Mex 10406

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Calculating Boiler And

Process Heater Thermal Efficiency
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Vessels For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX10406 R.K. Khanna
Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels
Contents Pages
CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE INPUT/OUTPUT OR

DIRECT METHOD.............................................................................................................. 1
Thermal Efficiency .................................................................................................... 1
Example Problem 1........................................................................................ 2
Input/Output or Direct Method ................................................................................. 4
Example Problem 2........................................................................................ 4
CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE HEAT LOSS METHOD........... 6
Excess Air................................................................................................................. 6
Example Problem 3 Calculation Of Excess Oxygen ........................................ 7
Stack (Flue Gas) Temperature ................................................................................... 9
Heater Efficiency Calculation....................................................................................10
Combustion Efficiency Charts .......................................................................11
Example Problem 4.......................................................................................11
Simplified Equation.......................................................................................13
Thermal Efficiency Improvement ..............................................................................13
Example Problem 5.......................................................................................13
Reduce Excess Air........................................................................................17
Reduce Stack Temperature ...........................................................................19
Reduce Other Losses ....................................................................................19
EFFECTS OF FIRING RATE ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY ............................................20
WORK AID 1: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY

USING INPUT/OUTPUT METHOD ..................................................................................21
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY

USING HEAT LOSS METHOD .........................................................................................22
Work Aid 2A: Excess Air and Thermal Efficiency Using Short Cut Equations .........22
Work Aid 2B: Procedures for Calculating Furnace Efficiency by Heat Loss
Method ....................................................................................................................22
WORK AID 3: FLUE GAS OXYGEN (DRY BASIS) VERSUS EXCESS AIR .................24
WORK AID 4: HEAT ABSORBED CHARTS...................................................................25

GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................30
REFERENCE......................................................................................................................31
ADDENDUM: API - RP - 532 PROCEDURE ...................................................................32

Table of Figures Pages
Figure 1. Steam Boiler System.................................................................................. 2

Figure 2. Excess Oxygen .......................................................................................... 6
Figure 3. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air .......................................................... 8
Figure 4. Typical Aspirating (High Velocity) Thermocouple ....................................10
Figure 5. Combustion Heat Available to Process......................................................11
Figure 6. Steam Boiler System.................................................................................14
Figure 7. Furnace Fuel Savings................................................................................16
Figure 8. Furnace Air Leaks ....................................................................................18
Figure 9. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air .........................................................24
Figure 10. Heat Available from the Combustion of 1000 Btu/ft3 Refinery Gas .........25
Figure 11. Heat Available from the Combustion of 1600 Btu/ft3 Refinery Gas .........26
Figure 12. Heat Available from the Combustion of 5° API Fuel Oil..........................27
Figure 13. Heat Available from the Combustion of 10° API Fuel Oil........................28
Figure 14. Heat Available from the Combustion of 15° API Fuel Oil........................29
Figure 1A. Typical Heater Arrangement ..................................................................32
Figure 2A. Vapor Pressure of Water........................................................................35
Figure 3A. Enthalpy of Flue Gas Components .........................................................36
Figure 4A. Enthalpy of Flue Gas Components ..........................................................37
Figure 5A. Combustion Work Sheet ........................................................................40
Figure 5A. Combustion Work Sheet, Cont’d ...........................................................46

CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE INPUT/OUTPUT OR DIRECT

METHOD
Thermal Efficiency
Thermal efficiency is defined as the percentage of the absorbed energy to the total energy input.
Calculation of thermal efficiency is based on an energy balance around the boiler or process
heater.
In a boiler, although only the energy in the steam is usable, the heat absorbed in a boiler is the sum
of the energy in the steam and the energy in the blowdown above that of the boiler feed water.
The energy in the stack gas above that of ambient air is a loss. The energy transferred from the
boiler through the insulation and refractory to the atmosphere is also a loss. In a process heater,
heat losses are the same and include losses to the stack gases and losses to the atmosphere
through the refractory and insulation.
Factors that increase the losses will decrease the thermal efficiency. For example, operating with
too much excess air reduces the thermal efficiency by increasing the stack heat loss because the
excess air is heated from ambient to stack gas temperature.
The thermal efficiency for which a boiler or a process heater is designed is an economic evaluation
involving the cost of fuel and the cost of equipment to reduce the losses. Examples of economic
analyses include the amount of insulation or refractory used to reduce heat losses to the
atmosphere, the amount of heat transfer surface provided in the radiant and convection sections to
reduce the stack temperature, use of a preheater to reduce the stack gas temperature, types of
burners used (determines minimum excess air requirement) and the use of chemicals to reduce the
blowdown requirement.
The thermal efficiency can be calculated using either the higher heating value (HHV) or the lower
heating value (LHV). The LHV is a better measure of achievable thermal efficiency since the
latent heat of vaporization of the water in the flue gas cannot be recovered. The HHV efficiency
is several percentage points lower than the LHV efficiency. It is common practice in the furnace
industry to use the LHV in calculations while the boiler industry uses the HHV efficiency. All
calculations will be done on a LHV basis including boilers.
The Example Problem 1 shows the calculation of the thermal efficiency and the magnitude of the
heat losses.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Example Problem 1
Figure 1 is a schematic of a forced recirculation steam boiler system.
Figure 1. Steam Boiler System
Steam Boiler System:
Calculate the thermal efficiencies for the boiler in Figure 1 if firing 55,000 lb/hr of fuel gas. The
enthalpy data from a steam table that is needed for entering and exiting streams is shown below:
Enthalpy, Btu/lb
Stream Temp., °F Psia HL HV
Blowdown 370 174.7 343.5 1196.4
Steam 434 154.7 -- 1237.6
Feed water 190 -- 158.0 --
Fan-200 HP
Heat Balance: Water side/Process
Heat In: Feedwater = 910,000 lb/hr x 158 = 143.78 MBtu/hr (M = million)

Heat Absorbed = QA
Total = 143.78 + QA

Heat Out: Steam = 805,000 x 1,237.6 = 996.27

Blowdown = 105,000 x 343.5 = 36.07
Total = 1,032.34 MBtu/hr
Heat In = Heat Out

143.78 + QA = 1,032.34
Heat absorbed = QA = 1,032.34 - 143.78 = 888.56 M Btu/hr
Fuel Heat Input
QP = 55,000 x 19,400 = 1067 million Btu/HR.
Pump Energy
(gpm )(∆P ) (12000 )(108 )

HPp = = = 1079 Hp
1715 (0.65 ) 1715 (0.70 )
HPp = 1079 x 2544 = 2.7 million Btu/hr
Fan Energy
HPF = 200 Hp
HPF = 200 x 2544 = 0.5 million Btu/hr
Total Energy Input
Q in = 1067 + 2.7 + 0.5 = 1070.2
Total Energy Efficiency
Q A (100 ) 888.6(100 )
Eff . = = = 83.0%
QM 1070.2
To simplify the thermal efficiency calculation the energy input from pump and fan are ignored
because these are relatively small and fairly constant. If this is done then:
888.6 (100 )
LHV Eff. = = 83.2%
1067

Blowdown (Unusable Energy)
Q BD = 105,000 (343.5 − 158 ) = 19.5 million Btu/hr
Loss = 19.5 (100 ) = 1.8%

1067
Heat Losses
To atmosphere = 2% given.
To blowdown = 1.8%.
Flue gas loss = 100 - 83.2 - 2 - 1.8 = 13%
Input/Output or Direct Method
The input/output or direct method is used whenever the heat absorbed by the boiler or process
heater can be measured. This is the usual method for boilers and is used for process heaters only
when there is a known amount of vaporization of the process fluid.
The energy balance on a boiler requires knowing all the rates on the boiler. Often the blowdown
(BD) rate is not measured. Sometimes the boiler feed water (BFW) rate is not measured. The
steam rate is always measured. Knowing the concentrations of one impurity in both the BFW and
the BD allows the calculation of the material and energy balances. Example Problem 2 illustrates
this calculation.
Example Problem 2
Calculate thermal efficiency of a boiler given the following data:
Steam production = 500,000 lb./hr at 434 °F and 140 psig

BFW chloride = 0.2 wppm
BD chloride = 10 wppm
Fuel fired = 673,576 ft3/hr with 1005 Btu/ ft3
Enthalpies
Enthalpy, Btu/lb
Blowdown 370 174.7 343.5 1196.4

Steam 434 154.7 -- 1237.6
Feed water 190 -- 158.0 --

Solution:
Material Balance
FBFW = Fs + FBD
C BFW FBFW = C BD + F BD
C 
F BD =  BFW FBFW =  0.2  FBFW = 0.02 FBFW
 C BD  10
FBFW = 500,000 + 0.02 FBFW
0.98 FBFW = 500 ,000
FBFW = 510 ,204 lb/hr
F BD = 0.02 FBFW = 10,204 lb/hr
Heat Absorbed, QA
Heat In 106 Btu/hr Heat Out 106 Btu/hr

BFW = 510.204 (158) = 80.6 Steam = 500,000 x 123.7.6 = 618.8
Heat Absorbed QA BD = 10,204 x 343.5 3.5
Total 80.6+ Q A Total 622.3
Heat In = Heat Out
80.6 + QA = 622.3
QA = 622.3 - 80.6 = 541.7 million Btu/hr
Heat Fired
QF = 673,756 x 1005 = 677.1 million Btu/hr
Thermal Efficiency
Q A (100 ) 541.7 (100 )
LHV Eff = = = 80.0%
QF 677.1

CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE HEAT LOSS METHOD
The heat loss method calculation is used when the heat absorbed cannot be readily calculated such
as most process heaters. The heat absorbed can be calculated by subtracting the heat losses from
the heat fired. In a boiler or process heater the primary heat loss is that lost to the stack gas. The
heat loss in the stack is a function of the stack temperature, the amount of excess air and the
carbon and hydrogen ratio in the fuel. A material and energy balance can be calculated knowing
the above parameters.
Excess Air
The amount of excess air is defined as a percentage of the air in the flue gas to the air that is
required for complete combustion. Excess air and excess oxygen are numerically equivalent
because the numerator and denominator are both multiplied by the same constant to convert from
one to the other.
Analysis from the lab will always be on a dry basis. Stack gas analyzers that sample the stack gas
will dry the stack gas before analysis. Stack gas analyzers that are in the stack measure on a wet
basis but may be calibrated to report on a dry basis.
The calculation based on a dry flue gas analysis is outlined in Figure 2 and detailed in Example
Problem 3.
Normally there is no correction for incomplete combustion shown in step 3 of Figure 2 because
the carbon monoxide (CO) concentration is usually negligible (10-50 ppm).
1. Obtain flue gas analyses CO2, CO, O2, N2.

2. From the percent N2, calculate the total O2 into the furnace.
3. Reduce the free O2 by the amount required to burn the CO to CO2.
The remaining free O2 is excess. (CO is usually negligible)
4. O2 required = (total in) less (excess)
(excess O 2 ) (excess )
5. Percent excess O 2 = x100 = x100
(required O2 ) total - excess
Figure 2. Excess Oxygen

Example Problem 3 Calculation Of Excess Oxygen
Lab Flue gas analysis: CO2 9.5

CO 1.8
O2 2.0
N2 86.7
100.0
Air composition: 21% O2, 79% N2
O 2 into furnace = 86.7 x 0.21 = 23.0 moles/100 moles flue gas

0.79
1.8 CO + 0.9 O 2 →1.8CO 2

(Note: Usually CO is in parts per million and this correction can be ignored)
Net O2 = 2.0 - 0.9 = 1.1 moles/100 moles flue gas
1.1
Percent excess O 2 = x 100 = 5.02%
(23 − 1.1)
If there were no CO in the stack gas, the above analysis would have 11.3% CO2 and the percent
excess O2 would have been:
2.0 (100 )
Percent excess O 2 = = 9.5%
(23 − 2.0 )
Figure 3 (Work Aid 3) can also be used to calculate excess air (oxygen) once the oxygen has been
adjusted for complete combustion. For 1.1% O2 Figure 3 gives an excess air of 5%. For 2.0%
O2 Figure 3 gives an excess air of 9%. This checks our previous calculations.

Figure 3. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air
Excess air and excess oxygen are numerically equal, because both numerator and denominator
are multiplied by the same constant to convert between the two. % O2 in flue gas is not %
excess O2. Considering these equal is a common error.
The following shortcut equations can also be used to estimate percent excess air. These equations
assume complete combustion and a nominal carbon to hydrogen ratio.
When the flue gas analysis is on a wet basis:
111.4 x %O 2
Excess Air =
20.95 - %O 2
where: %O2 = Percent oxygen in the flue gas.
For 2% O2 in the stack gas.
Excess Air = 111.4 x 2 = 222.8 = 11.8%

20.95 - 2 18.95
When the flue gas analysis is on a dry basis:
91.2 x %O 2
Excess Air =
20.95 - %O 2

For 2% O2 in the stack gas.
Excess Air = 91.2 x 2 = 182.4 = 9.6%

20.95 - 2 18.95
Lab analysis is always on a dry basis because the water drops out as the gas sample cools. When
the oxygen analyzer is located in the stack, the oxygen is measured on the wet basis but the
analyzer may be calibrated using lab results so that it reports on a dry basis. When the flue gas is
extracted from the stack and is transported to an analyzer that is located some distance away, the
analysis is on the dry basis.
The precise relationship between oxygen content and excess air is a function of the hydrogen-to-
carbon ratio of the fuel. However, there is very little change in this relationship over a wide range
of fuels at low excess air rates as shown in Figure 3 (Work Aid 3).
Stack (Flue Gas) Temperature
Another potential source of error in all efficiency calculations is an error in stack temperature
measurements. Ordinary stack temperature thermocouples can read low by as much as 100_F,
depending upon their location and the flue gas temperature being measured. If the thermocouple
can "see" cold surroundings, such as the top of the convection section or the sky, the indicator
will likely read low. The higher the actual stack temperature, the higher the radiation losses and
thus, the higher the error. The aspirating thermocouples shown in Figure 4 minimizes any error
due to radiation.

6 3
4
5
2 2
1
6
6
A A–A
2
1 2
2 2
A
7
1. =
Thermocouple junction.
2. =
Thermocouple wires to temperature-indicating instrument.
3. =
Outer thin-wall 310 stainless steel tube.
4. =
Middle thin-wall 310 stainless steel tube.
5. =
Center thin-wall 310 stainless steel tube.
6. =
Centering tripods.
7. =
Air or steam at 10 lb/sq in. gage or more in
increments of 10 lb/sq in. until stable.
8. = Hot gas eductor.
From Furnace Operations, Third Edition by Robert Reed. Copyright © 1981 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas.
Used with permission. All rights reserved.
Figure 4. Typical Aspirating (High Velocity) Thermocouple
Heater Efficiency Calculation
API RP 532 specifies a detailed procedure for calculating the thermal efficiency. This procedure
is long and requires an analysis of the fuel composition. This procedure is included in the
Addendum with an example problem and a blank calculation sheets.

The API RP 532 procedure is a detailed heat balance on the combustion side of the furnace to
determine the amount of heat lost up the stack.
Combustion Efficiency Charts
The API material and heat balance has been solved for a number of cases and these cases plotted
as heat available charts to simplify the calculations. These charts are attached as Work Aid 4.
Work Aid 4 has charts for 1000 Btu/ft3 gas, 1600 Btu/ft3 gas, 5° API fuel oil, 10° API fuel oil,
and 15° API fuel oil. All charts have the general relationship shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 shows
that the heat available to the process is reduced as excess air is increased and a stack gas
temperature is increased.
Useful in furnace design.

Useful in calculating furnace efficiency.
Figure 5. Combustion Heat Available to Process
Example Problem 4 illustrates the use of these charts in calculating thermal efficiency.
Example Problem 4
Process heat absorbed = QA = 353 MBtu/hr
Stack temperature = 600°F (from stack TI)
Percent excess air = 5%
Fuel = 1000 Btu/ft3 fuel gas LHV (Fuel rate not measured)
19,700 Btu/lb LHV (from refinery utilities coordinator)

From Heat Available Curve: Work Aid 4 for 1000 Btu/ft3 gas.
HA = 17,100 Btu/lb fuel at 600°F and 5% excess air
Q A 353 x 10 6 Btu/hr
Net Fuel = FN = = = 20,643 lb/hr
HA 17,100 Btu/lb
Assume furnace box losses QL are 2%. (Usually 2 - 3%)
Gross fuel = FG = 1.02 x 20,643 = 21,056 lb/hr

Heat fired = QF = 21,056 x 19,700 Btu/lb = 414.8 x 106 Btu/hr
QA 6
LHV efficiency = heat absorbed (100 ) = ( 100 ) = 353x10 6 x (100 ) = 85.1%
heat fired QF 414.8x10
Given the heat absorbed, the heat loss method will calculate the fuel consumed. If a fuel meter is
available the calculated fuel rate should be rationalized with the fuel meter readings.
If only the thermal efficiency is desired the calculation simplifies to the following:
From above we have:
HA = 17,100 Btu/lb. fuel at 600°F and 5% excess air (heat absorbed from chart)
HF = 19,700 Btu/lb. fuel (heating value of fuel for chart used)
QL = 2% (Percent heat release/lost to atmosphere)
HL = Heat loss, decimal fraction
QL 2
HL = = = 0.02
100 100
H A (100 )
LHV efficiency =
H F (1 + H L )
17,100 (100 )
=
19,700(1+ 0.02 )
17,100 (100 )
= = 85.1%
20, 094

Simplified Equation
A simplified (shortcut) equation can also be used to estimate LHV thermal efficiency. The
simplified equation assumes a nominal heating value of the fuel (carbon to hydrogen ratio).

[ ]
Percent efficiency = 100 − (0.0237 + (0.000189 )(EA )(TST − TA ))  100

 100 + Q L 
where: EA = Percent excess air.

TST = Stack temperature, °F.
TA = Ambient air temperature, °F.
QL = Casing heat loss, %.
For Example Problem 4 conditions and assuming the ambient temperature is 80°F, the furnace
efficiency calculated by the shortcut formula is as follows:
[ ]
Percent efficiency = 100 - (0.0237 + (0.000189 )( 5)(600 − 80 ))  100 
100 + 2
Percent efficiency = [100 - (0.0246 )(520 )](0.9804 ) = 85.5
This is a close check to the 85.1% calculated in Example Problem 4.
Thermal Efficiency Improvement
Example Problem 5 calculates the thermal efficiency for a forced circulation boiler and the
changes in thermal efficiency that would result from reductions in stack temperature, blowdown
rate, and excess air.
Example Problem 5
Introduction:
In this example we will perform an energy balance around a boiler system and calculate the fuel it
requires. We will also examine methods of efficiency improvement.
Directions:
Calculate the fuel and boiler feedwater required for the boiler system shown in Figure 6. How can
the furnace efficiency be improved?
• Use 2% for heat losses.
• Use 10% blowdown (BFW basis).

• For convenience, the required enthalpy data are given below:

Feed water 180 -- 148.0 --
Steam 700 600 -- 1351.8
Blowdown 492 633 478.5 1203.1
Figure 6. Steam Boiler System
Answer:
Material Balance:
Feedrate = F
Blowdown = 0.1 F
Steam product = 250,000
Material balance, F = 250,000 + 0.1 F
250, 000
Feedrate F = = 277,778 lb/hr
0.9
Blowdown 0.1 F = 27,778 lb/hr

Heat in: Feed water = 277,778 x 148 = 41.11 MBtu/hr

QA
Absorbed Heat = =
Total = 41.11 + QA
Heat out: Blowdown = 27,778 x 478.5 = 13.29 MBtu/hr

Steam = 250,000 x 1351.8 = 337.95
Total = 351.24
Heat in = Heat out 41.11 + QA = 351.24

Heat absorbed QA = 351.24 - 41.11 = 310.13 MBtu/hr
Heat loss QL = 2%
Fuel LHV LHV = 19,400 Btu/lb
Heat available HA = 16,725 Btu/lb at 600°F Stack and 20% excess air
from Work Aid 4 using 1000 Btu/ft3 gas chart.
6
Net fuel FN = 310.13 x 10 = 18,543 lb/hr
16,725
Gross fuel FG = 1.02 x 18,543 = 18,914 lb/hr

Heat fired QF = 18,914 x 19,400 = 366.93 MBtu/hr
QA 6
LHV efficiency = (100 ) = 310.13 x 10 6 x100 = 84.52%
QF 366.93 z 10
Shortcut efficiency assuming the atmospheric air temperature is 100°F:
Efficiency = [(100 -(0.0237 + (0.000189)(EA)))(TST - TA )][100/(100 + QL)]

= [(100 -(0.0237 + (0.000189)(20)))(600 - 100)][100/(100 + 2)]
= [(100 - 13.74)][0.9804] = 84.5%
To Increase Efficiency:
• Lower stack temperature.

- Add more surface to convection section and increase boiler feedwater preheat.
- Add more surface to convection section and preheat another process stream. A
50°F reduction in stack temperature would increase efficiency from 84.5% to
85.9%.

• Reduce blowdown rate.

- If boiler feedwater quality allows, the blowdown rate can be reduced.
- Reduction of blowdown from 10% to 2% would not increase the efficiency, but
would directly reduce fuel use by decreasing the process heat absorbed.
• Reduce percent excess air.

- A reduction of excess air from 20% to 10% increases efficiency from 84.5% to
85.4%. This might be accomplished by changing burners and closer control of
excess air.
As shown by the table below in Figure 7, the improvements are all of the same order of
magnitude. Which one (or all) is used depends on economics of the specific boiler under
consideration.
Lower Reduce Reduce

Case Base StackTemp. Blowdown Excess Air
Percent blowdown 10 10 2 10
Heat absorbed, MBtu/hr 310.13 310.13 302.63 310.13
Stack temperature, °F 600 550 600 600
Excess air, percent 20 20 20 10
Furnace efficiency, percent 84.52 85.91 84.52 85.40
Fuel savings, percent Base 1.62 2.42 1.04
Figure 7. Furnace Fuel Savings

Calculation for efficiency Improvement:
Case 1 2 3 4
Lower Reduce Reduce %
Base Stack Temp. Blowdown Excess Air
Heat in
277,778 x 148 = 41.11 41.11 255,102 x 148 = 37.76 41.11
Heat out
27,778 x 478.5 = 13.29 5,102 x 478.5 = 2.44
250,000 x 1,351.8 = 337.95 250,000 x 1,351.8 = 337.95
351.24 351.24 340.39 351.24
Heat absorbed 310.13 310.13 302.63 310.13

Stack 600 550 600 600
Percent excess air 20 20 20 10
Heat loss 2% 2% 2% 2%
Fuel LHV 19,400 19,400 19,400 19,400
Heat avail.* 16,725 17,000 16,725 16,900
Net fuel 18,543 18,243 18,095 18,351

Gross fuel 18,914 18,608 18,457 18,718
Heat fired 366.93 360.99 358.06 363.13
LHV, percent eff. 84.52 85.91 84.52 85.40
Fuel savings Base 1.62% 2.41% 1.04%
*Maxwell p. 185
Reduce Excess Air
All the air that enters a boiler or furnace is ultimately discharged to the atmosphere at the stack
temperature, and the energy it contains is lost. The primary objective of efficient boiler and
furnace operations is to minimize air flow beyond that required for good combustion. The air
required for combustion should enter only through the burners. The following steps can be taken
to reduce excess air:
1. Seal air leaks. This is particularly important in furnaces, which operate with a draft
(negative pressure) throughout the furnace. These furnaces are more susceptible to air
infiltration. Figure 8 shows typical sources of air leaks into a furnace.
Since most boilers operate with a positive pressure through much of the boiler, air leakage
into boilers is much less a problem.

2. Fire all burners at the same rate (close off idle burners).
3. Control furnace draft.
4. Determine excess air targets for each furnace through a series of plant tests. These targets
are the minimum excess air rates that are necessary for good combustion. Since no two
furnaces or boilers are exactly the same, there can be different targets for each boiler and
furnace in the plant.
Inlet
Construction
Joint
Clearance
Around Tube
Penetration
Poor Seal on Casing

Access Door Corrosion
Leaky Covers
on Observation
Doors
Idle
Burner
Outlet
Figure 8. Furnace Air Leaks
• Add improved combustion control systems.
- Automatic draft control on boilers and process heaters.

- Use closed loop oxygen and/or CO trim control.
• Replace oversized burners. It is difficult to operate burners efficiently at high

turndown rates.
• Use high-capacity, high-intensity, or axial flow forced-draft burners for improved, low
excess air combustion.
• Use low NOX burners for reduced emissions and low excess air.

Reduce Stack Temperature
Fouling of the convection section tubes is the primary cause of stack temperatures exceeding
design. The extent of fouling can be determined by visual inspection of the tubes or by observing
an increase in stack temperature over time. A 40°F increase in stack temperature typically
represents a loss of 1% in thermal efficiency.
Fouling can be reduced by operating sootblowers in boilers and furnaces. Sootblowers should be
provided for all boilers and furnaces where heavy liquid fuels are fired. Units without sootblowers
should be periodically cleaned during turnarounds. Fuel oil additives can be used to reduce
deposits.
Reducing the stack temperature of a furnace or boiler that is operating satisfactorily usually
requires the addition of heat transfer surface. The following are means of reducing stack
temperature:
• Add heat transfer surface in convection section of process heaters.
• Add economizers on boilers to preheat the boiler feedwater before entering the steam
drum.
• Add combustion air preheaters. Air preheaters can transfer heat from the flue gas
leaving the stack, to the air used for combustion. Depending upon the flue gas
temperature, the incoming air can be heated several hundred °F. The flue gas
temperature should be kept above about 300°F to prevent corrosion of the heat
exchanger due to sulfuric acid in the flue gas.
Reduce Other Losses
Although less important than excess air and stack temperature, several other parameters listed
below can improve boiler and process heater efficiency:
• Boiler blowdown should be controlled to the rate needed to maintain boiler drum
water impurities at the specified concentration. Excess blowdown wastes heat and
water. Heat can be recovered from the blowdown stream.
• Insulation should be maintained or improved to reduce heat losses.
• Steam leaks should be repaired.

EFFECTS OF FIRING RATE ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY
As the firing rate is increased the loss to the stack increases primarily because the heat transfer
area is fixed. The increase in heat loss is not necessarily proportional to the increase in firing rate.
Increased loss will reduce thermal efficiency. Similarly a decrease in firing will slightly improve
thermal efficiency. At very low firing rates the heat losses to the atmosphere become significant
and the thermal efficiency may decrease.
Over firing a boiler or a process heater will reduce thermal efficiency.

WORK AID 1: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING

INPUT/OUTPUT METHOD
This Work Aid is to assist in Exercise 1.
Step 1. Calculate heat absorbed (QA) by a heat balance.
Step 2. Calculate heat released from fuel combustion (QF) by using the fuel rate and the heat
of combustion.
Step 3. Calculate thermal efficiency
QA
Eff . =
QF
(100 )

WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING

HEAT LOSS METHOD
Work Aid 2A: Excess Air and Thermal Efficiency Using Short Cut Equations
Excess Air, EA
Dry Basis, O2 in stack gas
91.2 x % O 2
Excess Air =
20.95 -% O 2
Wet Basis, O2 in stack gas
111.4 x % O 2
Excess Air =
20.95 -% O 2
Thermal Efficiency
 100 
[
LHV efficiency = 100 − (0.0237 + (0.000189 )(EA )(T ST − T A ))  ]
 100 + Q L 
Work Aid 2B: Procedures for Calculating Furnace Efficiency by Heat Loss Method
This Work Aid will assist the Participant in Exercise 2B: Calculate Furnace Efficiency using
Heat Loss Method.
To determine a furnace thermal efficiency, follow the steps listed below:
Step 1: Calculate oxygen to furnace, using the formula:

 moles N 2   moles O 2 
 100 moles flue gas   100 moles of air 
O 2 to furnace/100 moles flue gas =
 moles N 2 
 100 moles of air 
 moles N 2 
(21)
 100 moles flue gas 
=
79
Step 2: Calculate percent excess oxygen (air), using the formula:
 moles O 2 from furace 

(100 )
 100 moles flue gas 
Percent excess O 2 =
 moles O 2 to furnace   moles O 2 from furace 
−
 100 moles flue gas   100 moles flue gas 
Percent excess O2 = percent excess air.
Step 3: Determine heat available (HA) per lb of fuel from Work Aid 4.
Step 4: Calculate net fuel fired, FN (If fuel consumption desired):

Q
FN = A
HA
Step 5: Calculate gross fuel fired, FG (If fuel consumption desired):
QL
HL = where Q L = % heat loss
100
FG = (FN )(1 + H L )
Step 6: Calculate heat fired, QF, Btu/hr (If fuel consumption desired):.
QF = (FG) (LHV fuel)
Step 7: Calculate furnace efficiency:
Q A (100 ) HA
% efficiency = =
QF (LHV fuel ) (1+ H L )
LHV fuel from combustion efficiency chart.

WORK AID 3: FLUE GAS OXYGEN (DRY BASIS) VERSUS EXCESS AIR
Figure 9. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air

WORK AID 4: HEAT ABSORBED CHARTS
Source: Maxwell, Data Book on Hydrocarbon, page 184.
Figure 10. Heat Available from the Combustion of 1000 Btu/ft3 Refinery Gas

Figure 11. Heat Available from the Combustion of 1600 Btu/ft3 Refinery Gas

Figure 12. Heat Available from the Combustion of 5° API Fuel Oil



GLOSSARY
blowdown Water removed from the boiler to control the level of dissolved
impurities in the boiler water.
economizer A device for transferring heat from the flue gas to the boiler
feedwater (BFW) before the BFW enters the boiler drum.
excess air The percentage of air in excess of the stoichiometric amount

required for combustion.
flue gas Gaseous products from the combustion of fuel.
higher heating value The amount of heat released during complete combustion of fuel
(HHV) when the water formed is considered as a liquid (credit is taken for
its heat of condensation.) Also called gross heating value.
lower heating value The amount of heat released during complete combustion of fuel
(LHV) when no credit is taken for heat of condensation of water in the flue
gas. Also called net heating value.
radiation heat loss A defined percentage of the net heat of combustion of the fuel to
account for heat losses through the boiler or furnace walls to the
atmosphere.
stack heat loss The total sensible heat of the flue gas components, at the
temperature of flue gas, when it leaves the last heat exchange
surface.
stack temperature The temperature of the flue gas when it leaves the last heat
exchange surface
thermal efficiency The total heat absorbed divided by the total heat input. Usually
expressed in percent.
total heat absorbed The total heat input minus the total heat losses.
total heat losses The sum of the radiation heat loss and the stack heat loss.

REFERENCE
SAES-F-001 Process Fired Heaters
API-RP-532 Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process heaters

(RP = Recommended Practice)

ADDENDUM: API - RP - 532 PROCEDURE
The API RP 532 procedure is a detailed version of the stack loss method. In addition to the data
required by the Simple Efficiency Equation, an analysis of the fuel composition is required.
All sources of heat inputs and losses need to be included to make a precise efficiency calculation.
These sources are illustrated in Figure 1A. This calculation requires the following additional data.
• Relative humidity of the air.
• Temperature and specific heat of the fuel.
• Temperature and rate of atomizing steam when liquid fuel is fired.
If not known, it is usually satisfactory to estimate these data, based on typical local conditions.
Source: API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process Heaters, 1st
Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Figure 1A. Typical Heater Arrangement

The work sheets required for the RP 532 procedure are attached. An example of how it is used
to calculate the efficiency of a gas-fired furnace is attached.
This procedure consists of the following steps:
1. Using the Lower Heating Value Work Sheet, determine the lower heating value of liquid
fuel (if required). If the fuel is gas, or if typical liquid fuel properties are known, it is not
necessary to complete this work sheet.
2. Using the Combustion Work Sheet, determine flue gas properties for stoichiometric
combustion conditions.
3. Using the Excess Air and Relative Humidity Work Sheet, determine the amount of water
vapor in the flue gas. The vapor pressure of water at the ambient temperature can be
determined from steam tables on Figure 2A.
4. Using the Stack Loss Work Sheet, determine the stack heat losses. The enthalpy of the flue
gas components can be determined from Figures 3A and 4A.
5. The thermal efficiency can then be determined by the following equation:
100( Q s Q r )
e = 100 -
LHV + H a + H f + H m (Eqn. 4 )
where: Cp = Specific heat, Btu/lb-_F.

e = Net thermal efficiency, % (LHV).
Ha = Air sensible heat correction, Btu/lb of fuel.
= Cp(air)(Ta - Td)(pounds of air per pound of fuel).
LHV = Lower heating value of the fuel, Btu/lb of fuel.
Hf = Fuel sensible heat correction, Btu/lb of fuel.
= Cp(fuel)(Tf - Td).
hs = Enthalpy of atomizing steam, Btu/lb.
Hm = Atomizing medium (usually steam) sensible heat correction,
Btu/lb of fuel.
= Cp(medium)(Tm - Td)(pounds of medium per pound of
fuel).
If steam, Hm = (Enthalpy difference)(lb of steam/lb of fuel).
= (hs - 1087.7)(lb of steam/lb of fuel).

Qr = Radiation heat losses, Btu/lb of fuel.

Qs = Calculated stack heat losses (from Stack Loss Work Sheet),
Btu/lb of fuel.
Ta = Ambient air temperature, _F.
Td = Reference (or datum) temperature, _F.
= 60_F (usually).
Tf = Temperature of fuel, _F.
Tm = Temperature of atomizing medium, _F.
6. The gross thermal efficiency can be determined by the following equation:
100 (Q s + latent heat )

e gross = 100 −
HHV + H a + H f + H m
where: egross = Gross thermal efficiency, % (HHV).

Latent heat = (H2O formed by combustion of fuel) x1059.7.
7. The firing rate can be calculated, based on the heat absorbed in the boiler or furnace, as
follows:
Qa
Qf =
e/100 (Eqn. 6 )
where: Qf = Heat fired, MBtu/hr (LHV).

Qa = Heat absorbed, MBtu/hr.
e = Net thermal efficiency, %.
This procedure calculates the efficiency of boilers by both the Input/Output and Stack Loss
methods. It uses the HHV of the fuel and can be used for coal-fired boilers, as well as gas- and
oil-fired units. The forms for this procedure are attached. Line items on these forms that do not
apply to Saudi Aramco boilers have been crossed out.
Sample Calculation - RP 532 Procedure
The following sample calculation illustrates the use of the RP 532 calculation procedure to
determine thermal efficiency. (Based on Par. 3.2.2 of RP 532.)

Source: Data taken from Steam Tables
Figure 2A. Vapor Pressure of Water

Figure 3A. Enthalpy of Flue Gas Components

Figure 4A. Enthalpy of Flue Gas Components

Sample Problem:
Given:
Stack temperature TST = 300 _F

Air temperature Ta = 28 _F
Specific heat of air Cp(air) = 0.24 Btu/lb- _F
Relative humidity = 50 %
Oxygen content of flue gas = 3.5 % (wet basis)
Radiation losses Qr = 2.5 % of lower heating value of fuel
Fuel temperature Tf = 100_F
Fuel specific heat Cp(fuel) = 0.525 Btu/lb- _F
Fuel composition:
Methane = 75.41 vol. %

Ethane = 2.33
Ethylene = 5.08
Propane = 1.54
Propylene = 1.86
Nitrogen = 9.96
Hydrogen = 3.82
Solution:
1. Complete the following work sheets attached (completed copies attached).
Combustion Work Sheet.

Excess Air and Relative Humidity Work Sheet.
Stack Loss Work Sheet.
2. Determine Net Thermal Efficiency, as follows:
From Combustion Work Sheet, LHV = 18,120 Btu/lb

Radiation Loss Qr = 18,120 x 0.025
= 453.0 Btu/lb of fuel
From Stack Loss Work Sheet, Qs = 1162.1 Btu/lb of fuel
Data extracted from API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process
Heaters, 1st Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.

Sensible heat corrections:
Pounds of air/pound of fuel is obtained by adding the total from column 7 of the Combustion
Work Sheet with the pounds of dry excess air per pound of fuel from the Excess Air and Relative
Humidity Work Sheet.
Air: Ha = p(air) (Ta - Td)(pounds of air/pound of fuel)

= 0.24 (28 - 60)(14.322 + 3.191)
= -134.5 Btu/lb of fuel
Fuel: Hf = p(fuel) (Tf - Td)
= 0.525 (100 - 60)
Atomizing medium Hm = 0 (no atomizing steam required)
Using Eqn. 4:
100 (Q s + Q r )
e = 100 −
LHV + H a + H f + H m
100 (1162.1+ 453.0 )

e = 100 − = 91.03 % (LHV )
(18120 − 134.5 + 210 )
3. Determine Gross thermal efficiency, as follows:
From Combustion Work Sheet, H2O formed = 1.784 lb/lb of fuel.
Latent heat = H2O formed x 1059.7

= 1.784 x 1059.7
HHV = LHV + latent heat

= 18120 + 1890.5 = 20010 Btu/lb.
Using Eqn. 5:
100( Q s + Q r + latent heat)
e gross = 100 −
100(1062.1+ 453.0 + 1890.5 )

e gross = 100 − = 82.83% (HHV )
20010 -134.5 + 21.0
Data extracted from API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process
Heaters, 1st Edition, August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.

Figure 5A. Combustion Work Sheet




Calculate the thermal efficiency of a boiler or furnace, using the Stack Loss Method. Attached
are calculation sheets you may require.
1. Determine Net Thermal Efficiency.
LHV = ________________Btu/lb
Radiation Loss Qr = LHV x %Qr/100
= (_______)(_______) = __________ Btu/lb of fuel
Qs = _________Btu/lb of fuel
Air required = ____________(lb of air/lb of fuel)
Excess air = ____________(lb of air/lb of fuel)
Total air rate = ____________(lb of air/lb of fuel)
Sensible heat corrections:
Air: Ha = Cp(air) (Ta - Td)(total lb of air/lb of fuel)
= ___________(________ - 60)(___________)
= ___________Btu/lb of fuel
Fuel: Hf = Cp(fuel) (Tf - Td)
= ___________(___________ - 60)
Atomizing medium Hm = Cp(medium) (Tm - Td)(lb of medium/lb of fuel)
If steam is used: Hm = (Enthalpy difference)(lb of steam/lb of fuel)
= (hs - 1087.7)(lb of steam/lb of fuel)

Atomizing steam temperature = ____________F
Steam enthalpy hs = ___________Btu/lb
Hm = (__________ - 1087.7)(___________)

Thermal efficiency
100 (Q s + Q r )
e = 100 −
LHV + H a + H f + H m
100 ( + )
= 100 −
( + + + )
e= % (LHV )
2. H2O formed = ___________lb/lb of fuel
Latent heat = H2O formed x 1059.7
= (_________) x 1059.7
= __________Btu/lb of fuel
HHV = LHV + latent heat
= (_________) + (_________) = ____________Btu/lb
100 Q s + Q r latent heat

e gross = 100 −
= 100 - 100 ( + + )
(_______ + ______ + ______ + ______)
egross = ___________% (HHV)

Source: API Recommended Practice 532, Measurement of the Thermal Efficiency of Fired Process Heaters, 1st Edition,
August 1982. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Figure 5A. Combustion Work Sheet, Cont’d




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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Calculating Boiler And

Chapter : Vessels For additional information on this subject, contact

CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE INPUT/OUTPUT OR

WORK AID 1: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY

WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY

WORK AID 4: HEAT ABSORBED CHARTS...................................................................25

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

ADDENDUM: API - RP - 532 PROCEDURE ...................................................................32

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Table of Figures Pages

Figure 1. Steam Boiler System.................................................................................. 2

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE INPUT/OUTPUT OR DIRECT

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Figure 1 is a schematic of a forced recirculation steam boiler system.

Figure 1. Steam Boiler System

Steam Boiler System:

Heat Balance: Water side/Process

Heat In: Feedwater = 910,000 lb/hr x 158 = 143.78 MBtu/hr (M = million)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

Heat Out: Steam = 805,000 x 1,237.6 = 996.27

Heat In = Heat Out

Fuel Heat Input

QP = 55,000 x 19,400 = 1067 million Btu/HR.

(gpm )(∆P ) (12000 )(108 )

HPp = 1079 x 2544 = 2.7 million Btu/hr

HPF = 200 x 2544 = 0.5 million Btu/hr

Total Energy Input

Q in = 1067 + 2.7 + 0.5 = 1070.2

Total Energy Efficiency

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Blowdown (Unusable Energy)

Q BD = 105,000 (343.5 − 158 ) = 19.5 million Btu/hr

Loss = 19.5 (100 ) = 1.8%

Input/Output or Direct Method

Calculate thermal efficiency of a boiler given the following data:

Steam production = 500,000 lb./hr at 434 °F and 140 psig

Blowdown 370 174.7 343.5 1196.4

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

FBFW = 500,000 + 0.02 FBFW

0.98 FBFW = 500 ,000

FBFW = 510 ,204 lb/hr

F BD = 0.02 FBFW = 10,204 lb/hr

Heat In 106 Btu/hr Heat Out 106 Btu/hr

QF = 673,756 x 1005 = 677.1 million Btu/hr

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

CALCULATING THERMAL EFFICIENCY USING THE HEAT LOSS METHOD

1. Obtain flue gas analyses CO2, CO, O2, N2.

Figure 2. Excess Oxygen

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Example Problem 3 Calculation Of Excess Oxygen

Lab Flue gas analysis: CO2 9.5

O 2 into furnace = 86.7 x 0.21 = 23.0 moles/100 moles flue gas

1.8 CO + 0.9 O 2 →1.8CO 2

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Figure 3. Flue Gas Oxygen Versus Excess Air

When the flue gas analysis is on a wet basis:

where: %O2 = Percent oxygen in the flue gas.

For 2% O2 in the stack gas.

Excess Air = 111.4 x 2 = 222.8 = 11.8%

When the flue gas analysis is on a dry basis:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8