scientific notation significant figures Metric System English System can be (__eccurste ) ( precise ) (reaiy meoured ( derived } T T such as such as weight -acceleration due mass to gravity gives volume length specific temy 28 Exploring Life Through Science—General Chemisty, 1 Y Scanned with CamScannerLesson 2.1 Accuracy and Precision Main as EEQ:How do accuracy and precision relate to reporting inform« IdeatMeasurements may be described accurate and/or pi The three components of a measured value are the numerical quantity, the unit, and the name of the substance or material; each of which should always be included when data are recorded to avoid errors in the results, It is always importance, especially in experimen- tations, that measurements and computed values be exact and reproducible. At times, several measurements are taken to verify the correctness and acceptability of the first obtained value. Words commonly used to describe the soundness of measurements are “accurate” and “precise.” Accuracy indicates how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value. Precision refers to the closeness of measurements within a set of data, To assess precision in a data set, several trials are made especially during experimentation. The obtained data should be close to each other regardless of the crue value for the set of data to be considered precise. Figure 2-1 shows differen sets of darts with varying degrees of precision and accuracy. In figure 2-I(a), the closeness of the darts to the bull’s eye (considered the “true” value) shows a high degree of accuracy, and the closeness of the darts to each other indicates a high degree of precision. In figure 2-1(b), the closeness of the darts to each other shows a high degree of precision, but the shots are inaccurate because the darts landed far from the bull’s eye. The darts in figure 2-1(c), which landed far from each other and from the bull's eye, show poor precision as well as poor accuracy. During experimentations, all measured and calcu- lated values should ideally be precise and accurate, GH wi is the difference between precision and accuracy? VA use etd Quality control (QC) chemists are those who ensure that a company’s products meet all their specifications. They set up, troubleshoot, and maintain the laboratory instruments in good working condition. QC chemists also prepare samples while following specific protocols, and conduct analytical tests on raw materials, in-process samples, and finished products. They make sure that all their data are reported timely and accurately, 000 Fig. 2-1Dort analogy: (a) good accuracy and ‘g00d precision, (b) poor accuracy but good precision, (© poor accuracy and poor precision Chapter 2 Size and Scale 29 Scanned with CamScannerMain Idea: ts are me measurements oe ee expressed in scientific notation, co EQ: When is the scientific nota! to use? | | | | Scientific Notation ion advantageous cher periodicals for other Scientists communicat i in j Is and ot re the ul lings in journal ‘ Se ee ey ail report daca chae are either too people to see, analyze, and interpret. Almost always, they will have 60 small (like the size of a cell) or too large (like the distance between planets) to and aesthetically using only the traditional decimal system. be written conveniently Scientific notation is a simple way to write and keep track of vel without having to deal with a lot of zeros. It provides a convenient way o calculations. This convention is exemplified in the following examples: ry large of very small numbers f recording results and doing 100 = (10)(10) = 110° — one hundred 1000 = (1010)(10) = 110° — one thousand a 1 100 (10x10) eeeereeecl 1000 @ox10,10) =1x107? + one-hundredth 1x107* — one-thousandth In writing a number in scientific notation, the decimal poine in the original number is moved £0 the right of left so that only one nonzero digit is located atthe left of the decimal point. This gives a camber from 1 to less than 10. Then, this number is shown as being multiplied by 10 raised co a power that is equal to the number of places the decimal point was moved. Below are the specific guidelines for expressing measurements in scientifi¢ noration. «© For numbers larger than 10, the decimal point must be moved to the lefe, and the exponent that ‘will be used in the notation is a positive number. Numbers without a decimal point is understood to have a point after its last digit. Example: 602200 = 6.02210" «For numbers smaller than 1, the decimal poine must be moved to the right. be used is a negative number. ight, and the exponent t0 1.4x107 Example: 0.00000014 30 Exploring life Through Science—General Chemisty | Scanned with CamScannerMathematical Operations Involving Exponential Numbers Jn chemistry and in other fields of study, numbers that are very small or very large are converted to scientific notation before any mathematical operation is catried out. Before adding or subtracting numbers, they are first expressed in scientific notation such that the exponent of 10 on both numbers are the same. The numbers are then added or subtracted, and the exponent is retained, ; In multiplication, the numerical parts are simply multiplied and the exponents are added. In division, the numerical parts are divided and the exponents are subtracted algebraically. ————— Perform the indicated mathematical operations. 1. (14x10")+(2.30x10') 3. (4x10"')x(2x107) 2. (130x10")—(9.6x107) 4, (6x10)+(3x10*) Solution: ay 14x10 3. (4x2)x(10™ x10) = 8x10" +23.0x10° =8x10* 24.4x10* = 2.44x10° 4. (6+3)x(10* +10) = 2x10"? = 2x10? 2 130x107" 0.96x1 0.34x10 —p> Perform the indicated mathematical operations. L (s'41x10°) (5.9107) pgayh 3. (2.02x10°)x(3.20x107) 6. & 2 (3.15x10-4) +(8.11x10) 1.19! 4, Chapter 2 Size and Scale 31 Scanned with CamScannersecond power (oF squa To raise a number written in exponential form co a power, such ay oS " or the third power (or cubed), the exponent is multiplied by tH PONT For example ‘The mth root of a number can be written as the number raised to che i Vx =x? Vrax’, Asa general rule in taking any root of an exponential number, che that root. This means that in taking the square root of a number, the expor in taking the fourth root, the exponent must be divisible by 4; and so on. ==> Solve the given problems. 1. (3x10*) 3. V4x108 nao 2. (2x10) 4, Yaxi0° exponent must be divisible nent must be divisible by 2 Solution: 1. x10") =(3)'x(10*) = 9x10" (2x107)' =(2)' x(107)’ =sx10-® 3. V4x10* = 4x08) ¥ 4, Yax10% =(8x10°)” === >_—________ Solve the given problems. 1. (s.00x10°)) (e257 3. 25x10" ‘ 4. Vi6xio® Y po™ N = 2x10 =2x10" % =2x10% =2x10" 2, (6.0010 ay 32 Exploring Life Through Scienco—General Chemistry 1 Scanned with CamScannerLesson 2.3 Significant Figures and Rounding Off Numbers Main Idea: Measurements should be reported in correct number of significant figures. EQ: Why is the use of significant figures in measurements important? Three kinds of numbers are encountered in chemistry and in everyday life—counted, defined, and measured. Counted items are expressed as exact whole numbers (e.g., 5 test cubes, 12 books). Defined relations are exact numbers but are not always whole numbers. These numbers come from definition. For example, there are exactly 12 inches per foot, or there are 2.54 centimeters in ‘one inch. Measured mumbers, on che other hand, are those that are obtained from reading measuring devices; these numbers are never exact. All the digits that are part ofa measurement are considered significant figures or significant digits. number of significant figures = all certain digits + one uncertain digit The number of significant figures in a measurement is equal to the number of digits with high certainty plus the first uncertain digit in the measurement. For example, 3.274 has four significant figures—3, 2, and 7 have high certainty, while 4 is an approximation. The number of significant figures of a measurement increases as the sensitivity of the equipment used is improved. The uncertainty of an equipment is expressed as a value, A top-loading balance has an uncertainty of +£0.01 g. Fig. 2-2. The increments of the cylinder is postage scale: 241g 1 significant figure ‘0.1 mL. The reading 6.2 mL i certain, Since the liquids cbove the 6:2 mi line, nother top-loading balance: 1.54+0.01g 3 significant figures digit may be approximated to give 623 mL. analytical balance: 1.54140.001g 4 significance figures hich has three significant figures. Determining Significant Figures The following are the rules for determining che number of significant figures of a measurement. 1. Every nonzero digit in a reported measurement is significant. Examples: 791.22 m has five significant digits. 553 cm has three significant digits. Lefemost zeros before the first nonzero digit are not significant; they only act as placeholders t0 show the position of the decimal point. Examples: 0.089 g has two significant digits. 0.0009 g has one significant digit. Chapter 2 Size and Scale 33 Scanned with CamScannerZeros in between nonzero digits are significant. Examples; 0.005005 m has four significant digits. 46 073 m has five significant digits. 3 nificant: Zeros to the right of a nonzeto digit and to the right of the decimal point are $18 Examples: 36,00 m has four significant digits, 0.350 s has three significant digits. 310.009 mL has six significant digits. . d‘decimal pote Zeros at the rightmost end of a measurement chat lie co the lefe of an “underscooe eT Po are not significant if they serve as placeholders. If such zeros were known measuifec V! Tit Tt they would be significant. These values can be clarified as significant if they are j scientific notation. Examples: 80000 m has one significant digic. 43 320 m has four significant digits. 1000 m = 1.000 10° m has four significant digits. Sample Problems 2.3 How many significant digits do the given measurements have? 1. 2h 3. 5.4x10¢ m ewo significant figures 5.400x10'm four significant figures 0.0540 m three significant figures —==p>_$_______ How many significant figures do the given mass measurements have? Le yaye 40.5 & 40.500 g 0.045 g 45000 g 458 34 Exploring Life Through Science—General Chemistry 1 Scanned with CamScannerSignificant Figures in Mathematical Operations ‘The answer to an addition or subtraction problem should not have more decimal places chan the accurate measurement. In other words, the number with the least number of decimal places wil. least at measurements should be expressed in the dictate the number of decimal places in the answer. Note th same units before adding or subtracting them. In multiplying or dividing measurements, the answer should not have more signi than the measurement having the fewest significant digits. ficant digits Solve the given problems. Express the final answer in the correct number of significanc digits. 1. (14.7 g)+(2.028 g) 2. (57.14 m)—(29.5 m) 3. (1008.67 km)+(52.83 L) 4, (65.02 em)x(3.87 cm)x(0.250 cm) Solution: L 14.7 g (1 decimal place) + 2.028 g (3 decimal places) 16.728 g ‘The answer is rounded off to 16.7 g because the least number of decimal places is one, which isin 14.7 g 2 57.14m (2 decimal places) = 29.5 _m (1 decimal place) 27.64 m ‘The answer is rounded off to 27.6 m, following the number of decimal places in 29.5 m. 3. (1008.67 km) + (52.83 L) = 19.09275 km/L “The answer is rounded off to four significanc digits. Thus, che answer is 19.09 km/L. 4, (65.02 em) (3.87 cm) (0.250 em) = 62.90685 cm* “The answer is rounded off to three significane digits. Thus, the answer is 62.9 cm’. Chapter 2 Size and Scale 35 Scanned with CamScannerdigits. 4 of signi jcant dig} Solve the given problems. Express the final answer in the correct number of sig) 1. (11.48m)=(27.1em) (75°! 3. (10.40 m)x(2.83 m) 2, (5.133 m)+(184.0 cm) +(5.6em) 4, (3.19.8)+ 10.158 mL) og.) if Rules in Rounding Off Numbers the answer should have, In rounding off numbers, decide first as to how many significane digits § i to obtain the This will depend on the given measurements and on the mathematical operations am oe pratt le answer. Then, round off to the required number of digits, counting from the left. er following the digits to be kept for the answer is less than 5, the digits are writ For example, 3.084 rounded off to three digits is 3.08. If the number following the digits to be kept for the answer is 5 or greater, As an example, 4.899582 rounded off to four digits is 4.900. eo Round off 9.256 to three and two significant digits. Main Ideas The metric system is often used for expressing measures of length, volume, and mass. ten and reported ass, add 1 to the digit kept. Lesson 2.4 Units of Measurement EQ: Which system of measurement is easy to use cand why? Measurements are commonly expressed using two systems of units—the International System i st and the English System. . International System and English System : ly used in science than the Engli ‘The metric system is more commonly ence than the English 5 System of Units (3 units), which evolved from ehe metric system, provides additional ciate Talented! units of measurement. [ts features include decimalization and the use of prefiges Hand more accurate 36 Exploring Life Through Science—General Chemistry 1 Scanned with CamScanner‘The International System has base units from which Table 2: all other units in the system are derived. ‘The standards Geils eu for the base units, except for the kilogram, are defined by Quantity Unit | Symbol unchanging and reproducible physical occurrences, For h ne example, meter, the base unit for distance, is defined as the Leng r ki distance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299792.458 of Mass Kilogram | __kg a second. The standard for the kilogram is the platinum- Time Second s iridium cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights = and Standards in Sevres, France. Electric current_| Ampere | A The English system, which is still widely used in the Temperature Kelvin K United States, includes ounce (02), pound (1b), inch (in), [Amount of matter | Mole mol mile (mi), and quart (qt). The equivalence between some eee a 4 units of metric and English systems are listed in table 2-2. [Luminous intensity | Candela | _« acl (ap te Deare uG sur ieiseii tei es Quantity | Metric English Conversion Mass akg | bboz Vin = 2.54em Julian Bonzon, PhD is a biophysical 2 n chemist who hos done numerous research ah 1 nm 39.37 in con local materials. His work on the pro- iegthy fenton | site 1 ft=12in duction of ethyl esters from sugarcane and a mi, A 1 mi = 1.609 km coconut was the first study on fuels from 1 km = 0.62137 mi these crops. Dr. Banzon also devised some aaa novel processes, including the extraction of residual coconut oil by chemical means, eee rather than through physical processes. Among his awards and citations are the VL = 1.057 at Distinguished Service Award from ihe qt pints, VL = 2.12 pints at of the Philippines, Inc 1L= 42 kee er Yor ‘Award from Volume | ml,L ee ' t ee ee jlation Commission q . teeta TISUGIN Aword for floz, gal | 1 tbsp = 14.79 ml Research from the Crop Sociely of the Vfloz = 29.6 ml. Philippines (1976). 1 gal = 3.79 L Chapter 2 Size and Scole 37 Scanned with CamScannerPrefixes Used with SI Units In the International System, a multiple of a ‘The prefixes change the magnitude of the unit by orders of ten fr (eats arsine MUL Mc Table 2-3 unit is formed by adding a prefix co the base unit, 0" as listed in table 2.3, from 10'* co 1 From Picometers to Terameters ides convenien Symbol Multiplying Factor 18 The metric 5) tem Pe exo- E | 1000000000000000000 = 10' umits from the smalfes tothe largest measure We go to the micro level (10° m) and we ar pee P | 1000000000000 = 10" wie oe into the invisible world of the fn Blood cells that ci ulate our ee hav = 10" dimensions (7.5 um). Next, is the non tera- T | 1000000000000 =10 these ding on eS we 2 ey via them measure 10 nm across. gige- | G __ | 1000000000 =10° Fete pce level (10° m), where we find toms. The aluminum atom in a can of so mega- | M_— | 1000000 = 10° oreasures 125 pm in diameter! a Going to greater distances—one a kilo- k 1000 =10 (10° m) from the surface of Earth, we co sill see cars and buildings. IF weg higher S =10° megameter (10°), we are in the outer space hectos | oh [1 Thesize of planels can be expressed in ler =10 of the megameter scale. For instance, o¥ dec | do [10 planet has a diameter of about 6 Mm. Th 107 distance of adjacent planets from each othe deci- d 0.1 = ‘are in the gigameter (10°) scale. For example 7" Venus is 32 Gm away from Earth. Finaly i= < | 001 =10 when we measure the distance from Eo eS to farther planets like Saturn, we are now : 0.001 =10° the terameter (10") scale. Saturn lies abou milli uy . 1.2 Tm from Earth. 10% pean = 0.07 10" Ig micro- pn | 0.000001 do = 3476.2 km a nano- n 0,000000001 =10 000001 =107 pies: p _ | 0.000000 5 oo0000000001 = 10 fomnic: : ised rs Ie = 597 10g atto- | 0.000000000000000001 = 10 Ss 756.2 km 38 — Exploring Life Through Sciencs e—General Chemistry 1 Scanned with CamScannerChanging Units of Measurements Solving a mathematical problem or converting a measurement from one unit to another can be easily dane using dimensional analysis the factor units method. ‘This method helps identify errors in faleulation because unwanted units are not eliminaced if the secup of the mathematical solution is incorrect. ‘The basic steps for solving mathematical problems involv the following: 1. Read and study the problem to determine what is o be solved for. > denefy and tabulate the data given in che problem. Include the necessary representarions of the data and the units of measurements. ing changing units of measurement are 3, Determine the unit relationships and conversion factors needed to solve the problem. 4, Set up the solution/equation neatly and logically, making sure chat unwanted units cancel. Remember that similar units cancel through division. 5. Perform the necessary mathematical operations. Make sure that che answer contains the correct number of significant figures. 6. Check if the answer is reasonable. 1. Calculate the number of centimeters in 53.5 inches. Given: Measurement in inches (53.5 in) Required: Measurement expressed in centimeters Solution: From table 2-2, 1 in = 2.54 cm. 2. How many feet are there in 21.7 km? Given: Measurement in kilometers (21.7 km) Required: Measurement expressed in feet Solution: From tables 2-2 and 2-3, 1 km = 1000 m, | m = 39.37 in, 1 ft = 12 in. Lfe : —S = 7.1210" fe 12 jf Chapter 2 Size and Scale 39 Scanned with CamScanner3. How many seconds are there in 2.00 weeks? Given: Number of weeks (2.00 wk) Required: Measure of time expressed in seconds Solution: Lwk = 7 days, 1 day = 24 he, 1 he = 60 min, 7 def 24 ne Omni 608 2.00 wk x > x SS x x a = Tw “I gag Lie Lie number of significant figures in th Exact numbers are not considered when determining the tt : final answer. Since 7, 24, and 60 are exact numbers, the umber of significanc figures allowed in the answer is three, based on the number 2.00 (given). =p Calculate the number of meters in 3.000 miles. How many cups are there in 1.00 gallon of ice cream? Carla weighs 114.4 pounds. What is her mass in kilograms? What is the speed of an aucomobile in kilometers per second if ic travels at 30 miles per hour? 1 min = 605 .21x10°S II a 15.8 gallon tank with gasoline at 40.50 per liter? yay How much will it cost to fi ee tecl berate \ Units ore very important; they ean cause hazards or fatality in some inston : | « Cancdlion[elliner almost ran out oF fel when the ful pumped ir ntonces For example, in 1783 needed 22300 kilograms. pounds instead of the | Units can also help us keep track of many aspects of our life. I = In toking medicines, for instance, we | eed fo know how much @ particular expression ofa unit represents to In commerce, goods should be sold at the correct prices to aren or underdosage. development, and this will never be posible if consumers and distributors do nore, growth and sustain ‘Gn the units of currency, mass, or volume, among others. These and many oth not have basic knowled apaet of mastery of the units ond ther expressions, ny other situatior ns emphasize the — | —___—___—- Ee el | | 40 Exploring life Through Science—General Chemistry 1 Scanned with CamScannerMain Idea: Knowing the correct way to measure and derive data minimizes errors in experimental results. Lesson 2.5 Measurements and Sources of Errors EQ: Why is it difficult to obtain accurate results during experimentation? The most common measurements obtained during experimentation are mass, volume, density, and temperature. Mass and Weight Mass and weight are often used interchangeably, but the two terms have different meanings. ‘Mass is defined as the amount of matter in an object. The mass of an object is a fixed quantity that is independent of the object’s location. Weight, in contrast, is the pull of gravity on an object and depends on the object's location. For example, an object with mass m has a weight of «, on Earth. On the moon, it will have the same mass but a different weight w» because the pull of gravity on the moon is different from that on Earth. Two objects of equal masses will have equal weights if they are measured in the same place. & 4 RRR arr (o) tb) ta Fig. 2-3. Instruments for measuring mass of substances (c) analytical balance, (b) top-looding balance, ‘and (¢) triple beam balance ‘The mass of an object is measured using weighing, different certainties. The triple beam balance is a loading balance is accurate to two decimal pla Places, lances, which may be of differene types with urate to one decimal place in grams, while the top- he analytical balance is accurate co three decimal Chapter 2 Size and Scale 41 Scanned with CamScannerVolume Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. One of the laboratory wares commonly used to measure the volume of a liquid is the graduated cylinder. The interface of a liquid in any glass container is usually curved, a phenomenon that results from the difference in the attractive forces between the liquid and the glass. This curvature is called meniscus and is carefully observed to obtain a liquid’s volume wih minimal error. If the liquid is light-colored or is colorless like water, the volume must be read from the lowest point of the concave meniscus at 20 eye level, as figure 2-4 shows. For convex meniscus produced by Fig. 2-4 Reading the volume of a colories few substances like mercury, the volume is read from the top of or light-colored liquid the meniscus. For a regularly shaped solid, such as a cube, the volume is obtained by multiplying the solid’s length (/), width (w), and . height (J). In equation, “ 2 oo Soo V=IxwXxh. z Z 002 402 If the solid is irregularly shaped, like a small stone, the zi Z volume can be measured through water displacement method. The we 2002 object is totally submerged in water in a graduated cylinder or Zobiee’svolume ZS becker, If the object floats, a thin-pointed instrument is used meZ—1_ mz to press the object down until it is fully covered by water. The loos joo Fe water level before and after placing the object are read. The a aie difference in the two readings gives the object's volume. This ae happens because the object pushes the water out of its way " i Fi and displaces it with its own volume. Nore, however, that this t+ 25: Water displacement method: The method cannot be applied for solids witha hollow interior such ‘tenet in the vlume of regu bore asa small ball. chee ele Et submerged isthe Density and Specific Gravity Some objects float in water, while others sink. This phenomen is an intrinsic property of matter. The density (p) of a material is ieg occupies. In equation, wi explained by density, which ) Pet unit of volume (V) it m v 42. Exploring Life Through Science—General Chemistry 1 Scanned with CamScanner‘ Densities of solids and liquids are usually reported in grams per milliliter (g/mL) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm:); those of gases are in grams per liter (g/L). When an object floats in water, it has a density smaller than that of water; when an object sinks, it is denser than water. As an object sinks, it displaces an equal volume of water, but its mass is greater than that of the displaced water. For two immiscible liquids forming layers, the liquid with the lower density forms the upper layer; the one with 82 std the higher density stays at ¢1 Fig. 2-6. Icebergs float in ocean because they bs oy ete ‘are less dense than ocean water. Genera DELS aeee ues nt) Sugar 16 Mercury 13.6 | Toble sal 22 Gold 19.3 Aluminum 27 Human fat 0.94 Iron 79 Cork 0.22-0.26 Copper 89 Water (4.0°C) 1,000 Lead 113) lee (10°C) 0.917 a Which will lot in water—mereury or human fat® Why? pea ‘A small statue has a mass of 78 grams and a volume of 35 cubic centimeters. What is its density? Solution: 2. g/cm? What is the volume of a sample of liquid mercury that has a mass of 76.2 grams? The density of mercury is 13.6 g/mL. Chapter 2 Size and Scole 43 Scanned with CamScannerof 4: 5 Qf Specific gravity (op ge is dimensionless quancicy that eefers coche ratio of che EN) A sli of liquid to that of water at 4°C. For gases, specific gravity is the ratio of the see nba of dry air at standard i i ity of solids and Not m ry lard temperature and pressure. The speific graviey OF 0148 1° © 09 kl’ determined based on its unit of density. Si i 4°Cis : ; ty. Since the density of water at : ” specific gravity of a solid or liquid whose density is expressed in kg/m? is equal © Seen by 1000. A substance’s density is'equal to its specific gravity if its density 1s expressed in g/cm’, density of solid of liquid SP T= density of water 1 co 1, Materials with a specific Water has a specific gravity equal Z Bz : g “BZ gravity less chan 1 ate less dense chan water and will floae in it Those og \3 with a specific gravity of more than 1 are denser than water and will sink (\2 gz in it An object with a densicy of 45 kg/m’ has a specific gravity of 0.045 ig blz and will float high on che surface of a body of water. An object with a g ‘Z density of 45 glcm’ has a specific gravity of 45 and will sink rapidly in 3S 2 water. lojwer ~() nikwicas ‘The density of liquids may also be determined directly using hydrometers, which either float or sink in the liquid whose density is Rig, 27, (0) Thelntometeroivera’ being determined. The greater the density of the liquid, the higher the (b) The hydrometer shows a 13 specific. hydromerer floats. gravity reading for sulfuric acid. fe vy {1) Lighter or Heavier on pages 46A-46B y (2) Float or Sink? on pages 46C-46D Pe ye thc Osteoporosis is © skeletal disorder characterized by a low bone rena which makes the bone capable eer Bone strength is measured in terms of bone density, quality, and architecture. G In the figure, the normal bone shows lightweight but strong fis that are very well connected. The osteoporotic bor 7 fess go mare, connect, and architecure. = Manes 4A Exploring life Through Scionce—General Chemishy | Scanned with CamScannerAnders Celsius (1701-1744) was a professor of astronomy in Uppsala University in Sweden from 1730 to 1744, He conducted geographical measurements for the completion of the map of Sweden. For his meteorological observations, he constructed his world-famous Celsius thermometer, with 100 for the boiling point of water and 0 for its freezing point. Temperature Temperature is the measure of the hotness or coldness of matter. It indicates the energy of the particles in a substance, For example, the water molecules of hot water at 60°C are more energetic than those in cold water at 5°C. Heat and temperature are related, but they are not equivalent terms. Heat is the total energy that results from the molecular motion inside an object. Temperature, on the other hand, is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of an object. It may be expressed in degrees Fahrenheit, degrees Celsius, or Kelvin based on the following conversion equations: TrtoTe: Te= TctoTs: Ty =(T.x1.8)+32 TetoT: Te=Te+273.15 where T; = temperature in Fahrenheit Te Tx remperature in Celsius temperature in Kelvin CF Which is hotter, -100°C or -138°F2 Justify your answer. ===> __§ What Kelvin temperature corresponds to 10.0°F? Solution: T,-T— %; 2) _ (10.0°F—32) _ - Tye To gg IE ToT gt Ty = Te +273.15 = —12.2°C +273.15 = 260,95 KF 261.0 K Chapter 2 Size and Scale 45 Scanned with CamScannerul BOSS oie : : ced that J The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA hod orronalsi rede 2015 was the hottest month since 1880, and 2015 is the hottest year so 2 that in Joly, the combined cverose lonperoure aver globe and end ocean surfaces was 16.61°C- 1. Convert 75°F to degrees Celsius. 2. Table salt (sodium chloride) melts at 800.0°C. What is this temperatt Fahrenheie scales? ure on the Kelvin and Sources of Errors in Measurements The discrepancies usually observed between che experimental and theoretical results can com from many different sources. These sources of errors can be grouped into three main types: (1) systemati or determinate errors, (2) random or indeterminate errors, and (3) gross errors. Systematic errors are those that can be attributed to definite causes. They are often reproducibl and can affect the accuracy of the results, Systematic errors can be predicted and eliminated if th experimenter thoroughly understands the fundamental aspects of measurement. Systematic errors cat be classified as operative errors, method errors, and instrumental errors. Operative errors, also called personal errors, are caused by the incompetence of the experimenter. This type of error may resule whe ‘a color-blind experimenter performs color-dependene measurements, or when an experimenter ha bias for even numbers over odd numbers. Method errors are caused by non-ideal chemical or physic behavior of the reaction system. For example, a reaction of interest does not go to completion, 0 when impurities are present in the sample being tested. Instrumental errors are caused by failures 0! imperfections of the measuring device. This type of error may result when weighin, 1g balances are used without being calibrated. Random errs ate inherent to the measuring apparatus. They cannot be reduced by ehe expt enter, especially when finer measurements are obtained. The uncertainties in expressed as a + value, are examples of random errors. Random errors affect the ments. burettes or pipettes Precision of measute fe those that are severe enough that the measurement or ¢! to be repeated. This type of error results in outliers, which ate m, easurements. An example of this ertor is an unnoti, he entire analysis alrogethe! casurements that are isolated iced spill of a substance whil has from all the other m measuring its mass. ch distance of the experimental val “Alleypes oferrorsaffect the value from th ; some of these ervors can give a result chat can be comparable to the expeera} Fest oe Miimlsig ule, 46 Exploring Life Through Science— General Chemisry 1 Scanned with CamScannerNore! —_—<$< — Date Performed: Group No.: Date Submitted: Section: Rating: lighter or Heavier Objective: Compare the densities of substances Materials regular soft drink and diet soft drink in can (same brand) water cooking oil rubbing alcohol sugar cube ice cubes large container additional materials based on experimental design in part B Estimated Time Frame: 30 minutes Procedure A. 1. Fillthe large container with water until nearly full. 2. Place the two cans of soft drink in the water. Record your observations. Observations What happened to the cans? Did any can float? If yes, which can? Did any can sink? IF yes, which can? Scanned with CamScanneri , ir of materials. Design and carry out an experiment to determine the denser substance in each pair water and cooking oil water and ice water and sugar cube rubbing alcohol and ice cooking oil and ice oR eno Results water and cooking oil water and ice water and sugar cube fea rubbing alcohol and ice Conclusion Post-Laboratory Questions 1. Why is density an intrinsic property of a substance? 2. A miner discovered some yellow nuggets ot th 96.5 grams and had a volume of 5 mi bottom of litters. Were the om oF 8 of gold is 19.3 g/ml and thot of pyrite is 5 g/ml at Doe Spe gold or om Your eal rae shallow strea suld 9, 'UGGets weighed wim The densiy your answer. Scanned with CamScannerSC Es pc a epee ES Name: Date Performed: Group No. —_$_$_ < Date Submitted: —————————— Section: $$ $$ $< _ _ _ _ _<_ Rating: ——_ Float or Sink? Objective: Determine the density of water and some objects Materials top-loading balance 100 ml. graduated cylinder water ruler stone that will fit inside a 100 ml. graduated cylinder ELTS General Chemistry 1 book Estimated Time Frame: 40 minutes Procedure 1. Design and carry out a procedure to obtain the density of the book, the stone, and water. Use only the materials ond instruments listed. Write your procedure on the worksheet. 2. Record all your data. Make three tral for each procedure. Data and Results A. Obtaining the density of the book Procedure: Data: Scanned with CamScannerB. Obtaining the density of the stone Procedure: C.. Obtaining the density of water Procedure: Data: Conclusion Post-Laboratory Question imo the density of watersolvble slid like sat er sugare How ean you determ Scanned with CamScannerPATER macs k uN) Accuracy and Precision _ htep://www.theweatherprediction.com/habyhints/246/ + hetp://www.ck12.org/chemistry/Accuracy-and-Precision/lesson/Accuracy-and-Precision- Chemistry-Intermediate/?referrer=featured_content The Metric System heep://www.montereyinstitute.org/courses/DevelopmentalMath/COURSE_TEXT_RESOURCE/ U06_L2_T1_text_final.html Math Review in Chemistry © hevp://www2.hawaii.edu/-voycelindex.htm is Ciera eet) : Precision refers to the closeness of a set of measurements or data to each other. Accuracy relates to how close a measurement is to the true value. Extremely small or large numbers can be conveniently written using scientific notation. ‘Mathematical operations involving scientific notations follow certain rules. + Significant figures or significant digits refer to the number of digits with high certainty and one uncertain digit. Answers to mathematical operations should be expressed in the correct number of significant digits. + Solving a mathematical problem can be easily done using dimensional analysis, through which the solution/equation is set up such that unwanted units of measurement are canceled and only the desired ones remain. «The most common measurements involved in experimentations are mass, volume, density, and temperacure. Density is the mass of a material per unit volume, Temperature is a measure of the hotness or coldness of matter and is usually expressed in °C, °F, or K. «Errors in experimentations may be systematic or determinate (operative, method, or instrumenta), random, or gross. Chopter 2 Size and Scale 47 Scanned with CamScannerA Closer Look Explained ’ which ore The concurrent rise in sea levels all over the world is inked to three primary Factors, ore ol L (2) mel believed to be caused by climate change. These foctors include (1) thermal expansion, (2) melting of Slaciers and polar ice caps, and (3) loss of ice from Greenland and Antarctica. aT Thermal expansion of water is simply the expansion of water when it is heated. The rise in seq level inthe past half century i cititaed tocar cern werner ond occupying more spOCe. Ice formations, such as glaciers and polar ice cops, undergo a natural course of melting during the summer after being accumulated as snow during winter. The formation ‘of snow is supposed tp balance the melting, but recent studies hove revealed tha! persistently higher he wee by global warming have intensified ice melting during summer and decreased snowfall in fe winter romeavently, this imbalance results in a net gain in runoff from mountains versus evaporation from the oceans, leading to rising sea levels. Increased heating of the Earth has also caused massive melting of the ice formations in Greenland and Antarctica. Moreover, these high temperatures cause the ice shelé3’éxlending out from Antarctica to melt from below, weaken, and break off, The overall effects of rising sea levels can be devastating, especially to coastal communities Destructive erosion, intense flooding, contamination of aquifers and agricultural soils, and loss of habitat for many organisms can all happen when seawater reaches farther inland. Anothor distressing henomenn that can happen is a storm surge caused by the rise in sea level whon strong storms make Fada. Storm surges result in ragie deaths ond massive loss sf property These predicted events may not be totally prevented from happening, but th rill 1 chance to reduce global warming and alleviate its negative impact by portipating ia “hon het reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 48 Exploring Life Through Science—General Chemistry 1 Scanned with CamScannerT ene 2 Answer the following items, Use additional sheers of paper if necessary. 1. How many significant figures are in each of these measurements? a. 6.2 inches d. 21.10 liters b. 5.083 feet €. 700000 people c. 0.004 mile Round off these numbers to the number of significant digits indicated. a. 32.426 (four digits) d. 0.08975 (two digits) b. 77.015 (three digits) e. 115.3 (three digits) c. 0.08965 (three digits) Perform the indicated operation. Express the answers in the correct number of significant figures. a. (1.043) +(7.4) + (64.23) d._ (123+3.5) (235.6—8.13) b. (37.3)x(3.54) (2.29107) (6.21x10") c (0.18) +(4.65) Express the following numbers in scientific notation. a, 3800000 d. 0.0000066 b. 3084.4 e. 30.40 c. 0.00780 Do the following conversions using dimensional analysis. a. 4,00 in? to cm? c. -14°C to °F b. 19.76 gtomg Chapter 2 Size ond Scale 49 Scanned with CamScanner10. B. 1G rams of sodium chloride. Thy rch of the 30 Students take, bottle at the end of thy use 6.50 8! salt. If pe left in th each student to th 1.00 pound of the how much would ‘A laboratory experiment requires instructor opens a new bottle wit exactly the assigned amount of salt, laboratory period? Which is colder, -110°C or 139°F? Support your answer a graduated cylinder containing | was placed into rs. Calculate the density of the ‘When a 23.5-gram piece of chromium metal 27.3 millilice 24.0 milliliters of water, the water level rose co metal. How many grams of mercury is needed to occupy a volume of 30.5 millilicers ‘The density of mercury is 13.6 g/mL. Calculate (a) the density and (b) the specific gravity of solid that weighs 125 grams and has a volume of 46.0 milliliters. Critical Thinking. Answer the following items. Use additional sheets of paper if nec essary. “Tree experimental mass values of certain object were obtained: 34 668g. If ehe accepted mass of the object is 54.6678 g, are che ise? Explain your answer. ° e 54.66 g, 54.67 g, and Are they preci measurements accurate? ‘A balance measures mass to the nearest 0.001 gram. If you d, thae weighs about 30 grams, would you record the mass as 30 a & Explain your choice. ie the mass of an object 831.16 g, or 31.0758? 50° Exploring life Through Science—General Chemistry 1 Scanned with CamScannerA graduated cylinder contains three unknown liquids: Liquid A (top layer), Liquid B, and Liquid C (bottom layer). Which of the following liquids can be the three unknown liquids: mercury (p= 13.6 g/mL), vegetable oil (p= 0.92 g/mL), and water (9= 1.00 g/mL)? Justify your answers, A dietary supplement contains the components shown below. If a person uses the dietary supplement once a day, how many milligrams of each component would the person consume in one week? a. calcium (0.20 g) b. iron (0.50 mg) c. iodine (53 118) Suppose you have ewo 100 milliliter graduated cylinders. In each cylinder, there is 40.0 milliliters of water. You also have two cubes; one is lead and the other is aluminum. Each cube measures 2.0 centimeters on each side. What will the new water level be in each of the cylinders if each cube is submerged into each cylinder ? Essential Questions How do accuracy and precision relate to reporting information? ‘When is the scientific notation advantageous to use? ens Why is the use of significane figures in measurements important? “Which system of measurement is easy to use and why? Why is ie dificult co obtain accurate results during experimentation? Sy Chapter 2 Size and Scale 51 Scanned with CamScanner