Republic of the Philippines

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ADVANCED STUDIES
(Formerly Graduate School)
Urdaneta City, Pangasinan

CHESSY KIEM P. DE SOLA GEMMA M. DE VERA PhD.

I- MAEd Com. Arts English EDF 203: Foundation Theories and Principles of Education
Professor

Written Report in EDF 203

Foundation Theories of Education

I. Introduction:

Although theories of education did not begin to be developed in earnest until the early twentieth century,
ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were all interested in the process by which how
humans learn. There was a debate about whether knowledge and truth could be discovered within oneself
(rationalism) or through external observation (scientific method) (empiricism).

Psychologists began to answer this question with scientific studies as early as the nineteenth century. The goal
was to gain an objective understanding of how people learn and then develop teaching approaches that were
appropriate for that understanding.

During the twentieth century, the debate among educational theorists focused on whether behaviourist theory
or cognitive psychology was more appropriate. Do people learn by responding to external stimuli or by using
their brains to construct knowledge from external data, to put it another way, how do they learn?

II. Foundation Theories of Education:

1. Behaviourism
The ideas of behaviourism come from the late 1800s and early 1900s when people were more
interested in how people behave. John B. Watson, an American working in the field of New Psychology,
is thought to be one of the first people to advocate for behaviourism. He is thought to be the person
who came up with the word "behaviourism" first (though he probably used an American spelling).
Watson thought that psychology could only become a true science if it became a detailed, objective,
and scientific process that took place over a long time. 

This idea of observing and measuring became important to the work of behaviourists. Any
discussion of how the mind works, which is unobservable by definition, didn't fall within their own set of
things to study. So behaviourist ideas and explanations of how people learn came from studying what
can be seen. A psychological theory of learning can't be made with this method. Later researchers in
the field have come to explain and say that this method doesn't include all of the hidden mental
processes that they think are important for us to know about how people learn different things in
different ways.

Behavioralism is a kind of theory in which the emphasis is on observable behaviours rather than
on any mental activity. Learning can be defined as the acquisition of new behaviour in its most basic
form. This method of learning is referred to as 'conditioning' by behaviourists. In this paper, two different
types of conditioning are described and demonstrated as viable explanations for how animals and
humans alike can be "taught" to do certain things in different situations. The first type of conditioning is
classical conditioning.
 Republic of the Philippines
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ADVANCED STUDIES
(Formerly Graduate School)
Urdaneta City, Pangasinan

Two Types of Conditioning

A. Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning is the process of reinforcing a natural reflex or another type of behaviour
that occurs in response to a specific stimulus. It is well-known that Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist
of the early twentieth century, developed a method of conditioning dogs to salivate at the sound of the
bell. He noticed that when dogs ate or even saw food, they salivated. He initially conducted
experiments in which he sounded a bell when food was presented to the dogs. Even if there was no
food present, dogs would salivate at the sound of the bell because it was an indicator that food was
about to be served.

Four Stages of Classical Conditioning

Pavlov identified four stages in the process of his classical conditioning and what follows from the initial
connection between stimulus and response: acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimination. 

1. Acquisition- initial learning  (During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral
stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
The acquisition phase is the initial learning of the conditioned response, for example, the dog salivating
at the sound of the bell.
2. Extinction- A conditioned response will not remain indefinitely.
Once learned, a conditioned response will not remain indefinitely. Extinction is used to describe the
disappearance of the conditioned response brought about by repeatedly presenting the bell, for
example, without then presenting food.
3. Generalisation- It may also respond to similar stimuli 
After a conditioned response to one stimulus has been learned, it may also respond to similar stimuli
without further training. If a child is bitten by a dog, the child may fear not only that particular dog but
all dogs.
4. Discrimination- an individual learns to produce a conditioned response to one stimulus but
not to another. Discrimination is the opposite of generalization. An individual learns to produce
a conditioned response to one stimulus but not to another similar stimulus. For example, a child
may show a fear response to freely roaming dogs but may show no fear when a dog is on a
lead, or distrust Bulldogs but not with the Aspins. 

B. Operant Conditioning
The second type of conditioning is operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is the most
important type of behaviourist learning. It is more flexible in its nature than classical conditioning and
therefore seen as potentially more powerful. It involves reinforcing behaviour by rewarding it. It can
also work in a negative way, when an undesirable behaviour can be discouraged, by following it with
the punishment of some form. In some cases, simply not offering an expected reward for a particular
behaviour is sufficient punishment. 
 B.F. Skinner (psychologist)- Skinner Box
o Skinner Box- an empty box in which an animal could earn food by making simple responses
such as pressing a lever. The action receives a reward such as a pellet of food

KEY ASPECTS 

 Reinforcement- anything that has the effect of strengthening a particular behaviour 

o This refers to anything that has the effect of strengthening a particular behaviour and makes it
likely that the behaviour will happen again. There are two types of reinforcement: positive and
negative.
o
o POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT- includes basic items such as food, drink, approval, or even
something as apparently simple as attention
 In the context of Classroom, praise, house points, or freedom to choose are an activity
are all used in a different context (Any reward that is viewed as a positive reward)
 Republic of the Philippines
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ADVANCED STUDIES
(Formerly Graduate School)
Urdaneta City, Pangasinan

o NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT- decreasing the likelihood of a behaviour by pairing it with an

unpleasant ‘follow up’ (punishment)
 Disadvantages- Anger, frustration, or aggression may follow punishment or negative
emotional responses

 Shaping- a technique of reinforcement that is used to teach behaviours that have never been
performed before
o The notion of shaping refers to a technique of reinforcement that is used to teach animals or
humans behaviours that they have never performed before. When shaping, the trainer begins
by reinforcing a simple response that the learner can easily perform. Gradually more and more
complex responses are required for the same reward. 

There is a place for learning in classrooms that relies on the principles of behaviourism. However,
since behaviourism gives little importance to mental activity, concept formation, or understanding,
there are difficult problems to overcome when setting out philosophies of teaching and learning
that depend wholly upon behaviourist approaches.

Behaviourism in ‘school learning

 To apply models of behaviourism in the classroom, it is necessary to have clear ideas of the
behaviours  (operants) to be encouraged and reinforced. These behaviours could be either related to
general behaviour (in the ‘good/bad behaviour’ sense of the word), or more educational content-
related – spellings, tables, and so on.
 Rewards can be widely variable in nature – ticks and written comments in books; stars, stamps, and
stickers; more formal points or commendations possibly leading to higher-level rewards such as
certificates; verbal and public praise; extra privileges; sweets. 

Considerations for the use of rewards

 The rewards need to have value to the children.
 If rewards come unexpectedly, intrinsic motivation will remain high.
 If extrinsic rewards are used, it is important that everyone receives one for their best efforts.
 Rewarding only the ‘best’ is not a satisfactory approach, as it is vital to maintain high selfesteem,
especially with the less able and lower attaining children.
 Rewards can be used to invigorate or add fun to an activity.

Problems in using extrinsic rewards

 Rewards can belittle or demean a learning experience.
 Rewards can engender feelings of unfairness or competition.
 Rewards can detract from the real issue involved in completing tasks.
 Rewards do not always lead to higher quality work.
 Rewards may isolate children who feel they have little chance of getting a reward.

Critics of the application of behaviourist approaches make two main points. 

o First, rewarding children for all learning is likely to cause the child to lose interest in learning
for its own sake.  Studies have also suggested that using rewards with children who are already
well motivated may lead to a loss of interest in the subject. 
o Second, using a reward system or giving one child increased attention may have a detrimental
effect on the others in the class.  Therefore, using a behaviourist approach in the classroom
seems to be most effective when applied in cases where a particular child has a history of
academic failure; where there is very low motivation and high anxiety; and in cases where no
other approach has worked.
 Republic of the Philippines
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ADVANCED STUDIES
(Formerly Graduate School)
Urdaneta City, Pangasinan

B. Cognitive Theory

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different
stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge
but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget believed that children take an active role in the
learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn
about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon
existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

Jean Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Period Age (in Characteristics

years)

Sensorimotor 0–2 With the ability to form schemas, patterns, and chains of behavior, one can
transcend simple reflexive behavior. With time, children learn that invisible
objects exist.

Preoperational 2–7 Children are essentially egocentric, and they are incapable of viewing events
thought from the perspective of others. The use of symbolic thought and the
development of the imagination begin to take place at this point.

Concrete 7–11 Children begin to think logically about physical operations; they can conserve
operations – that is, they understand that two equal physical quantities remain equal
even if the appearance of one change – and they can differentiate between
two equal physical quantities.

Formal 11+ Children can think hypothetically and abstractly, although this is limited by a
Operations years lack of depth and breadth in knowledge.

 During the sensorimotor period, Piaget said that a child’s cognitive system is more or less
limited to motor reflexes that are present at birth, such as sucking. The child builds on these
reflexes to develop more sophisticated behaviour. Children learn to generalise specific actions
and activities to a wider range of situations and make use of them in increasingly complex
patterns of behaviour.

 At Piaget’s preoperational stage, children acquire the ability to represent ideas and to
engage in mental imagery. In particular, they do this through the medium of language. They
have an egocentric (selfish) view; that is, they view the world almost exclusively from their
own point of view and find it difficult to consider situations from another’s perspective. 

 In the concrete operational stage, children become more able to take another’s point of
view and they begin to be able to take into account multiple perspectives. Although they can
understand concrete problems, Piaget would argue that they cannot deal effectively with more
abstract problems. 
 Republic of the Philippines
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ADVANCED STUDIES
(Formerly Graduate School)
Urdaneta City, Pangasinan

 At the stage of formal operations, children are capable of thinking logically and in the
abstract. Piaget considered this stage to be the ultimate stage of intellectual development and
said that although children were still in a position of having relatively little knowledge, their
thought processes were as well developed as they were ever likely to be.

Whether Piaget was correct or not, it is safe to say that his theory of cognitive development has had a great
influence on all work in the field of developmental psychology.  Piaget’s view of a child’s intellectual
development has influenced teaching practices too. It gives teachers approximate guidance concerning the
level of complexity that might be expected in a child’s thought processes at approximate stages in their
development. 

The exactness of the stage of development concerning a child’s age has been criticised; that is to say, a child
may well pass through the stages but it is not clear that they will pass through them at specific ages.
However, as a developmental trail, it is useful.

The following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and grow:

Schemas
A schema is a way to describe both the mental and physical parts of understanding and knowing. People use
schemas to help them understand and interpret the world. He thinks that a schema is both a category of
knowledge and how to get that knowledge. As new things happen, this new information is used to change,
add to, or change existing schemas.
This could be the case with a child having a picture in their head about a type of animal, like a dog. In this
case, a child might think that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Then, what if the child meets a
huge dog? This new information will be taken in by the child, who will change the schema that was already
there to include these new observations.

Assimilation
In the field of information science, assimilation refers to the process of incorporating new information into our
existing schemas. Because we tend to modify experiences and information to fit in with our preexisting beliefs,
the process is somewhat subjective. As shown in the previous example, a child seeing a dog and labeling it
"dog" is an example of the animal becoming assimilated into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation
An additional component of adaptation is the process of changing or altering our existing schemas in response
to new information, which is referred to as accommodation. Making modifications to existing schemas or ideas
as a result of new information or new experiences is referred to as accommodation. 5 During this process, it is
possible that new schemas will be developed.

Equilibration
Equilibration, according to Piaget, is the mechanism by which all children try to achieve a balance between
assimilation and accommodation. Keeping a healthy balance between assimilating prior knowledge and
adapting behavior in light of new information is critical for children's cognitive development (accommodation).
How children progress from one stage of thought to the next can be explained by equilibration.
 Republic of the Philippines
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ADVANCED STUDIES
(Formerly Graduate School)
Urdaneta City, Pangasinan

C. Sociocultural Theory

 Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated process in which
children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative
dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. This means that sociocultural theory

 emphasizes the broader social, cultural, and historical context of any human activity. It does not view
individuals as isolated entities; rather, it provides a richer perspective, focusing on the fluid boundary
between self and others.

 Unlike Piaget's notion that childrens' development must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky
argued, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organised,
specifically human psychological function" (1978, p. 90).  In other words, social learning tends to
precede (i.e., come before) development. Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social
interaction in the development of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community
plays a central role in the process of "making meaning."

 It portrays the dynamic of a learner acquiring knowledge and skills from society and then in turn
shaping their environment (Miller, 2011).  Also, the sociocultural theory is sensitive to individual and
cross-cultural diversity. In contrast to many other universalist theories, sociocultural theory
acknowledges both differences in individuals within a culture and differences in individuals across
cultures. It recognizes that “different historical and cultural circumstances may encourage different
developmental routes to any given developmental endpoint” depending on particular social or physical
circumstances and tools available (Miller, 2011, p. 198). And lastly, a sociocultural theory greatly
contributes to our theoretical understanding of cognitive development by integrating the notion of
learning and development. 

The Zone of Proximal Development

There are also limitations to the sociocultural perspective. The first limitation is related to Vygotsky’s
premature death, as many of his theories remained incomplete. Furthermore, his work was largely
unknown until fairly recently due to political reasons and issues with translation. The second major
limitation is associated with the vagueness of the ZPD.  

 ZPD- According to Vygotsky, this is "the distance between the actual development level (of the learner)
as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined
through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers. the area
where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills
they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions

 Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or perform
on their own but is capable of learning with guidance. As children are allowed to stretch their skills and
knowledge, often by observing someone who is slightly more advanced than they are, they can
progressively extend this zone.
 Republic of the Philippines
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ADVANCED STUDIES
(Formerly Graduate School)
Urdaneta City, Pangasinan

 Individuals may have wide or narrow zones, which may be both desirable and undesirable, depending
on the circumstances. Knowing only the width of the zone “does not provide an accurate picture of
[the learner’s]learning, ability, style of learning, and current level of development compared to other

children of the same age and degree of motivation” (Miller, 2011, p. 198). Additionally, there is little
known about whether a child’s zone is comparable across different learning domains, with different
individuals, and whether the size of the zone changes over time. 
There is also not a common metric scale to measure ZPD. Finally, Rogoff (1990) pointed out that
Vygotsky’s theories may not be as relevant to all cultures as originally thought. She provides an
example of scaffolding being heavily dependent on verbal instruction and thus not equally effective in
all cultures for all types of learning.
 
Basic Principles Three themes are often identified with Vygotsky’s ideas of sociocultural learning (Polly,
Allman, Casto, and Norwood (n.d.), these are: 

1. Human development and learning originate in social, historical, and cultural interactions. Vygotsky
contended that thinking has social origins; social interactions play a critical role, especially in the
development of higher-order thinking skills, cognitive development cannot be fully understood without
considering the social and historical context within which it is embedded.

2. Use of psychological tools, particularly language, mediates the development of higher mental
functions. Another important aspect of Vygotsky’s views on learning is the significance of language in
the learning process. Vygotsky reasoned that social structures determine people’s working conditions
and interactions with others, which in turn shape their cognition, beliefs, attitudes, and perception of
reality, and that social and individual work is mediated by tools and signs, or semiotics, such as
language, systems of counting, conventional signs, and works of art.

3. Learning occurs within the zone of proximal development. Probably the most widely applied socio-
cultural concept in the design of learning experiences is the concept of the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD).  He believed that learning should be matched with an individual’s developmental
level and that to understand the connection between the development and learning, it is necessary to
distinguish the actual and the potential levels of development. Learning and development are best
understood when the focus is on processes rather than their products. He considered the ZPD to be a
better and more dynamic indicator of cognitive development since it reflects what the learner is in the
process of learning as compared to merely measuring what the learner can accomplish independently,
reflecting what has been already learned (Vygotsky, 1978).

D. Moral Development Theory

 Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how children develop
morality and moral reasoning. His theory suggests that moral development occurs in a series of
six stages. The theory also suggests that moral logic is primarily focused on seeking and
maintaining justice.

Stages of moral cognitive development are the core part of Kohlberg’s theoretical system of moral
development, whose main points are as follows: 

o  Moral development is closely related to cognitive development which is the basis of

moral development. Therefore, moral development cannot exceed the cognitive
development level;
o  One’s morality develops in stages and children’s moral judgment develops in stages as
well; 
o The stages of moral development are irreversible;
o  The essential motivation of moral development lies in the pursuit of social acceptance
and self-realization, which relies on individuals’ active participation in social culture. 
 Republic of the Philippines
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ADVANCED STUDIES
(Formerly Graduate School)
Urdaneta City, Pangasinan

Meanwhile, one’s moral development is closely related to and largely controlled by the social environment.
Therefore, Kohlberg asserted that human morality developed in stages. As a result, society and education can
help develop it by all means.

To prove his assertion, Kohlberg spent more than ten years tracking qualitatively children and adolescents of
different ages in various cultures by putting forward moral dilemma questions. He was interested in how
individuals would justify their actions if placed in similar moral dilemmas. Based on the participants’ answers,
Kohlberg found out that human moral judgment and moral reasoning, in general, develop at six stages which
can be more generally grouped into three levels of two stages each, namely, pre-conventional level,
conventional level, and post-conventional level.
 

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Pre-conventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the age of
9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the
consequences of breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level:

 Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and
punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this
type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying
the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment.

 Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and exchange stage of moral
development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve
individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice
that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it
serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules
regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral
standards they have learned from their role models and from society.
This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the group.

There are two stages at this level of morality:

 Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often referred to as the "good

boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development
is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being
"nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

 Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is
maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when
making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty,
and respecting authority.
 Republic of the Philippines
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ADVANCED STUDIES
(Formerly Graduate School)
Urdaneta City, Pangasinan

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of morality. The
two stages at this level are

 Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a social contract and
individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing
values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a
7

society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.

 Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on

universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning.  At this stage, people follow these
internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Kohlberg believed that only a relatively small percentage of people ever reach the post-conventional stages
(around 10 to 15%).
One analysis found that while stages one to four could be seen as universal in populations throughout the
world, the fifth and sixth stages were extremely rare in all populations.

III. Conclusion

In order to implement these theories in the classroom, educators can devise their own methods and
procedures. For teachers, the first step is to get an all-encompassing education so that they can use a variety
of teaching and classroom management techniques. For teachers, it's important to learn about learning
theories so that they can use them in the classroom.

Teachers who are knowledgeable about learning theories are better able to connect with students of all ages
and backgrounds. Different teaching methods can be used to meet the needs of different students, allowing
instructors to tailor their lessons to the specific learning styles of their students.

References:

Pritchard, A. (2009). Ways of Learning: Learning Theories and Learning Styles in the Classroom . 2nd Ed. New
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Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective. 6th Ed. Boston, MA: Pearson.

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Five Educational Learning Theories. (2020, May 30). Western Governors University; www.wgu.edu.
https://www.wgu.edu/blog/five-educational-learning-theories2005.html
 Republic of the Philippines
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ADVANCED STUDIES
(Formerly Graduate School)
Urdaneta City, Pangasinan

Cherry, K. (2022, February 14). How Classical Conditioning Works: An Overview With Examples . Verywell
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Cherry, K. (2021, April 24). Levels of Developing Morality in Kohlberg’s Theories . Verywell Mind;
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Cherry, K. (2022, February 14). Sociocultural Theory: Examples and Applications . Verywell Mind;
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