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Lisez gratuitement pendant 30 jours minutes, read the Part III extended answer questions and choose the two you will be doing.
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Start making up a list of key words in your head. DO NOT read the multiple-choice
questions – you will put 120 ‘wrong’ ideas in your head!
• When working time has started, write down your list of key words for Part III . This will
take about 5 minutes
4. Cells are interdependent, relying on each other for survival. The respiratory system
supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide, the digestive system supplies nutrients, the
excretory system removes metabolic wastes and the circulatory system moves these
materials around the body.
5. Humans exist in an amazing variety of environments but in spite of this they maintain a
constant internal environment at an optimal level. Optimal conditions are those that best suit
the cell and therefore the organism. The maintenance of a constant optimal internal
environment in the body irrespective of the external environment is called homeostasis. This
makes the body independent of the external environment.
6. The internal fluid environment of the body consists of intracellular fluid (made up of
cytoplasm and nucleoplasm), intercellular fluid (the fluid between cells), plasma and
lymph. Together, the intercellular fluid, plasma and lymph are called extracellular fluid.
7. To work efficiently, the human body must maintain relatively constant levels of carbon
dioxide, oxygen, temperature, blood glucose and fluid levels. Human cells have become
adapted to operate at their optimum at specific levels of these substances.
Central Peripheral
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Spinal cord
moment. Autonomic Somatic
Parasympathetic Sympathetic
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‘slow’.
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NERVOUS AND HORMONAL CONTROL – The central nervous system
1. The nervous system is composed of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central
nervous system (CNS) comprises the brain and spinal cord. pendant 30 jours
2. The bones of the skull enclose the brain, and the spinal cord is enclosed in the spinal canal
which is formed by the vertebrae. The brain and spinal cord are also protected by a jacket of
fluid and connective tissue.
3. The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It acts
as a cushion or shock absorber and circulates around the brain and spinal cord, supplying
nutrients and oxygen, and removing wastes. The connective tissue is called the meninges and
is made up of three layers (Dura matter, Arachnoid, Pia matter).
4. The brain’s role in the nervous system is that of a receiver, analyser, coordinator ‘storer’ and
initiator of nerve impulse. The diagram below shows the different parts of the brain.
• The medulla is the control centre for breathing and circulation. It also regulates a
number of other body functions.
• The pons coordinates and transmits information between the cerebral cortex,
cerebellum and spinal cord.
• The pituitary gland sometimes referred to as the master endocrine gland, controls
other endocrine glands by producing hormones.
• The hypothalamus regulates basic body functions such as thirst and hunger. It is
mostly concerned with homeostasis and body temperature control.
• The cerebrum (cerebral cortex) is concerned with memory, reasoning, imagination,
problem solving and ‘higher’ thought processes.
• The cerebellum controls balance, posture, muscle tone and coordination of
movement.
• The thalamus acts as a relay station. All sensory information entering the brain
passes through the thalamus before being relayed to the cerebral cortex (cerebrum).
5. The function of the spinal cord is to receive nervous impulses from sensory neurons and
carry these impulses to the brain. It also carries impulses initiated in the brain to motor
neurons and links together sensory and motor neurons. The diagram below shows the
different parts of the spinal cord.
•
Grey matter is mainly made up of nerve cell bodies and unmyelinated nerve fibres.
White matter is made up of myelinated nerve fibres 9sensory and motor neurones).
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The myelin gives it its white appearance.
In the brain the white matter is on the inside and the grey matter is outside. In the
spinal cord the white matter in on the outside and the grey matter is inside.
• The ventral root of the spinal cord is mainly composed of the axons of motor
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NERVOUS AND HORMONAL CONTROL – The neuron
1. The neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. Neurons consist of
three major parts: the cell body, dendrites and axons. pendant 30 jours
2. The three main types of neurons are the connector, motor and sensory neurons. Motor
neurons are responsible for transferring impulses from the CNS to the PNS. Sensory
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neurons relay impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS. Connector neurons connect
motor and sensory neurons together in the CNS.
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• The cell body contains the nucleus (which control the activities of the neuron),
cytoplasm and organelles.
• The myelin sheath insulates and protects the axon. It speeds up nerve impulses.
Des millions de titres à portée de main • The gaps in the myelin sheath are called the nodes of Ranvier and the gaps between
the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another are called synapses.
• A membrane called the neurilemma, which helps to repair damaged nerve fibres,
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the myelinmoment.
sheath.
• Dendrites carry nervous impulses to the cell body and axons carry nervous impulses
from the cell body.
• Schwann cells are responsible for the regeneration of nerve fibres and the production
of the myelin sheath.
Lisez gratuitement pendant 30 jours • The motor end plate is the point where an impulse passes to a muscle, causing
contraction. It is joined to an axon by the filament.
Télécharger maintenant 4. In some cases, the time it would take for an impulse to travel to the CNS and be processed
and then for an impulse to be sent to an effector would be detrimental. In these cases the body
has incorporated spinal reflexes which reduce the time taken for a response to a particular
stimulus, as there is a decreased distance that the impulse has to travel. This decreases the
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1. The endocrine system consists of a collection of endocrine glands that are linked by the
circulatory system. Endocrine glands are ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into
the bloodstream. pendant 30 jours
2. A hormone is a chemical substance that circulates in the bloodstream and binds to receptor
molecules on target cells, changing the activity of the cell. Only cells with the receptor
molecules can be affected by a particular hormone.
3. The table below lists the differences between nervous and hormonal control.
Nerves Hormones
Speed Fast acting Slow acting
Specificity Specific (one motor neuron General (some hormones are
goes to one muscle or gland) more general than others)
Nature of transfer Electrochemical Chemical (hormones in
blood)
Transport of message Nerve cells Bloodstream
Persistence of action Short term (seconds) Long term (hours/years)
The endocrine system is more effective than the nervous system because hormones in the
plasma can reach all body cells while nerves only reach muscles and glands.
4. The diagram below illustrates the major endocrine glands.
5. Overall control of the endocrine system is achieved through the hypothalamus (part of the
brain) which controls the pituitary gland (master gland), using nerves and releasing and
inhibiting factors.
TSH
Testes
Thyroid
Stimulates cells in testes to produce
testosterone
Stimulates the production of thyroxine
Prolactin Mammary glands Initiates and maintains milk production
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NERVOUS AND HORMONAL CONTROL – Feedback loops
1. Levels of particular hormones in the blood may influence the release of similar and in some
cases, different hormones – this is termed feedback. Positive feedback is when the increase pendant 30 jours
in the concentration of one hormone leads to an increase in the concentration of another
hormone. Negative feedback is when an increase in the concentration of one hormone leads
to a decrease in the concentration of another.
2. Control of the basal metabolic rate is an example of a feedback loop and steady state
control. Metabolism involved all of the chemical reactions occurring in the body when the
body is at rest. Thyroxine is a hormone that is directly involved with the regulation of the
basal metabolic rate.
3. Low metabolic rate is detected by receptors in the hypothalamus, which releases more TSH
releasing factor. This causes the anterior lobe of the pituitary to release more TSH, which then
acts on the thyroid gland to release more thyroxine resulting in body cells increasing their
metabolic rate.
Hypothalam
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FSH-rf LH-rf
Pituitary
Inhibits FSH-rf LH-rf Inhibits
Follicl Corpus
Oestrogen Progesterone
Secondary Promotes
sex growth of
and
11. The contraceptive pill contains high levels of the hormones oestrogen and progesterone
which are detected by the hypothalamus and inhibit the release of FSH-rf and LH-rf
(negative feedback). The anterior pituitary is therefore inhibited from releasing FSH and LH.
Thus no ovarian follicles are developed during the cycle (no ova are released). The
oestrogen and progesterone in the pills replace the hormones normally produced by the
follicle/corpus luteum so that the endometrium develops normally and the secondary sex
characteristics are maintained.
Télécharger maintenant volume increase, glycogen and fat are converted into glucose, heat loss mechanisms start to
operate and there is a redistribution of blood.
During exercise the increase in heart rate is maintained by a number of factors. The active
muscles are producing carbon dioxide, blood pressure is increasing and the major joints are
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7. Information from the receptors is passed to the medulla (modulator). The medulla then
acts through the sympathetic nervous system, stimulating the sinoatrial node in the heart
(effector) to increase the heart rate (response). pendant 30 jours
REGULATION – Regulation of breathing
1. To help maintain constant levels of CO2 and O2, the body varies the rate of breathing. These
levels must be maintained as O 2 is required by cells for respiration, and CO2 is a waste
product of cellular respiration, which if allowed to accumulate, will decrease the cells
metabolic efficiently.
2. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood lowers the pH which is the main stimulus
for the control of breathing rate. If CO 2 levels are high (when exercising) breathing rate
increases. If CO 2 levels are low (during rest) breathing rate decreases.
3. The table below highlights the components involved in the control of breathing.
Component How it controls breathing Location
Chemoreceptors Chemoreceptors detect changes Aortic and carotid bodies
in pH and CO2 concentration in
blood
Respiratory centre Controls breathing rate and Medulla
depth
Stretch receptors Overstretching of lungs causes Lungs
expiration (protective function)
4. The control of breathing during exercise ( high CO2) can be represented by the following
steady-state feedback model:
Stimulus -------- Receptor -------- Modulator
(high concentration (chemoreceptors in the (respiratory centre in the
of CO2 in blood) respiratory centre, aorticmedulla)
and carotid bodies)
Feedback -------- Response -------- Effector
(lower CO2 in blood) (increased rate and depth (intercostals muscles
of breathing) and diaphragm)
5. The control of breathing during rest ( low CO2) can be represented by the following steady-
state feedback model:
Stimulus -------- Receptor -------- Modulator
(low concentration (chemoreceptors in the (respiratory centre in the
of CO2 in blood) respiratory centre, aorticmedulla)
and carotid bodies)
Feedback -------- Response -------- Effector
(higher CO2 in blood) (decreased rate and depth (intercostals muscles
of breathing) and diaphragm)
6. Due to anticipation, breathing rate increases before exercise under the control of the
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The sympathetic division of
the ANS causes the adrenal medulla to release the hormone adrenalin. Adrenalin is
responsible for increasing the rate of breathing.
7. During exercise the muscles use large amounts of oxygen and glucose producing carbon
dioxide. The high levels of carbon dioxide (which lower the pH of the blood) are detected by
chemoreceptors located in the aortic and carotid bodies, and the medulla.
Chemoreceptors pass on information on carbon dioxide levels via nervous impulses to the
respiratory centre located in the medulla, which acts as the modulator. This then causes the
effectors (intercostals muscles and diaphragm) to increase the rate and depth of breathing
(response).
8. The increased rate and depth of breathing allows the high levels of carbon dioxide to be
removed from the blood and the oxygen level to be increased . This is important, as oxygen is
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Feedback -------- Response -------- Effector
(higher glucose in blood) (glycogenesis; (liver; body cells) pendant 30 jours
gluconeogenesis; lipolysis)
8. During exercise the adrenal medulla is stimulated to produce adrenalin. Adrenalin is a very
fast-acting hormone which behaves in a similar way to glucagon acting to raise blood glucose
levels quickly when required.
9. The hypothalamus controls behaviour (through the cerebral cortex) in response to high and
low blood glucose levels. When blood glucose levels are high, there is a decrease in appetite.
When blood glucose levels are low, appetite increases and a person seeks out food (sugar
cravings).
HINT: Break the word up into parts: ‘gluco’ (glucose), ‘neo’ (new), ‘genesis’ (make).
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Hot conditions
Need to reduce heat gain Reduce metabolic rate Find somewhere cool
Need to increase heat loss Vasodilation of blood vessel in Find somewhere cool, go or a
skin and sweating swim, remove clothing
Cold conditions
REGULATION OF THE COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUIDS – Body fluids and metabolic wastes
1. The internal environment comprises the fluid environment of the body which consists of
intracellular fluid, intercellular fluid and plasma.
2. The diagram below illustrates the relationship between these fluids.
3. Intercellular (tissue) fluid is found between the cells. Intracellular fluid (cytoplasm) is
found inside the cells. Plasma is the liquid part of the blood within the blood vessels. Blood
plasma plus intercellular fluids is called extracellular fluid.
4. Regulation of the composition of body fluids is needed to maintain the efficient functioning
of cells. The five main components of body fluids are pH, concentration of nutrients,
concentration of wastes, dissolved gas concentrations and water levels.
5. It is important to maintain constant levels of the components of body fluids or the efficiency
of cellular reactions may decrease. A constant pH needs to be maintained, as a build-up of
hydrogen ions will denature enzymes, reducing cell efficiency. Nutrients and oxygen are
required by respiring cells, and so they must remain constant. Wastes are toxic and, if
allowed to accumulate, will slow down cell reactions, reducing cell efficiency. Carbon
dioxide is a waste product that, if allowed to accumulate, reduces the pH of blood denaturing
enzymes, reducing cell efficiency. A decrease in water level will affect chemical reactions
and osmosis/osmotic pressure.
6. Metabolic wastes are products of metabolism that are of no more use to the body. These
wastes need to be excreted, as some of them may be harmful if they are allowed to build up in
the body. The removal of metabolic wastes from the body is called excretion. The removal of
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a substance that was not involved in the body’s metabolism is called elimination (e.g. the
passing of faeces is elimination, not excretion, as it consists mainly of undigested food, not
products of metabolism). pendant 30 jours
7. There is a constant exchange of materials between plasma, intercellular fluid and intracellular
fluids. The concentration of small molecules in the plasma directly affects concentrations in
the intercellular fluid and, in turn, the cytoplasm. The molecules move from a high to a low
concentration gradient. Nutrients diffuse from the plasma through the intercellular fluid to the
cytoplasm. The opposite occurs for small molecules moving from the cytoplasm to the plasma
(e.g. carbon dioxide). Large molecules such as proteins are limited in their movement
because of the permeability of the walls of the blood vessels and the cell membrane.
8. The table below illustrates the source and excretory pathway for a number of metabolic
wastes.
Type of waste Source of waste Excretory pathway
Carbon dioxide Cell respiration Breathed out from lungs
Water Cell respiration Breathed out from lungs
Sweat from skin
Urine from kidney
Urea, uric acid, creatinine, Occurs in liver Breakdown of proteins
ammonia Breakdown of nucleic acids (deamination)
Removed by kidney
Excreted in urine
Bile salts and pigments Through cells Faeces
Minerals Cell breakdown Urine and sweat
9. As well as carbohydrates and fats, proteins can be used as a source of energy. In the liver, an
amino acid (simplest unit of protein) can have its amino group (NH 3) removed, leaving a
carbohydrate-like compound. The removal of an amino group from an amino acid is known as
deamination.
In deamination, the amino group is converted to ammonia, which is highly toxic to the cell.
To avoid this toxicity, ammonia is rapidly converted to a low-toxicity substance called urea.
This chemical change occurs in the liver; the urea is constantly removed from the blood by
the kidneys.
3. The glomerulus is a knot of capillaries that works in conjunction with the glomerular
capsule to filter the blood. Large substances, such as red and white blood cells and proteins,
that are too large to pass through the membranes of the glomerulus and capsule remain in the
bloodstream. Small molecules, such as water, glucose, slats, amino acids, urea and hormones,
pass through the membrane into the capsule.
4. The proximal convoluted tubule is responsible for the reabsorption into the bloodstream of
glucose, amino acids, sodium and potassium (all selective reabsorption by active transport)
plus water (by passive osmosis).
5. The loop of Henle is responsible for reabsorption (selective by active transport) of sodium
back into the tissue fluid. This helps maintain suitable conditions for the removal (osmosis) of
water from the filtrate as it moves down the collecting duct.
6. The distal convoluted tubule is responsible for the selective reabsorption of sodium by
active transport. It is also involved in the secretion of hydrogen ions, potassium and creatinine
into the tubule. The movement if hydrogen ions helps to control the pH of the plasma and
thus other body fluids.
7. The collecting duct is responsible for the reabsorption of water back into the bloodstream.
This occurs by osmosis and is under the influence of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH). The
high sodium concentration outside the duct helps the water move by osmosis.
8. The afferent arteriole supplies the nephron with blood and forms a ball of capillaries called
the glomerulus. The efferent arteriole takes blood away from the glomerulus. It is smaller in
diameter than the afferent arteriole, resulting in raised blood pressure in the glomerulus, and it
branches into the peritubular capillaries. The peritubular capillaries surround the tubules
and collecting duct. Substances in the tubules requires by the body can be reabsorbed back
into the bloodstream.
9. The formation of urine by the nephrons of the kidneys involves three major processes:
glomerular filtration, selective reabsorption and tubular secretion.
10. Filtration takes place in the glomerulus and glomerular capsule. Blood in the glomerulus is
under high pressure as the afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent and the renal artery is
short and connected directly to the aorta. The high pressure forces small molecules such as
water, glucose, amino acids, urea, sodium, potassium and hormones across the membranes of
the glomerulus and into the glomerular capsule. This fluid is termed filtrate. Large molecules
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like erythrocytes, leucocytes and proteins are too large to pass through the membranes and
remain in the glomerulus. They move out of the efferent arteriole.
11. Many substances in the filtrate are useful to the body and, therefore, are returned to the blood pendant 30 jours
by selective reabsorption. In the proximal convoluted tubule, glucose, amino acids, sodium
and potassium are selectively reabsorbed by active transport and water is reabsorbed by
osmosis (passive). In the distal convoluted tubule , sodium is reabsorbed by active transport
and water by osmosis under the influence of ADH. In the collecting duct, water is reabsorbed
by osmosis (passive) under the influence of ADH. Urea is not reabsorbed and passes out as
urine.
12. Tubular secretion occurs in the distal convoluted. Unwanted substances such as H +, NH3 and
drugs are added to the filtrate.
13. The movement of particles in glomerular filtration, selective reabsorption and tubular
secretion rely on the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport. Diffusion is the
movement of particles (or molecules) from areas of high concentration to areas of low
concentration. Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from an area of high
concentration of water (low concentration of ions) to an area of low concentration of water
(high concentration of ions) through a semi-permeable membrane. (A semi permeable
membrane allows the movement of some molecules through it but not others.) Substances are
moved from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration (against the
concentration gradient) by active transport. It occurs across cell membranes and is an active
process requiring energy in the form of ATP.
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12. Active natural immunity occurs when, you are able to make your own antibodies against a
disease because of a previous unplanned exposure to a particular pathogen/antigen (e.g. once
you have had chickenpox/measles you rarely will get it again). pendant 30 jours
13. Passive artificial immunity involves injecting antibodies against a particular antigen directly
into the bloodstream. There is no future ability to produce these antigens again (e.g. anti-
venee for snake/spider bite).
14. Active artificial immunity occurs when you are able to make your own antibodies against a
particular antigen/pathogen because you had a vaccination of that particular antigen
(pathogen).
15. Passive natural immunity is a special case where babies obtain their mother’s antibodies via
the placenta or breast milk. A breastfeeding baby will have the same antibodies as the mother.
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primary response. The secondary response is triggered by a
reintroduction of the pathogen/antigen at a later time. The secondary
response is due to the immune memory comprising memory cells
called lymphocytes. During the primary response, those lymphocytes
pendant 30 jours
sensitive to the particular antigen divide creating more memory cells.
Should a second infection occur, a large population of memory cells
is primes to change rapidly into plasma cells. These persist longer
and are capable of more rapidly producing higher concentrations o
antibodies.
7. The graph below illustrates the difference in speed of production and
number of antibodies produced in plasma after a first and second
exposure to antigens.
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6. In small populations, a change in the gene
frequencies may occur by chance (i.e. a
random, non-directional change) due to the
small size of the population ( random
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genetic drift). An example is the Dunkers, a
small German group that lived and bred in
the USA in isolation from the general
population. They show a statistical variation
in characteristics such as blood group, ear
lobes and L/R handedness.
7. Sometimes a small sample of a large
population can become isolated, having
migrated to a new area. On some occasions,
due to the small initial gene pool, some gene
frequencies become more prevalent in the
population as it increases in size in
comparison with the original population.
This is called the ‘ founder effect’.
8. There are many different pieces of evidence
that support the theory of evolution. These
can be classified into those that deal with
gross morphology (e.g. the study of fossils,
anatomy and embryology), and those that are
based on a microscopic level (e.g. protein
and DNA analysis).
9. Fossils of extinct organisms (particularly
bones) enable scientists to follow the
evolution of organisms by tracing structural
similarities in organisms back to a common
ancestor.
10. By determining the type and sequence of
amino acids that make up proteins,
scientists can compare various species for
evolutionary relationships. Species that are
more closely related have more similar
proteins (type and sequence of amino acids)
than those of distantly related species.
11. The study of DNA sequences can be used to
compare evolutionary relationships. The
more similar the DNA, the more closely
related are the species under consideration.
12. By comparing homologous similarities in
anatomy between different species of living
organisms, scientists can work out
evolutionary relationships. Species that have
similar structures can be assumed to have a
common ancestor. For example, the human
hand, whale flipper, and the wing of a bat all
have similar bone structure, suggesting a
common ancestor/origin.
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