UNIT- I

INTRODUCTION

Definition Of System:-
A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together
according to a plan to achieve a specific goal.”
A system is an orderly grouping of independent components linked together according to plan
to achieve a specific objective.
The word system is derived from the Greek word “systema” which means the organized
relationship among the functioning units.

Examples of System:-

1. Transportation System
2. Telephone System
3. Accounting System
4. Production System
5. Computer System
6. Business System,

Constraints of a System:-
A system must have three basic constraints –

1. A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed to achieve a
predefined objective.
2. Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system components.
3. The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the objectives of its
subsystems.
 For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library system,
human resources information system.

Element/Components of System:-

Outputs and Inputs

OUTPUT:-
The main aim of a system is to produce an output which is useful for its user.
Output is the outcome of processing.
It is end result of the operation. In other words it is the purpose or the main
Objective for which the system is designed.
INPUTS:-
Inputs are the information that enters into the system for processing. It is defined as energizing
or start up component on which system operates.

It may be raw material, data, physical source, knowledge or any energy to decide the nature of
output

Processors
The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of input into
output.
It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input either totally or
partially, depending on the output specification.

Control
The control element guides the system.

It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities governing input,
processing, and output.

Feedback
Feedback provides the control in a dynamic system.
❖ Positive feedback is routine in nature that encourages the performance of the system.
❖ Negative feedback is informational in nature that provides the controller with
information for action.

Environment
The environment is the “supersystem” within which an organization operates.
It is the source of external elements that strike on the system.

It determines how a system must function. For example, vendors and competitors of
organization’s environment, may provide constraints that affect the actual performance of the
business.

Boundaries and Interface

A system should be defined by its boundaries. Boundaries are the limits that identify its
components, processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces with another system.

Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and control.

The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining the nature of its
interface with other systems for successful design.

Characteristics/Properties Of System:-

Organization

Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that helps to
achieve predetermined objectives.

Interaction

It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each other.

Interdependence

Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one another.

 Integration

Integration is concerned with how a system components are connected together.

Central Objective

The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is not uncommon for an
organization to state an objective and operate to achieve another.

Types of Systems:-
The systems can be divided into the following types –

Physical or Abstract Systems

Physical system
Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them.
These are the concrete operational systems made up of people,material,
machines energy & other physical things.
A programmed computer is a dynamic system in which programs, data, and
applications can change according to the user’s needs.
Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature.
For example, desks and chairs are the physical parts of computer center which are
static.
For example: Management information system.
Conceptual/Abstract System
Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that may be formulas,
representation or model of a real system.
System is an orderly arrangement of independent ideas.
For example: Economic theory, Theory of relativity.

Open or Closed Systems

open system
An open system must interact with its environment. It receives inputs from and
delivers outputs to the outside of the system.
For example: Any business organization system exchanges its material,Manpower,
money & information with its environment

closed system
A closed system does not interact with its environment. It is isolated from
environmental influences. A completely closed system is rare in reality.
Example- Television

Adaptive and Non Adaptive System

Adaptive System
Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way to improve
their performance and to survive.
For example, human beings, animals.
Non Adaptive System
Non Adaptive System is the system which does not respond to the environment.
For example, machines.

Permanent or Temporary System

Permanent System
Permanent System persists for long time.
For example, business policies.

Temporary System
Temporary System is made for specified time and after that they are demolished.
For example, A DJ system is set up for a program and it is dissembled after the
program.

Natural and Manufactured System

Natural systems
Natural systems are created by the nature.
For example, Solar system, seasonal system.

Manufactured System
Manufactured System is the man-made system.
For example, Rockets, dams, trains.

Deterministic or Probabilistic System

Deterministic system
Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the interaction
between system components is known with certainty.
For example:- Computer system, two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of
oxygen makes water.

Probabilistic System
Probabilistic System shows hows uncertain behavior. The exact output is not
known.
For example, Weather forecasting, mail delivery.

Social, Human-Machine, Machine System

Social System
Social System is made up of people. For example, social clubs, societies.

Human-Machine System
Human-Machine System, both human and machines are involved to perform a
particular task.
For example, Computer programming.

Machine System
Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are
performed by the machine. For example, an autonomous robot.

Man–Made Information Systems

It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for particular
organization, under Direct Management Control (DMC).
This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and application
for producing information according to the need of an organization.

Man-made information systems are divided into three types –

Formal Information System – It is based on the flow of information in the form of

memos, instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of management.

Informal Information System – This is employee based system which solves the
day to day work related problems.

Computer Based / Integrated System – This system is directly dependent on the

computer for managing business applications. For example, automatic library
system, railway reservation system, banking system, etc.

Systems Models:-
Schematic Models
A schematic model is a 2-D chart that shows system elements and their linkages.
Different arrows are used to show information flow, material flow, and
information feedback.

Flow System Models

A flow system model shows the orderly flow of the material, energy, and
information that hold the system together.
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), for example, is used to
abstract a real world system in model form.

Static System Models

They represent one pair of relationships such as activity–time or cost–quantity.

The Gantt chart, for example, gives a static picture of an activity-time relationship.

Dynamic System Models

Business organizations are dynamic systems. A dynamic model approximates the
type of organization or application that analysts deal with.

It shows an ongoing, constantly changing status of the system. It consists of –

o Inputs that enter the system

o The processor through which transformation takes place
o The program(s) required for processing
o The output(s) that result from processing.

Categories of Information:-

There are three categories of information related to managerial levels and the
decision managers make.
Strategic Information
This information is required by topmost management for long range planning
policies for next few years. For example, trends in revenues, financial investment,
and human resources, and population growth.

This type of information is achieved with the aid of Decision Support System
(DSS).

Managerial Information
This type of Information is required by middle management for short and
intermediate range planning which is in terms of months. For example, sales
analysis, cash flow projection, and annual financial statements.

It is achieved with the aid of Management Information Systems (MIS).

Operational information
This type of information is required by low management for daily and short term
planning to enforce day-to-day operational activities. For example, keeping
employee attendance records, overdue purchase orders, and current stocks
available.

It is achieved with the aid of Data Processing Systems (DPS).

INFORMATION SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT

Following model represents a system with its elements which keeps the system in
Equilibrium:-

The major concepts are-

I. Boundary & environment

II. Subsystem
III. Interface
IV. Feedback control
V. Black box

Boundary & environment:

E system has its limits that determine the sphere Of influence & control is called
as Boundary of the system.
Everything within the Circumscribed space is called system & everything outside it
is environment.
Boundary of the system may exist physically or conceptually.

Subsystem:
A complex system is difficult to implement when consider as a whole.
However if we divide it into smaller functional units which are of manageable
sizes.
Then every small function unit becomes a subsystem.
The components performing same or similar functions are grouped.

❖ For example:- In a business organization system, marketing, production,

sales can

❖ Module: A collection of function or data. In other words module

encapsulates related Functions.

Interface:
The interconnections & interactions among the subsystems are termed As
interfaces.
In fact each interface implies a communication path. Number of Interfaces
increase with number of subsystems.

Feedback control:
In order to improve the performance of any system feedback
Control mechanism can be used as a tool or device to control or modify the input
of the System after analyzing the output properly.

Black box:
Black box is the subsystems at lowest level where the inputs are
Defined, outputs are determined but the processor of the system is not defined
Means it difficult to understand how the transformation of input to output takes
Place.

The System Development Life Cycle:-

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which includes
policies and procedures for developing or altering systems throughout their life
cycles.
The process for creating and deploying software systems is called the Software
Development Life Cycle (SDLC).

SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information system. SDLC includes the

following activities –

1. Requirements
2. Design
3. Implementation
4. Testing
5. Deployment
6. Operations
7. Maintenance
Phases of SDLC

Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic approach which explicitly breaks

down the work into phases that are required to implement either new or
modified Information System.
Feasibility Study or Planning
❖ Define the problem and scope of existing system.

❖ Overview the new system and determine its objectives.

❖ Confirm project feasibility and produce the project Schedule.

❖ During this phase, threats, constraints, integration and security of system

are also considered.
 ❖ A feasibility report for the entire project is created at the end of this phase.

Analysis and Specification

❖ Gather, analyze, and validate the information.

❖ Define the requirements and prototypes for new system.

❖ Evaluate the alternatives and prioritize the requirements.

❖ Examine the information needs of end-user and enhances the system goal.

❖ A Software Requirement Specification (SRS) document, which specifies the

software, hardware, functional, and network requirements of the system is
prepared at the end of this phase.

System Design
❖ Includes the design of application, network, databases, user interfaces, and
system interfaces.

❖ Transform the SRS document into logical structure, which contains detailed
and complete set of specifications that can be implemented in a
programming language.

❖ Create a contingency, training, maintenance, and operation plan.

 ❖ Review the proposed design. Ensure that the final design must meet the
requirements stated in SRS document.

❖ Finally, prepare a design document which will be used during next phases.

Implementation
❖ Implement the design into source code through coding.

❖ Combine all the modules together into training environment that detects
errors and defects.

❖ A test report which contains errors is prepared through test plan that
includes test related tasks such as test case generation, testing criteria, and
resource allocation for testing.

❖ Integrate the information system into its environment and install the new
system.

Maintenance/Support
❖ Include all the activities such as phone support or physical on-site support
for users that is required once the system is installing.

❖ Implement the changes that software might undergo over a period of time,
or implement any new requirements after the software is deployed at the
customer location.
 ❖ It also includes handling the residual errors and resolve any issues that may
exist in the system even after the testing phase.

❖ Maintenance and support may be needed for a longer time for large
systems and for a short time for smaller systems.

Life Cycle of System Analysis and Design

The following diagram shows the complete life cycle of the system during analysis
and design phase.

Advantage of SDLC :-

❖ Efficient with regard to costs

 ❖ Efficacious in terms of time
❖ Enhances teamwork and coordination, defines suitable roles for employees
and increases workplace transparency.
❖ Minimal danger when the project is implemented

Disdvantage of SDLC :-
❖ The project may take longer and cost more if the planning is not done
properly.
❖ Correcting problems in code can occasionally take a long time and cause
deadlines to be missed if there are many of them.

SDLC Models:-
 1) Waterfall Model
Waterfall model is the very first model that is used in SDLC. It is also known as the
linear sequential model.

In this model, the outcome of one phase is the input for the next phase.
Development of the next phase starts only when the previous phase is complete.

First, Requirement gathering and analysis is done. Once the requirement is freeze
then only the System Design can start. Herein, the SRS document created is the
output for the Requirement phase and it acts as an input for the System Design.
In System Design Software architecture and Design, documents which act as an
input for the next phase are created i.e. Implementation and coding.
In the Implementation phase, coding is done and the software developed is the
input for the next phase i.e. testing.
In the testing phase, the developed code is tested thoroughly to detect the
defects in the software. Defects are logged into the defect tracking tool and are
retested once fixed. Bug logging, Retest, Regression testing goes on until the time
the software is in go-live state.
In the Deployment phase, the developed code is moved into production after the
sign off is given by the customer.
Any issues in the production environment are resolved by the developers which
come under maintenance.
Advantages of the Waterfall Model:

Waterfall model is the simple model which can be easily understood and is the
one in which all the phases are done step by step.
Deliverables of each phase are well defined, and this leads to no complexity and
makes the project easily manageable.
Disadvantages of Waterfall model:

Waterfall model is time-consuming & cannot be used in the short duration

projects as in this model a new phase cannot be started until the ongoing phase is
completed.
Waterfall model cannot be used for the projects which have uncertain
requirement or wherein the requirement keeps on changing as this model expects
the requirement to be clear in the requirement gathering and analysis phase itself
and any change in the later stages would lead to cost higher as the changes would
be required in all the phases.
#2) V-Shaped Model
V- Model is also known as Verification and Validation Model. In this model
Verification & Validation goes hand in hand i.e. development and testing goes
parallel. V model and waterfall model are the same except that the test planning
and testing start at an early stage in V-Model.

2. V-Shaped Model

a) Verification Phase:
 (i) Requirement Analysis:

In this phase, all the required information is gathered & analyzed. Verification
activities include reviewing the requirements.

(ii) System Design:

Once the requirement is clear, a system is designed i.e. architecture, components

of the product are created and documented in a design document.

(iii) High-Level Design:

High-level design defines the architecture/design of modules. It defines the

functionality between the two modules.

(iv) Low-Level Design:

Low-level Design defines the architecture/design of individual components.

(v) Coding:

Code development is done in this phase.

 b) Validation Phase:

(i) Unit Testing:

Unit testing is performed using the unit test cases that are designed and is done in
the Low-level design phase. Unit testing is performed by the developer itself. It is
performed on individual components which lead to early defect detection.

(ii) Integration Testing:

Integration testing is performed using integration test cases in High-level Design

phase. Integration testing is the testing that is done on integrated modules. It is
performed by testers.

(iii) System Testing:

System testing is performed in the System Design phase. In this phase, the
complete system is tested i.e. the entire system functionality is tested.

(iv) Acceptance Testing:

Acceptance testing is associated with the Requirement Analysis phase and is done
in the customer’s environment.
Advantages of V – Model:

It is a simple and easily understandable model.

V –model approach is good for smaller projects wherein the requirement is
defined and it freezes in the early stage.
It is a systematic and disciplined model which results in a high-quality product.
Disadvantages of V-Model:

V-shaped model is not good for ongoing projects.

Requirement change at the later stage would cost too high.

#3) Prototype Model

The prototype model is a model in which the prototype is developed prior to the
actual software.

Prototype models have limited functional capabilities and inefficient performance

when compared to the actual software. Dummy functions are used to create
prototypes. This is a valuable mechanism for understanding the customers’ needs.

Software prototypes are built prior to the actual software to get valuable
feedback from the customer. Feedbacks are implemented and the prototype is
again reviewed by the customer for any change. This process goes on until the
model is accepted by the customer.

Once the requirement gathering is done, the quick design is created and the
prototype which is presented to the customer for evaluation is built.

Customer feedback and the refined requirement is used to modify the prototype
and is again presented to the customer for evaluation. Once the customer
approves the prototype, it is used as a requirement for building the actual
software. The actual software is build using the Waterfall model approach.
Advantages of Prototype Model:

Prototype model reduces the cost and time of development as the defects are
found much earlier.
Missing feature or functionality or a change in requirement can be identified in
the evaluation phase and can be implemented in the refined prototype.
Involvement of a customer from the initial stage reduces any confusion in the
requirement or understanding of any functionality.
Disadvantages of Prototype Model:

Since the customer is involved in every phase, the customer can change the
requirement of the end product which increases the complexity of the scope and
may increase the delivery time of the product.

#4) Spiral Model

The Spiral Model includes iterative and prototype approach.

Spiral model phases are followed in the iterations. The loops in the model
represent the phase of the SDLC process i.e. the innermost loop is of requirement
gathering & analysis which follows the Planning, Risk analysis, development, and
evaluation. Next loop is Designing followed by Implementation & then testing.

Spiral Model has four phases:

Planning
Risk Analysis
Engineering
Evaluation

Spiral Model

(i) Planning:

The planning phase includes requirement gathering wherein all the required
information is gathered from the customer and is documented. Software
requirement specification document is created for the next phase.

(ii) Risk Analysis:

In this phase, the best solution is selected for the risks involved and analysis is
done by building the prototype.

For Example, the risk involved in accessing the data from a remote database can
be that the data access rate might be too slow. The risk can be resolved by
building a prototype of the data access subsystem.

(iii) Engineering:

Once the risk analysis is done, coding and testing are done.

(iv) Evaluation:
Customer evaluates the developed system and plans for the next iteration.

Advantages of Spiral Model:

Risk Analysis is done extensively using the prototype models.

Any enhancement or change in the functionality can be done in the next iteration.
Disadvantages of Spiral Model:
The spiral model is best suited for large projects only.
The cost can be high as it might take a large number of iterations which can lead
to high time to reach the final product.

#5) Iterative Incremental Model

The iterative incremental model divides the product into small chunks.

For Example, Feature to be developed in the iteration is decided and

implemented. Each iteration goes through the phases namely Requirement
Analysis, Designing, Coding, and Testing. Detailed planning is not required in
iterations.

Once the iteration is completed, a product is verified and is delivered to the

customer for their evaluation and feedback. Customer’s feedback is implemented
in the next iteration along with the newly added feature.

Hence, the product increments in terms of features and once the iterations are
completed the final build holds all the features of the product.

Phases of Iterative & Incremental Development Model:

Inception phase
Elaboration Phase
Construction Phase
Transition Phase
(i) Inception Phase:
Inception phase includes the requirement and scope of the Project.

(ii) Elaboration Phase:

In the elaboration phase, the working architecture of a product is delivered which

covers the risk identified in the inception phase and also fulfills the non-functional
requirements.

(iii) Construction Phase:

In the Construction phase, the architecture is filled in with the code which is ready
to be deployed and is created through analysis, designing, implementation, and
testing of the functional requirement.

(iv) Transition Phase:

In the Transition Phase, the product is deployed in the Production environment.

Advantages of Iterative & Incremental Model:

Any change in the requirement can be easily done and would not cost as there is
a scope of incorporating the new requirement in the next iteration.
Risk is analyzed & identified in the iterations.
Defects are detected at an early stage.
As the product is divided into smaller chunks it is easy to manage the product.
Disadvantages of Iterative & Incremental Model:

Complete requirement and understanding of a product are required to break

down and build incrementally.

#6) Big Bang Model

Big Bang Model does not have any defined process. Money and efforts are put
together as the input and output come as a developed product which might be or
might not be the same as what the customer needs.

Big Bang Model does not require much planning and scheduling. The developer
does the requirement analysis & coding and develops the product as per his
understanding. This model is used for small projects only. There is no testing team
and no formal testing is done, and this could be a cause for the failure of the
project.

Advantages of Big Bang Model:

It’s a very simple Model.

Less Planning and scheduling is required.
The developer has the flexibility to build the software of their own.

Disadvantages of the Big Bang Model:

Big Bang models cannot be used for large, ongoing & complex projects.
High risk and uncertainty.
#7) Agile Model
Agile Model is a combination of the Iterative and incremental model. This model
focuses more on flexibility while developing a product rather than on the
requirement.

In Agile, a product is broken into small incremental builds. It is not developed as a

complete product in one go. Each build increments in terms of features. The next
build is built on previous functionality.

In agile iterations are termed as sprints. Each sprint lasts for2-4 weeks. At the end
of each sprint, the product owner verifies the product and after his approval, it is
delivered to the customer.
Advantages of Agile Model:-
It allows more flexibility to adapt to the changes.
The new feature can be added easily.
Customer satisfaction as the feedback and suggestions are taken at every sstage.
Disadvantage of Agile model:-
Lack of documentation.
Agile needs experienced and highly skilled resources.
If a customer is not clear about how exactly they want the product to be, then the
project would fail.

8. RAD Model

RAD Model or Rapid Application Development model is a software

development process based on prototyping without any specific planning.
In RAD model, there is less attention paid to the planning and more priority
is given to the development tasks. It targets at developing software in a
short span of time.
SDLC RAD modeling has following phases

1. Business Modeling
2. Data Modeling
3. Process Modeling
4. Application Generation
5. Testing and Turnover
Advantage of RAD model:-

Changing requirements can be accommodated.

Progress can be measured.
Productivity with fewer people in a short time.
Reduced development time.
Increases reusability of components.
Quick initial reviews occur.
Encourages customer feedback.
Integration from very beginning solves a lot of integration issues.

Disadvantages of the RAD Model

Requires highly skilled developers/designers.
High dependency on Modelling skills.
Management complexity is more.
Suitable for systems that are component based and scalable.
Requires user involvement throughout the life cycle.
Suitable for project requiring shorter development times.