus.
IMPORTANCE OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
"Helps on overcoming any traumatic experience with the
appropriate us of stimuli and the conditioning process
itself."
C. Connectionism Theory by Thorndike
 Edward Lee Thorndike
- Born on August 31, 1874
- Williamsburg, Massachusetts, US
- Psychology Professor
- Father of Behavioral Psychology
- Connectionism Theory
- Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R
framework of behavioral psychology
- The model of S-R theory was trial and error
learning in which certain responses came to be
repeated than others because of rewards.
 Thorndike's experiment
Thorndike place a cat in a box from which the cat the had
to escape and get food.
After much trial and error, the cat learned to associate
pressing the lever (stimulus) with the opening of the door
(Response). The cat tend to repeat the behavior that led to
escape and not to repeat the behavior that were ineffective
 Connectionism Theory
It is mainly concerned with the connection between the
stimulus and response through learning.
o Law of Effect - The law of effect stated that a
connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence is positive
(reward) and the connection between the stimulus
and the response is weakened when the
consequence is negative.
o Law of Exercise - The more an S-R bond is
practiced, the stronger it will become.
“Practice makes perfect” seems to be
associated with this (Law of Use and Law of
Disuse)
o Law of Readiness - This states that the more
readiness the learner hast to respond to the
stimulus, the stronger will be the bond
between them.
 Implication to Education
o Students are more likely to learn if they are
ready and it brings better results in learning.
o Students are likely experienced being ready to
demonstrate and not given a chance to do it.
Disappointment will result to Reluctance in
learning in the students part.
o Learning among students is not possible if
they are forced to do so. Many students will
soon get disinterested in learning, because
they are force to learn, when they are not
physically and mentally ready for it
D. Operant Conditioning by Skinner
 Burrhus FredericSkinner
- Born on March 20, 1904
- Susquehanna, Pennsylvania
- Proponent of Operant Conditioning
- Skinner’s Box
  Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning relies fairly on simple premise:
Action that are followed by reinforcement will be
strengthened and more likely to occur again in the
future. Conversely, actions that result in punishment
or undesirable consequences will be weakened and
less likely to occur again in the future.
 The Skinner's Box
The operant chamber, or the Skinner’s box comes
with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to
obtain a reinforcer like food or water.
The bar or key is connected to devices that record the
animal’s response.
 Three types of responses that can follow
behavior
o Neutral Responses - Responses from the
environment that neither increase nor
decrease probability of a behavior being
repeated
o Reinforcement - Responses from the
environment that increase the probability of a
behavior being repeated. It can be positive or
negative.
 Positive Reinforcement - Positive
reinforcement involves the addition of
a reinforcing stimulus following a
behavior that makes it more likely that
the behavior will occur again in the
future. When a favorable outcome,
event, or reward occurs after an
action, that particular response or
behavior will be strengthened.
 Negative Reinforcement - Negative
reinforcement strengthens a response
or behavior by stopping, removing, or
avoiding a negative outcome or
aversive stimulus.
o Punishment - Responses from the
environment that decrease the likelihood of a
behavior being repeated and weakens
behavior. It can also be positive or negative.
 Positive Punishment - Positive
punishment is a concept used in B.F.
Skinner's theory of operant
conditioning. In the case of positive
punishment, it involves presenting an
unfavorable outcome or event
following an undesirable behavior
 Negative Punishment - Negative
punishment is an important concept in
B. F. Skinner's theory of operant
conditioning. In the case of negative
punishment, it involves taking
something good or desirable away to
reduce the occurrence of a particular
behavior.
E. Neo-behaviorism
 Neo-behaviorism - is a behavior cannot be
fully understood simply in terms of
observable stimuli and reactions. Neo-
behaviorism introduce mediating variables
into the behaviorist stimulus-response
scheme.
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Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
F. Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism
 Edward Tolman
- Born on April 14, 1886 West Newton,
Massachusetts, United States.
- Psychology Professor at the University of
California.
- Founder of Purposive Behaviorism.
 Purposive Behaviorism
A theory in cognitive learning that states that
bevioral
acts have underlying purpose. And that goals of the
action guide behavior until the goal is reached.
Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process
Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining
knowledge about the environment and then revealing
that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed
behavior.
Tolman's form of behaviorism stressed the
relationships between stimuli rather than stimulus-
response.
 Tolman's Key Concepts
Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.
Tolman asserted that learning is always purposive
and goal-directed.
o Latent Learning - is a kind of learning that
remains or stays with the individual until
needed. It is learning that is not outwardly
manifested at once.
o The concept of intervening variable.
Intervening variables are variables that are
not readily seen but serve as determinants of
behavior
o Reinforcement not essential for learning.
Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not
essential for learning, although it provides an
incentive for performance.
G. Bandura's Social Learning Theory
 Albert Bandura
- Born on December 4, 1925 Mundare, Canada.
- Psychology Professor at Stanford University
- Founder of Social Learning Theory
 Social Learning Theory
It based on the idea that people can learn by
observing what others do and say, rather than
through direct instruction or punishment
 Core Concepts of Social Learning Theory
o People can learn through observations
o Mental states are important to learning
o Learning does not necessarily lad to behavior
change
 Key Factors for Social Learning Success
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
o Attention – Stimuli Focus
o Retention - Rehearse Encode
o Motor Reproduction - Practice Feedback
o Motivation – Reward Reinforce
TOPIC | Cognitive Perspective
A. Gestalt Theory – It is the notion that the
summation of parts, or the whole of something, is
 more significant than the individual pieces.
Gestalt theorists followed the basic principle that
“The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
Gestalt – a German word means “form” or
“configuration.” The focus of gestalt theory was the idea
of grouping
Proponents of Gestalt Theory
1. Wolfgang Kohler
2. Max Wertheimer
3. Kurt Koffka
B. Gestalt Principle
-Learners were not passive, but rather active.
-Learners do not just collect information, but they actively
process and restructure data in order to understand it
-Factors like past experiences and needs can affect one's
perception.
-Teachers should encourage students to discover the
relationship of the elements that makes up a problem.
-Incongruities, gaps, or disturbance are essential stimuli in
learning process.
-Educational Instruction should be based on law of
organization.
1. Proximity - Describes how the human eye
perceives connections between visual elements.
2. Similarity - It occurs when objects look similar to
one another. the viewer will perceive them as a
group or pattern.
3. Closure - It occurs when an element is
incomplete or a space is not totally enclosed.
4. Common Fate - Humans perceive visual
elements that move in the same speed and/or
direction
5. Symmetry - Elements that are symmetrical to
each other tend to be perceived as a unified group.
6. Continuity - It occurs when the eye is compelled
to move through one object and continue to
another object.
C. Insightful Learning (Wolfgang Kohler)
- It is the sudden understanding of the relation between a
problem and a solution.
- Understanding vs. Trial and Error
- He created an experiment with chimpanzees in 1917 and
it became popular. In one of his experiments, he caged a
chimpanzee named Sultan with a banana bunch hanging
on the ceiling and a long stick well beyond reach outside
the cage and a short stick inside the cage.
D. Life Space - The field includes all of the factors
that are present in a person’s current situations,
such as the people around them, the objectives in
their environment, and the social norms and
expectations. An individual’s perception of reality
influenced by personal experienced including
thoughts and feelings
Kurt Lewin is the father of modern social psychology.
Known for his field theory of behavior.
Formula: B=F (P, E) Behavior is shaped by personality
and environment
E. Information Processing - The information
processing model, a theoretical framework of how
humans learn and remember, has been developed
enough to provide teachers with suggestions for
Improving the teaching-learning process.
Models of Information Processing Theory
1. Sensory Memory - It holds the information that
the mind perceives through various senses such as
visual, olfactory, or auditory information. These
sense organs often receive a barrage of stimuli all
the time
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2. Short-Term Memory (Working Memory) - is
equivalent to very recent memories, usually
measured in minutes-to-days.
3. Long-Term Memory - It is thought that long-
term memory has an unlimited amount of space as
it can store memories from a long time ago to be
retrieved at a later time.
F. Types Of Knowledge
What is the purpose of learning knowledge?
Knowledge is like glue that sticks information as well as
learning together. When we have prior knowledge about a
topic, we understand it better.
1. Explicit Knowledge - Explicit knowledge is
something that can be completely shared through
words and numbers and can therefore be easily
transferred.
2. Tacit Knowledge - on the other hand, is entirely
personal, informal, and notoriously difficult to
share or express. This can be expressed in
behaviors, actions, routines, habits, responses,
instincts, senses, intuitions and bodily
experiences.
G. Stages of Information Processing
According to the information processing theory, there are
four main stages of information processing which include
attending, encoding, storing, and retrieving. These four
stages are used to describe how the brain gathers
information, processes this information, creates
memories, and uses this information when it is needed.
1. Attending – is the first stage of information
processing, and it refers to when a person is
gathering information from their environment.
2. Encoding – is the second stage of information
processing, and it refers to a person focusing and
trying to truly understand something. Encoding is
more involved than attending.
3. Storing – is the third stage of information
processing, and it refers to keeping or maintaining
information in the brain for an extended period.
4. Retrieving – is the fourth stage of information
processing, and it refers to when a person
remembers information they had stored in their
memory bank.
H. Gagne’s Condition of Learning “What is
Learning”?
1. Conditions of Learning - Gagne describes 2
different types of conditions that exist in learning:
internal and external.
2. Association Learning
3. The Five Categories of Learning Outcomes
4. The Nine events of Instruction
I. The 5 Categories of Learning Outcomes
1. Intellectual skills – knowing how or having
procedural knowledge
2. Verbal information - being able to state ideas,
knowing that, or having declarative knowledge
3. Cognitive strategies - having certain techniques
of thinking, ways of analyzing problems, and
having approaches to solving problems
4. Motor skills – executing movements in a number
of organized motor acts such as playing sports or
driving a car
5. Attitudes – mental states that influence the
choices of personal actions
J. Spiral Curriculum – can be defined as a course
of study in which students will see the same
topics throughout their school career, with each
encounter increasing in complexity and
reinforcing previous learning
Mode of presentation
1. Enactive Representation - Action
2. Iconic Representation - Image
3. Symbolic representation - Language Based
K. Discovery Learning is a method of Inquiry-
Based Instruction learners build on past
experiences and knowledge for new information
to discover facts, correlations and new truths.
Scaffolding - Teachers do this by structuring activities,
based on students’ existing knowledge and in a way that
helps them to reach the desired learning outcome.
L. Gagne’s Nine Events of Instructions
1. Gain attention of the students - Ensure the
learners are ready to learn and participate in
activities by presenting a stimulus to capture their
attention.
2. Inform students of the objectives - Inform
students of the objectives or outcomes of the
course and individual lessons to help them
understand what they are expected to learn and
do. Provide objectives before instruction begins.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning - Help
students make sense of new information by
relating it to something they already know or
something they have already experienced.
4. Present the content - Use strategies to present
and cue lesson content to provide more effective
instruction. Organize and group content in
meaningful ways, and provide explanations after
demonstrations.
5. Provide learning guidance - Advise students of
strategies to aid them in learning content and of
resources available. In other words, help students
learn how to learn.
6. Elicit performance (practice) - Have students
apply what they have learned to reinforce new
skills and knowledge and to confirm correct
understanding of course concepts.
7. Provide timely feedback of students’
performance - To assess and facilitate learning
and to allow students to identify gaps in
understanding before it is too late.
8. Assess performance - Test whether the expected
learning outcomes have been achieved on
previously stated course objectives.
9. Enhance retention and transfer - Help learners
retain more information by providing them
opportunities to connect course concepts to
potential real-world applications.
M. Ausebel’s Meaningful Learning/Sub Sumption
Theory - David Ausubel, a noted American
psychologist who specialized in education and
learning behaviors, introduced the Subsumption
Theory back in 1963. It centers on the idea that
learners can more effectively acquire new
knowledge if it is tied to their existing knowledge
base, and that only unique information that stands
out within the lesson is committed to memory. In
this article, I’ll delve into the basics of the
Subsumption Theory, and I’ll share 4 tips on how
you can use it in your eLearning course design.
The Subsumption Theory: Basic Principles
To utilize the Subsumption Theory in eLearning, it is
important to identify the two types of subsumption that
exist: correlative and derivative. Both of these are forms
of rote learning, which has the ability to gradually
construct new cognitive behaviors and structures within
the minds of your learners. After these cognitive
structures are built, the learner then has the power to use
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them during meaningful learning activities and exercises.
Here are the differences between the two types of
subsumptions, as suggested by Ausubel.
1. Correlative - A learner collects new information
that extends from their existing knowledge base
or elaborates upon previously acquired
information.
2. Derivative - A learner derives new information
directly from their cognitive structures, or
identifies relationships between concepts within
their existing knowledge base. This can be
achieved in a variety of ways, from shifting
information around in the hierarchal structure to
linking ideas together to create new meanings. 4
Tips To Apply Ausubel’s Subsumption Theory In
Learning Implementing Ausubel’s subsumption
theory in your training programs isn’t as complex
as it may sound. With these four tips, you’ll be
able to watch your learners’ performance soar!
a. Lead off with the key takeaways
Begin your Learning course with a general overview that
highlights everything the learners need to know by the
end, and then, sequence online material from general to
specific, a process that Ausubel calls “progressing
differentiation”. This will help the learner to automatically
categorize the Learning content and figure out where it
belongs in their cognitive structure.
b. Encourage learners to apply previously
acquired knowledge
Speaking of connecting, the Subsumption Theory relies
heavily on the idea that learners gather information most
effectively when they tie new concepts to existing
cognitive structures. This works both ways, however.
They can also apply information they have already
learned in order to improve comprehension and
knowledge retention.
c. Include both receptive and discovery-based
activities
Although Ausubel found no special advantages of
discovery-learning, as he believed that it has the same
effect on learning being more time-consuming, it is not a
bad idea to include both receptive and discovery-based
online activities into your Learning course design, as each
serves its own unique Learning purpose.
d. Make it meaningful
Despite the fact that The Subsumption Theory deals
primarily with rote learning principles, its primary goal is
to create meaningful learning experiences. Meaningful
learning occurs when an individual is able to create
connections between what they learned and what they
already know within their cognitive structures of their
minds.
N. Meaningful Reception (Ausbel)
 Introduction
The principles of Meaningful Reception Learning;
 derivative subsumption,
 correlative subsumption,
 combinatorial subsumption and
 superordinate learning are used in the
classification of items.
Principles of Meaningful Reception Learning
The learners should be able to anchor specific information
that they would just be learning on fabrics to what they
already know about fabrics. They should not memorize
any detail of the lesson because in their cognitive
organization, they would have arranged the different types
of fabrics in a hierarchical cognitive structure.
 Values
 1. Derivative subsumption - is when you add new
things to existing cognitive structures, linking
them to concepts already known.
2. Superordinate subsumption - introduces a new
higher-level concept into which already existing
categories can be integrated.
3. Correlative subsumption - is when you add new
details to what the you already know, usually a
higher-order concept.
4. Combinatorial subsumption - is when ideas are
linked (combined) between higher-level concepts
such as when one knows form physics, for
example, that stationary air-spaces insulate helps
to better understand the function of hair or
feathers in keeping certain animals warm.
Subsumption theory (David Paul Ausuble)
O. 4 Purposes of Meaningful Learning
1. Derivative - is when you add new things to
existing cognitive structures, linking them to
concepts already known.
2. Correlative - is when you add new details to what
the you already know, usually a higher-order
concept.
3. Superordinate - introduces a new higher-level
concept into which already existing categories can
be integrated.
4. Combinatorial - is when ideas are linked
(combined) between higher-level concepts with
more flexible components.
P. Advance Organizer
Advance organizers are used to relate prior information to
new concepts. Advance organizers are designed to bridge
the gap between what a learner already knows and what
he or she needs to know - David Ausubel
Two categories:
1. Comparative - used as reminders to bring into
working memory what may not be realized as
relevant. They activate existing schemas and both
integrate and discriminate. Table
2. Expository - are often used when the new
learning material is unfamiliar to the learner.
They relate what the learner already knows with
the new and unfamiliar material to make it more
plausible to the learner. In English language
teaching an example of an expository organizer
would be when the teacher intends to teach new
animal vocabulary.
TOPIC | Cognitive Processes
 Cognitive processes are a series of chemical and
electrical signals that occur in the brain that allow
you to comprehend your environment and gain
knowledge.
Types of Cognitive Processes
1. Attention - Focusing on stimuli in your
environment often requires conscious effort.
2. Thought - Thoughts are any cognitive process
that occurs within your conscious mind, but you
do not say out loud or express through any
physical manifestation.
3. Perception - Human perception occurs through
the five senses: sight, taste, smell, sound and
touch.
4. Memory - You automatically store information
that you perceive in your short-term memory, and
much of that information eventually becomes
long-term memory. Forming, storing and
recalling memories allow humans to display much
of their intelligence and are critical components
of cognition.
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 Social interaction - is the process of reciprocal
influence exercised by individuals over one
another during social encounters.
Types of Social Interaction
1. Exchange occurs when people interact in an
effort to receive a reward or a return for their
actions.
2. Competition occurs when two or more people or
groups oppose each other to achieve a goal that
only one can attain.
3. Cooperation occurs when two or more people or
groups work together to achieve a goal that will
benefit more than one person.
4. Conflict is the deliberate attempt to control a
person by force, to oppose someone, or to harm
another person.
5. Accommodation is a state of balance between
cooperation and conflict.
 Interpersonal Relations Develops and maintains
effective relationships with others; relates well to
people from varied backgrounds and in different
situations; shows understanding, courtesy, tact,
empathy, concern, and politeness. Interpersonal
relationships are the strong connections we feel
with those closest to us. This could be:
1. friends
2. colleagues
3. family members
4. romantic partners
Types of Interpersonal Relationships
1. Family Relationship
2. Friendship
3. Romantic Relationship
4. Platonic Relationship
5. Professional Relationship
 Communication is the actionable transfer of
information from one person, group, or place to
another by writing, speaking, or using a medium
that provides a means of understanding. Every
communication consists of a minimum of one
sender, a receiver, and a message.
Communication in Learning process
It helps in developing the personality of the
learner, building the skill of decision-making, assuming
responsibility, finding solutions by sharing, discussing
ideas, and accepting others. Strong and effective exchange
of information and knowledge
Concept of Communication
Communication involves transmitting non-verbal
and verbal information in a channel that includes a sender,
medium of communication, and a receiver. The following
are the essential concepts of communication;
1. Sender and Receive
2. The Message
3. The Language Used
4. The Channel
5. The Medium
6. Noise/Barrier
7. The Environment
Four Types of Communication
1. VERBAL COMMUNICATION
2. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
3. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
4. VISUAL COMMUNICATION
The School/Classroom as a Social Entity
 School is a special environment where a certain
quality of life and certain types of activities and
occupations are provided with the object of
securing the child’s development along desirable
 lines. School is the most important part of the
society. It considered as one of the agency of the
socialization process. It helps to control the
human behavior and develop their personality.
School also prepares the children for adult rules.
School as a Social System
 The social organization in the school consists of
different roles and statuses for the educator and
the educed.
 As a social system the school aims to prepare the
students to occupy social roles according to their
capacities after leaving the school.
 An important function of education is the
development of the individuality of the student
3 Important Function of the School
 Conservation and perpetuation of social life
 All- round Development of the Individual
 Promotion of Social Efficiency
Transfer of Learning
Transfer of learning occurs:
 When the learner recognizes common features
among concepts, skills, or principles;
 Links the information in memory; and
 Sees the value of utilizing what was learned in
one situation in another.
Types Of Transfer
 Positive Transfer- When learning in one
situation facilitates learning in another situation, it
is known as a positive transfer.
 Negative Transfer- When learning one task
makes the learning of another task harder- it is
known as a negative transfer.
 Neutral Transfer- When learning of one activity
neither facilitates nor hinders the learning of
another task, it is a case of neutral transfer. It is
also called zero transfer.
Factors that Affect the Difficulty of Transfer
 Students fail to transfer knowledge when they
have a poor grasp of the subject.
 Students may not think of knowledge and skills in
terms of their future use.
 The dissimilarity between the learning and
transfer contexts.
 The dissimilarity between initial learning tasks
and transfer tasks.
Recommendations to Promote Student Transfer of
Learning
 Make transfer a course and programmatic
learning goal.
 Create transfer maps that identify specific
knowledge and skills relevant across courses.
 Help students apply material learned in previous
courses to your course.
 Promote depth of initial learning.
 Use multiple examples.
 Discuss conditions of applicability.
 Ask students to identify connections between
acquired knowledge and transfer contexts.
Cognitive Processes: Facilitating learning of Bloom’s
Taxonomy of Objective and Level of Bloom’s
Taxonomy
 Benjamin Bloom
- American, Educational psychologist
- Born on February 21, 1913, in Lansford,
Pennsylvania
- Developed Bloom's Taxonomy, a framework for
categorizing educational goals and objectives,
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which has become widely used in educational
settings around the world
- Died on September 13, 1999, in Chicago, Illinois
 Bloom’s Taxonomy - It is classification of
thinking organized by levels of complexity.
 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy - It provides the
measurement toll for thinking.
1. Remembering - The ability to recall or recognize
previously learned information.
- Recognize (identify)
- Recall (retrieve)
2. Understanding - The ability to comprehend and
interpret the meaning of information.
- Interpret (clarify/paraphrase/represent)
- Exemplify (illustrate/instantiate
- Classify (categorize/subsume)
- Summarize (abstract/generalize
- Infer (conclude/extrapolate/interpolate)
- Compare (contrast/map/match)
- Explain (construct)
3. Applying - The ability to use learned information
in a new situation or context.
- Execute (carry out)
- Implement (use)
4. Analyzing - The ability to break down complex
information into its component parts and
understand the relationships between them.
- Differentiate (discriminate, distinguish, focus,
select)
- Organize (find, cohere, integrate, outline, parse,
structure)
- Attribute (deconstruct)
5. Evaluate - The ability to make judgments about
the quality, validity, or effectiveness of
information or ideas.
- Check (coordinate, detect, monitor, test)
- Critique (judge)
Structural Changes
Bloom’s original cognitive taxonomy was one
dimensional consist of:
 Factual
 Conceptual
 Procedural
 Revision (Metacognitive)
Effective Questioning Techniques
 Effective questioning involves using questions in
the classroom to open conversations, inspire
deeper intellectual thought, and promote student-
to-student interaction.
10 Questioning Techniques
1. Open questions
Asking open questions is a great way to gather more
details about a specific situation. When you ask an open
question, it gives the other person an opportunity to
elaborate and offer an in-depth explanation.
2. Closed Questions
Closed questions can be useful when you need a simple
answer. Often these are yes or no questions.
3. Probing Questions
Probing questions ask for specific details. Also known as
trigger questions, you might choose to use this technique
if you need clarification about a specific topic.
4. Funnel Questions
The funnel questioning technique begins with general
questions that gradually become more specific throughout
the conversation.
5. Leading Questions
Professionals often use leading questions during
negotiations to influence the decisions of other people.
These types of questions often begin with a claim and end
by asking whether the other person agrees.
6. Clarifying Questions
People ask clarifying questions to make sure they have the
correct information. This can be a great way to recap key
talking points and ensure everyone understands what the
discussion was about.
7. Rhetorical Questions
When someone asks a rhetorical question, they don't
typically expect a response. Instead, people use this type
of questioning technique to engage with their audience
and ensure they're still listening.
8. Recall Questions
Recall and process questions are an excellent tool to use
when you want to make sure someone remembers a key
discussion point or fact.
9. Contingency Questions
Contingency questions only apply to a specific group of
people. Teachers may use contingency questions to ask
individuals who match certain criteria for their input.
10. Process Questions
Process questions, also known as divergent questions,
require the respondent to think critically about the
situation before they answer. You might ask these types
of questions if you want to hear someone's opinion about
a particular topic.
Tips for Asking Effective Questions
1. Practice active listening
2. Use silence to your advantage
3. Pay attention to your tone and body language
4. Be respectful
Torrance Creativity Framework
 Edward Paul Torrance
- A common framework for creative thinking
processes is described by Torrance (1979)
- Known as the “Father of Creativity” for his nearly
60 years of research that became the framework
for the field of gifted education.
- He was professor emeritus of educational
psychology
- He invented the benchmark method for
quantifying creativity
A. Fluency refers to the production of a great
number of ideas or alternate solutions to a
problem. Fluency implies understanding, not just
remembering information that is learned. List 15
things that are commonly red or contain red.
Example: Apple, blood, cherry, fire, heart…
B. Flexibility refers to the production of ideas that
show a variety of possibilities or realms of
thought. It involves the ability to see things from
different points of view, to use many different
approaches or strategies. How would you group
the ideas about “red” into categories?
Example: fruit, safety features, vehicles…
C. Elaboration is the process of enhancing ideas by
providing more detail. Additional detail and
clarity improves interest in, and understanding of,
the topic. Describe all the possible characteristics
of the red quality in a wagon
Example: shade, finish, texture, uniformity.
D. Originality involves the production of ideas that
are unique or unusual. It involves synthesis or
putting information about a topic back together in
a new way. Write an unusual title for the ideas
about red.
Example: Revolutionary “Red” Representation.
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Stages and Creativity Problem Solving
 Creative Problem Solving - is a proven method
for approaching a problem or a challenge in an
imaginative and innovative way. It's a tool that
helps people re-define the problems they face,
come up with breakthrough ideas and then take
action on these new ideas.
Osborn-Parnes Creative Problem-Solving Process
(Alex Osborn and Sidney Parnes) Osborn-Parnes
Creative Problem-Solving Process, which divides what
some us of do naturally into six steps or stages:
Stages of Creative Thinking
 Object Finding - This stage employs divergent
thinking to list the problems. Convergence is then
used to identify the relevant areas for further
discussion
 Fact Finding - It's where understanding of the
problem is increased by collating of relevant
information.
 Problem Finding - In this stage, all the previous
stage ‘hits’ are used to identify the most
productive problem listings.
 Idea Finding - In this stage, creative problem
solving teams look for potential solutions. Mainly
divergent activity is used to bring out many ideas
using idea-generation aids.
 Solution Finding - All the implementable ideas
are filtered out and their feasibilities are checked.
 Acceptance Finding - It is a divergent activity
that helps to implement solutions successfully via:
- ·Listing possible hurdles and ways to overcome
them
- ·Developing implementation and contingency
plans
- -Generating Action Plans for working
TOPIC | Metacognition
Metacognition
-(derived from the Greek root word "meta" meaning
"beyond" and the Latin word "cognoscere" meaning
"getting to know"). It refers to awareness of one’s own
knowledge— what one does and doesn’t know—and
one’s ability to understand, control, and manipulate one’s
cognitive processes (Meichenbaum, 1985). It includes
knowing when and where to use particular strategies for
learning and problem solving as well as how and why to
use specific strategies. “Thinking about thinking”
John Hurley Flavell (1976),
 an American psychologist who first used the term,
offers the following example:
"I am engaging in Metacognition if I notice that I
am having more trouble learning A than B; if it
strikes me that I should double check C before
accepting it as fact (p. 232)."
ELEMENTS OF METACOGNITION
Metacognitive knowledge
Refers to what individuals know about themselves
as cognitive processors, about different approaches that
can be used for learning and problem solving, and about
the demands of a particular learning task.
Metacognitive regulation
Refers to adjustments individuals make to their
processes to help control their learning, such as planning,
information management strategies, comprehension
monitoring, de-bugging strategies, and evaluation of
progress and goals.
3 CATEGORIES OF METACOGNITIVE
KNOWLEDGE
Flavell (1979) further divides metacognitive knowledge
into three categories:
1. Person Variables
2. Task Variables
3. Strategy Variables
Person Variables
Includes how one views himself as a learner and
thinker. Knowledge of person variables refers to
knowledge about how human beings learn and process
information, as well as individual knowledge of one’s
own learning process.
Task Variables
Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge
about the nature of the task as well as the type of
processing demands that it will place upon the individual.
It is about knowing what exactly needs to be
accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind
of effort it will demand from you.
Strategy Variables
Knowledge of strategy variables involves
awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic
and evaluating whether this strategy is effective. If you
think your strategy is not working, then you may think of
various strategies and try out one to see if it will help you
learn better.
Livingston (1997)
 provides an example of all three variables:
“I know that I (person variable) have difficulty
with word problems (task variable), so I will
answer the computational problems first and save
the word problems for last (strategy variable).”
TEACHING TEACHING STRATEGIES
STRATEGIES FOR FOR METACOGNITION
METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS INVENTORY
INVENTORY
 The Metacognitive Awareness Inventory assesses
students' self- evaluations using a "scoring card"
 It indicates how well they will analyze and evaluate
various aspects of their metacognitive awareness
CLASSROOM CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT TOOLS
 KWL CHART
 WEEKLY REPORT
NOVICE AND AND EXPERTS’ LEARNERS
Someone who is unfamiliar with a subject. They
have no prior knowledge of the topic and have had no
exposure to similar topics that may apply to the area they
are learning about.
EXPERT LEARNER
Experts know more, their knowledge is more
organized and integrated, they have better strategies for
accessing and using knowledge, and they are self-
regulated and motivated differently.
LEARNER CENTERED
A learner centered approach views learners as
active agents. They bring their own knowledge, past
experiences, education, and ideas - and its impact how
they take on board new information and learn.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTOR
The Learner-Centered Principles indicate that
students' motivation to learn is natural when they perceive
the context to be supportive and the content to be
meaningful and relevant.
This domain refers to students' effort and
engagement while learning (ie, motivational factors) and
emotional states, beliefs, and interests (ie, affective
factors) that influence learning. How the learners push
themselves to learn and how they value learning are the
concerns of the motivational factors. Meanwhile, the
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affective factors relate to the attitude, feelings and
emotions that learners put into the leaning task.
1. Motivational and emotional influences on
learning
What and how much is learned is
influenced by the learner's motivation. Motivation
to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's
emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and
habits of thinking.
2. Intrinsic motivation to learn
The learner's creativity, higher order
thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal Interests, and
providing for personal choice and control.
3. Effects of motivation on effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and
skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the
willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without
coercion.
DEVELOPMENTAL & DEVELOPMENTAL &
DEVELOPMENTAL & SOCIAL FACTORS
As individuals develop, there are different
opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is
most effective when differential development within and
across physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains
is taken into account. Knowledge on the physical,
intellectual, emotional and social domains of the learners
is an excellent spring board for planning learning
activities, materials, and assessments.
Teachers are persons and professionals who
should be knowledgeable of the various developmental
milestone of learners.They should not be working alone
along instructional planning.
Specifically, teachers should always look into the
readiness of the learners through keen observations,
diagnostic tools, authentic assessments and the like. All of
these will help to create optimal learning contexts and
environment
SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON SOCIAL INFLUENCES
ON LEARNING LEARNING
Learning is influenced by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication with others.
Collaboration is a 21st century skill. All learners should
learn the skill of working with others in an instructional
setting.
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an
opportunity tp interact and to collaborate with others on
instructional task. Learning activities in the class should
offer opportunities for such collaborative skills.
Examples: Group works, group dynamics and Group task.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE FACTOR
Individual Differences
It is important for teachers to know variables such
as physical characteristics, intelligence, perception,
gender, ability, and learning styles, which are individual
differences of the learners. An effective and productive
learning-teaching process can be planned by considering
the students' individual differences. Since the learners'
own learning speeds and interests vary, these
characteristics should be taken into consideration by the
teacher.
Types of Differences
 Physical Differences
 Differences in Intelligence
 Differences in Attitudes
 Differences in Achievement
  Differences in Motor Ability
 Racial Differences
 Differences due to Nationality
 Differences Due to Economic Status
 Differences in interests Emotional
 Differences Personality Differences
Physical Differences
Shortness or tallness of stature, darkness or
fairness of complexion, fatness, thinness, or weakness are
various physical individual differences..
Differences in Intelligence
There are differences in intelligence levels among
different individuals. We can classify the individuals from
super-normal (above 120 I.Q.) to idiots (from 0 to 50 I.Q.)
on the basis of their intelligence level.
Differences in Attitudes
Individuals differ in their attitudes towards
different people, objects, institutions and authority.
Differences in Achievement
It has been found through achievement tests that
individuals differ in their achievement abilities. These
differences are very much visible in reading, writing and
in learning mathematics.
These differences in achievement are even visible
among the children who are at the same level of
intelligence. These differences are on account of the
differences in the various factors of intelligence and the
differences in the various experiences, interests and
educational background.
Differences in motor Ability
There are differences in motor ability. These
differences are visible at different ages. Some people can
perform mechanical tasks easily, while others, even
though they are at the same level, feel much difficulty in
performing these tasks.
Racial Differences
There are different kinds of racial differences.
Differences in the environment are a normal factor in
causing these differences. Karl Brigham has composed a
list on the basis of differences in levels of intelligence
among people who have migrated to the United States
from other countries.
On the basis of these average differences between
the races, the mental age of a particular individual cannot
be calculated since this difference is based on
environment.
Differences due to Nationality
Individuals of different nations differ in respect of
physical and mental differences, interests and
personalities etc. ‘Russians are tall and stout’; ‘Ceylonese
are short and slim’; ‘Germans have no sense of humour’;
‘Yellow races are cruel and revengeful’; ‘Americans are
hearty and frank’; Indians are timid and peace- loving’
and the like observations enter into our common talk.
Differences due to Economic Status
Differences in children’s interests, tendencies and
character are caused by economic differences.
Differences in Interests
Factors such as sex, family background level of
development, differences of race and nationality etc,
cause differences in interests.
Emotional Differences
Individuals differ in their emotional reactions to a
particular situation. Some are irritable and aggressive and
they get angry very soon. There are others who are of
peaceful nature and do not get angry easily. At a
particular thing an individual may be so much enraged
that he may be prepared for the worst crime like murder,
while another person may only laugh at it.
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Personality Differences
There are differences in respect of personality. On
the basis of differences in personality, individuals have
been classified into many groups.
The factors which are The factors which are commonly
designated as commonly designated as causative of
individual causative of individual differences are as
follows:
1. Race
2. Sex
3. Heredity
4. Maturity
5. Social and Economic Status
COGNITION
The meaning of the term cognitive is related to
the process of acquiring knowledge (cognition) through
the information received by the environment, learning.
Cognition refers to mental activity including
thinking, remembering, learning and using language.
Mental action or process
Cognition is something that happens inside an
individual's brain
Acquiring knowledge
Cognition sometimes includes encoding new
information
Experience Cognition
can use our experiences to encode new
information
Senses Cognition
relies on sensory input such as information that
comes in through the eyes, ears, mouth, skin, and nose
METACOGNITION
defined as, "awareness and understanding of one's
own thought processes." When we stop and think about
the processes our own brains go through in order to make
sense of the world ("cognition") we are performing a
metacognitive act. Cognition makes sense of the world.
Metacognition makes sense of cognition itself. In this
course we will work to encode new information into our
brains, and we will think about the process at the same
time.
TOPIC | Motivation
The phrase "motivation" refers to the reason why
someone does anything. It is the drive for human
behavior. Motivation is the process through which goal-
oriented activities are initiated, guided, and maintained.
IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
Understanding motivation can:
 Increase your efficiency as you work toward your
goals
 Drive you to take action Encourage you to engage in
health-oriented behaviors
 Help you avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors,
such as risk-taking and addiction
 Help you feel more in control of your life Improve
your overall well-being and happiness
TIPS ON HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR MOTIVATION
 Adjust your goals to focus on what is truly important
to you.
 Goals based on things that are essential to you will
help you push through your obstacles more than
goals based on things that are really important to you.
 If you're handling anything that feels too vast or too
overwhelming, divide it into smaller, more
manageable tasks. Then, focus just on the first step.
 Improve your confidence. Research suggests that
there is a connection between confidence and
motivation. So, gaining more confidence in yourself
 and your skills can impact your ability to achieve
your goals.
 Remind yourself about what you've achieved in the
past and where your strengths lie. This helps keep
self-doubts from limiting your motivation.
 If there are things you feel insecure about, try
working on making improvements in those areas so
you feel more skilled and capable.
INFLUENCE OF MOTIVATION IN LEARNING
Motivation in education can have a dramatic
impact on students’ performance and results. Therefore,
parents and teachers who are willing to help their children
do better in school should be aware of the factors that
affect student motivation.
WHY IS MOTIVATION IN EDUCATION
IMPORTANT?
 Help us direct our attention toward tasks that need to
be done,
 allow us to do these tasks in shorter periods of time
as well as maintain attention during a longer time,
 minimize distractions and resist them better,
 affect how much information we retain and store,
influence the perception of how easy or difficult tasks
can appear.
 Most importantly, motivation urges to us perform an
action. Without it, completing the action can be hard
or even impossible.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE STUDENTS’
MOTIVATION IN EDUCATION
1. CLASS AND CURRICULUM STRUCTURE
 Children grow in structured environments and suffer
in chaotic environments.
 The feeling of security is one of our basic needs.
 To help students feel more secure, educators need to
plan classes and curriculums.
2. TEACHER BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY
 If a student has a negative emotion such as fear or
disliking towards their teacher, that can negatively
affect their attitude toward the subject as a whole.
 If a teacher shows a preference towards certain
students or uses derogatory and humiliating
language, that can lower their motivation in
education.
 On the other hand, kindness, optimism, positive
feedback, and encouragement can positively affect
students’ motivation to learn.
3. TEACHING METHODS
 Students are more likely to retain their motivation in
education if educators use different teaching
methods.
 Students in a single class are likely to have different
styles of learning. Thus, a teacher is more likely to
meet these needs by applying different teaching
methods.
 In some cases, enrolment in extracurricular activities
or support from a tutor can help address students’
needs that are not met at school.
4. PARENTAL HABITS AND INVOLVEMENT
Quite a few parental habits can indirectly affect the
motivation of children, intrinsic motivation in particular.
These include:
 showing interest in the child’s learning material,
 inquiring about their day,
 actively listening,
 helping with specific tasks or skills taught at school,
 attending parent meetings,
 encouraging children t complete homework or study
for a test.
5. FAMILY ISSUES AND INSTABILITY
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Same as the lack of security in the classroom, the
lack of security at home can negatively impact motivation
in education. Children who live with both parents, on
average get better grades than children who don’t. Family
conflicts and disruption can result in poorer academic
performance.
5. FAMILY ISSUES AND INSTABILITY
Some examples include:
 divorce,
 loss of one or both parents,
 not living with the biological father or mother,
 not having contact with the biological father or
mother,
 frequently moving from one home to another, being
or having been involved with Child Protective
Services.
6. PEER RELATIONSHIPS
As children grow older, the influence peers have
upon them increases as well. Therefore, problems and
conflicts with peers can make students feel less secure
about their social status among peers, increase their stress
levels, and lower motivation in education. Keeping an eye
on any conflicts, bullying, and other peer issues can
prevent serious problems.
7. ASSESSMENT
While standardized assessment increases the
standards of attainment, it can negatively influence
students’ motivation in education, especially at a younger
age. It is also common for students to lose motivation if
tests are continuously too challenging. This does not
provide a sense of achievement and lowers motivation in
education over time. Thus, it’s important for educators to
experiment with and apply different testing methods
which would be able to address the different learning
needs of students.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION
 Learners find some topics inherently interesting.
 Learners are more likely to devote time to activities
that have value for them.
 The nature of goals related to their academic
achievement influence learners’ cognitive processes
and behaviors.
 Learners must juggle achievement goals with their
many other goals.
 Learners overcome frustrations, obstacles, and
difficulties when they see the goal as worthwhile.
 Reward rather than punishment is a better motivation.
 A pleasant learning environment can be an effective
motivator.
TYPES OF MOTIVATION
INTRINSIC
Type of motivation whereas the aim is being
rewarded internally.
TYPES OF INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
1. Competence Motivation
driven by curiosity
2. Creative Motivation
known to be prompted by a sense of wanting to
say or to express something
3. Achievement Motivation
aims to achieve a goal just for personal
development
4. Attitude Motivation
based on the willingness to change the world, help
people, or make something good
5. Affiliate Motivation
ignites the feeling of belonging to a group and
being accepted
6. Physiological Motivation
 focuses on satisfying basic physiological needs
such as air, food, water, warmth, and sleep.
EXTRINSIC
Type of motivation which stands for the things
that serve as an external drive; be it compensation or
punishment.
TYPES OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION TYPES OF
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
1. Reward-Based Motivation
involves a reward attached to it more than just a
mere internal feeling
2. Power-Based Motivation
based on the human desire to have power over
other people
3. Fear-Based Motivation
it is not based on any monetary reward but on fear
of pain or awkward feeling
THEORIES OF THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION
 ATTRIBUTION THEORY
 SELF-EFFICACY THEORY
 CHOICE THEORY CHOICE THEORY
 MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
 GOAL THEORY
FRITZ HEIDER
 was a an Austrian- American Gestalt and social
psychologist.
 He is considered one of the founding father of
interpersonal social psychology, contributing in
particular in theories of attribution, balance and
motivation
BERNARD WEINER
 Born on 1935, a social psychologist who is
known for developing a form of attribution
theory which explains the emotional and
motivational entailments of academic success
and failure.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
a theory that attempts to explain the interpretive
process by which people make judgements about the
causes of their own behavior and the behavior of others.
THREE WAYS THREE WAYS
 LOCUS
 STABILITY
 CONTROLABILITY
LOCUS
INTERNAL VS. EXTERNAL
Locus dimension refers to the perception of the
cause of any event as internal or external.
STABILITY
STABLE VS. UNSTABLE
Stability dimension refers to whether the cause of
the event is stable or unstable across time and situations.
CONTROLLABILITY
CONTROLLABLE VS. UNCONTROLLABLE
Controllability dimension refers to whether or not
the cause of any event is under the control of the learner.
SELF-EFFICACY THEORY
BANDURA'S SELF- EFFICACY THEORY
Self efficacy is the belief that one has the
necessary capabilities to perform a task, fulfill role
expectations, or meet a challenging situation successfully.
SELF-EFFICACY ENHANCING STRATEGIES
1. MAKE SURE STUDENTS MASTER THE
BASIC SKILLS.
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Mastery of the basic skills like reading,
writing, 'rithmetic will enable the child to tackle
higher level activities.
2. HELP THEM MAKE NOTICEABLE
PROGRESSON DIFFICULT TASKS.
It is good that you are helped to see
progress while you are working on your difficult
task.
3. COMMUNICATE CONFIDENCE IN
STUDENTS ABILITIES THROUGH BOTH
WORDS AND ACTIONS.
Express confidence that your students,
with all their abilities, can easily tackle the
learning task.
4. EXPOSETHEM TO SUCCESSFUL PEERS.
Being with successful peers, your
students will inhale success and get energized to
succeed as well
CHOICE THEORY
The choice theory is a biological theory that
suggests we are born with specific needs that we are
genetically instructed to satisfy.
FOUR BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
1. BELONGING OR CONNECTING
The need for belonging or connecting
motivates us to develop relationships and
cooperate with others.
2. POWER OR COMPETENCE
The need for power is more than just a
drive to dominate. Power is gained through
competence, achievement, and mastery.
3. FREEDOM
As humans, we are also motivated to be
free, to choose. Having choices is part of what it
means to be human and is one reason our species
has been able to evolve, adopt and thrive.
4. FUN
Each time we learn something new, we
are having fun, another universal human
motivator.
MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Abraham HAROLD Maslow
 born April 1, 1908, New York, New York, U.S.
—died June 8, 1970, Menlo Park, California
 Maslow studied psychology at the University of
Wisconsin and Gestalt psychology at the New
School for Social Research in New York City
 Influenced by existentialist philosophers and
literary figures, Maslow was an important
contributor in the United States to humanistic
psychology
SELF-ACTUALIZATION
Realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking
personal growth and peak experiences.
ESTEEM
which Maslow classified into two categories: (I) esteem
for oneself and (II) the desire for reputation or respect
from others.
LOVE AND BELONGING
the third level of human needs is social and involves
feelings of belongingness.
SAFETY NEEDS
protection from elements, security, order, law, stability,
freedom from fear.
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
these are biological requirements for Human survival.
DEFICIENCY NEEDS VS. GROWTH NEEDS
This five-stage model can be divided into
deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four levels
are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and Types of Motivation which is more Beneficial
the top level is known as growth or being needs (B-  Intrinsic Motivation
needs). Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are  Extrinsic Motivation
said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the Intrinsic Motivation
motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the comes from within the person himself/herself. It
longer the duration they are denied. is evident when people engage in an activity for its own
GOAL THEORY sake, without some obvious external incentive present
EDWIN A. LOCKE Extrinsic Motivation
The American psychologist was a pioneer in goal- Motivation is extrinsic when that which motivates
setting research. Locke originated the theory in 1968 with a person is someone or something outside him/her. When
the publication of the article “Toward a Theory of Task a student studies because s/he was told by her/his teacher
Motivation and Incentives”. or because s/he is afraid to fail and his/her parents make
LEARNING GOALS her /him stop schooling, we can say that s/he is
it is a desire to acquire additional knowledge or extrinsically motivated.
master new skills. Indicators of a High Level of Motivation
PERFORMANCE GOALS If you have a highly motivated student you have a student
A desire to look good and receive favorable who is excited about learning and accomplishing things.
judgement from others. S/he takes the initiative to undertake learning tasks,
SELF DETERMINED GOALS assignments and projects without being pushed by his/her
Personal relevant goals or self determined goals teachers and parents.
enhance students motivation. In contrast student who is not motivated to learn
THE 5 PRINCIPLES OF GOAL-SETTING THEORY does not enjoy learning, does not study unless "pushed".
CLARITY When she feels the difficulty of study, s/he readily giver
Clarity around goal orientation is a must. The up. S/he lacks perseverance
more clarity there is when setting a goal with/for a person,
the less of a chance there is for a miscommunication or
misunderstanding. This then leads to higher levels of
success.
CHALLENGE
Goal difficulty also ties to the effectiveness of
goal setting. When goal attainment presents a challenge, it
leads to a higher level of motivation—which, in turn,
leads to a higher chance of success.
COMMITMENT
People need to have a certain level of buy-in and
goal commitment. If they’re not committed, they’re not
going to have the follow-through necessary to succeed —
and as a result, they won’t hit their goal.
FEEDBACK
In order for people to successfully hit their goals,
they need regular feedback. That includes feedback on
their progress, what they’re doing well, and where they
can improve.

TASK COMPLEXITY
If a goal feels too complex or overwhelming, it
can negatively impact motivation. Instead, leaders should
break down large goals into smaller, more manageable
tasks. As members complete each small task, it will
deliver a boost of motivation. And that will ultimately
help them progress towards the larger goal.
STUDENTS’ DIVERSITY IN MOTIVATION
Motivation
is an inner drive that causes you to do something
and persevere at something. Motivation is an inner drive
that energizes you to do something. Our students'
motivation may vary on account of age, gender, cultural,
socioeconomic background, and special education needs.
Our class is a conglomerate of students with ages,
and gender and most especially conglomerate cultural
background and socioeconomic status.
Two principles to consider regarding social and cultural
influences on motivation are:
 Students are most likely to model the behaviors
they believe are relevant to their situation.
 Students develop greater efficacy for a task
when they see others like themselves performing
the task successfully. (Ormrod, 2004)

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FINALS | EDUC 201