1. Define ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds with examples.

● A covalent bond, also called a molecular bond, is a chemical bond that involves the
sharing of electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared
pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces
between atoms, when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding.
example could be "Water, H2O" as it is formed by the share of electrons of hydrogen
and oxygen.
● When a positively charged ion forms a bond with a negatively charged ion, one atom
donates electrons to the other, this is known as an ionic bond. The chemical molecule
Sodium Chloride is an example of an ionic bond.
● Metal as lattice with valence electrons move through it A“ sea" of free,
delocalized/moving valence electrons is bonded to the positively charged ions in a
metal. Is called metallic bond. Examples are gold and silver.

2. Write down properties of ionic, covalent, and metallic bond

compounds.
Ionic bond properties:
1.Non directional an ion has the same attraction from all directions for an ion of opposite
charge
2.Posses strong electrostatic force of attraction between ions high melting and boiling points
3.Non-conductor of electricity in solid state
4. Conductor of electricity in molten state and in dissolved form in water
5. Soluble in polar solvent (insoluble in non-polar solvent)
Covalent bond properties:
1.Directional atoms bonded covalently prefer specific orientations in space relative to one
another shape
2.Weak force of attraction between the various bonded atoms low melting and boiling points
3.Non-conductor in solid state/dissolved state
4.Nonpolar in nature
5. Soluble in organic solvent, generally insoluble in water
Metallic bond properties:
1. Ductile
2. Malleable
3. Electrical conductivity
4. Thermal conductivity
5. Lusturous
 3. Hybridization definition, VSEPR theory? Discuss the
geometry and shape of the following molecules on the basis
of Hybridization and VSEPR model: BrF3, SF6, XeF2, H3O+ ,
BeCl2, ethylene, methane, etc.
Hybridisation is phenomenon of combining two atomic orbitals to give a new degenerate
hybrid orbital which have same energy levels.
The VSEPR theory is used to predict the shape of the molecules from the electron pairs that
surround the central atoms of the molecule. 

VESPR procedure:
1.Draw the Lewis electron structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion.
2.Count the number of electron pair around central atom.
3.Determine the electron group arrangement around the central atom that minimizes
repulsions.
4.Assign an AX n designation.
5.Then identify the LP LP, LP BP, or BP BP interactions and predict deviations from ideal
bond angles.
6. Describe the molecular geometry.

BrF3:
BrF3 has a trigonal bipyramidal geometry. The central atom, Br, is sp3d hybridized, which
means that it has five electron pairs, including three bonding pairs and two lone pairs. The
VSEPR theory predicts that the three bonding pairs and two lone pairs will be arranged in a
trigonal bipyramidal shape.

SF6:
SF6 has an octahedral geometry. The central atom, S, is sp3d2 hybridized, which means that
it has six electron pairs, including six bonding pairs and no lone pairs. The VSEPR theory
predicts that the six bonding pairs will be arranged in an octahedral shape.

XeF2:
XeF2 has a linear geometry. The central atom, Xe, is sp3d hybridized, which means that it
has five electron pairs, including two bonding pairs and three lone pairs. The VSEPR theory
predicts that the two bonding pairs will be arranged in a linear shape.

H3O+:
H3O+ has a trigonal pyramidal geometry. The central atom, O, is sp3 hybridized, which
means that it has four electron pairs, including three bonding pairs and one lone pair. The
VSEPR theory predicts that the three bonding pairs and one lone pair will be arranged in a
trigonal pyramidal shape.

BeCl2:
BeCl2 has a linear geometry. The central atom, Be, is sp hybridized, which means that it has
two electron pairs, including two bonding pairs and no lone pairs. The VSEPR theory
predicts that the two bonding pairs will be arranged in a linear shape.

Ethylene:
Ethylene has a planar geometry. Each carbon atom in ethylene is sp2 hybridized, which
means that it has three electron pairs, including two bonding pairs and one lone pair. The
VSEPR theory predicts that the two carbon atoms will be arranged in a planar shape.

Methane:
Methane has a tetrahedral geometry. The central atom, C, is sp3 hybridized, which means that
it has four electron pairs, including four bonding pairs and no lone pairs. The VSEPR theory
predicts that the four bonding pairs will be arranged in a tetrahedral shape.

4. Discuss MO diagrams of O2 and C2 molecules with

respective bond order and magnetic properties.

Bond order = [no. of e-in BMO –no. of e-in ABMO]/2

= [6-2]/2
=2
Unpaired electrons are present so paramagnetic.
Bonding in C2 molecule: Configuration of C2 molecule according to molecular orbital
theory (MOT) is: (σ1s)2(σ∗1s)2(σ2s)2(σ∗2s)2(π2px)2(π2py)2

Bond order= no.
of bonding electrons - no. of antibonding
electrons 2=8−42=2
Diamagnetic

5. Define hydrogen bonding and list down the types of

hydrogen bonds with examples. Application of hydrogen
bonding related to solubility.
The electrostatic attraction between an H atom covalently bonded to a highly electronegative
atom X and a lone pair of electrons of X in another molecule, is called Hydrogen Bonding.
In order for a hydrogen bond to occur, the hydrogen must be bonded to an electronegative
atom. There are two types of hydrogen bonding:
We know that hydrogen bonding is the bonding between hydrogen and electronegative
elements such as O,F,N. These bonds are hence polar; one part of the molecule carries a
slightly positive charge, and the other part carries a slightly negative charge. This arises due
to the difference in electronegativities of the atoms of the molecule. Due to this polarity, they
are soluble in water since water is also a polar molecule. Hence HF is readily soluble in water
since F is highly electronegative hence highly polar in its hydride form.
Thus, we can conclude that hydrogen bonds highly affect solubility. More polar is the
molecule due to hydrogen bonding, higher will be the solubility.

6. Write down Fajans’ rules and predict which one of the of

the following have more covalent character (i) AlCl3 or AlF3
(ii) MgCl2 or NaCl (iii) LiI or NaI
Fajans' rules are a set of empirical rules used to predict whether a chemical bond between two
ions will be predominantly ionic or covalent based on the properties of the ions.

The rules are:

The smaller the cation, the greater its polarizing power.

The larger the anion, the more easily it is polarized.
Ionic compounds with highly charged ions will have greater covalent character.
Ionic compounds with polarizable ions will have greater covalent character.
(i) AlCl3 or AlF3:
According to Fajans' rules, AlCl3 is expected to have more covalent character than AlF3
because the Cl- ion is larger and more polarizable than the F- ion, making it easier to polarize
the electron cloud of Al3+. Additionally, the difference in electronegativity between Al and
Cl is smaller than that between Al and F, making it easier for AlCl3 to have a more covalent
character.
(ii) MgCl2 or NaCl:
According to Fajans' rules, MgCl2 is expected to have more covalent character than NaCl
because Mg2+ is smaller and more highly charged than Na+, which makes it a stronger
polarizing agent. The Cl- ion is relatively large and polarizable, and therefore more likely to
experience polarization by the highly charged cation.

(iii) LiI or NaI:

According to Fajans' rules, LiI is expected to have more covalent character than NaI because
Li+ is smaller and more highly charged than Na+, which makes it a stronger polarizing agent.
The I- ion is relatively large and polarizable, and therefore more likely to experience
polarization by the highly charged cation.

7. Draw the shapes of s, p and d orbitals?

The Shape of s Orbitals
The boundary surface diagram for the s orbital looks like a sphere having the nucleus as its
centre which in two dimensions can be seen as a circle.
Hence, we can say that s-orbitals are spherically symmetric having the probability of finding
the electron at a given distance equal in all the directions.

Shape of p-Orbital
The p orbitals are formed like dumbbells.
The p orbital node is located at the nucleus’s center.
Because of the presence of three orbitals, the p orbital can occupy a maximum of six
electrons.
For d orbitals, the magnetic orbital quantum number is given as (-2, -1,0, 1,2). As a result,
we can claim there are five d-orbitals.
These orbitals are denoted by the symbols dxy, dyz, dxz, dx2–y2, and dz2.
The forms of the first four d orbitals are similar to each other, which differs from the dz2
orbital, but the energy of all five d orbitals is the same. It can be said double dumbbell.

8. Write differences between order and molecularity.

 9. What would be the units for the rate constant of zero, first,
and zero order reactions.
The rate constant (k) is a proportionality constant that relates the rate of a chemical reaction
to the concentrations of the reactants. The units of the rate constant depend on the order of the
reaction, as follows:

Zero-order reaction: In a zero-order reaction, the rate of the reaction is independent of the
concentration of the reactants. Therefore, the units of the rate constant are mol L^-1 s^-1.

First-order reaction: In a first-order reaction, the rate of the reaction is proportional to the
concentration of a single reactant. Therefore, the units of the rate constant are s^-1.

Second-order reaction: In a second-order reaction, the rate of the reaction is proportional to

the product of the concentrations of two reactants or the square of the concentration of a
single reactant. Therefore, the units of the rate constant are L mol^-1 s^-1.

It is important to note that the units of the rate constant can vary depending on the specific
form of the rate law equation, and the units of the reactant concentrations used. The units
provided above are the most commonly used ones.

10. Define or explain the following terms: Rate of a

reaction, Order of a reaction, Molecularity of a reaction,
Rate constant
1. Rate of a reaction: The rate of a chemical reaction is defined as the change in
concentration of reactants or products per unit time. It is usually expressed in terms of
the rate of change of the concentration of a particular species, such as moles per liter
per second (mol/L/s).
2. Order of a reaction: The order of a chemical reaction is the sum of the exponents of
the concentration terms in the rate law equation. The rate law equation describes the
mathematical relationship between the rate of a reaction and the concentrations of the
reactants. For example, a first-order reaction has a rate law that is proportional to the
concentration of a single reactant, while a second-order reaction has a rate law that is
proportional to the product of the concentrations of two reactants.
3. Molecularity of a reaction: Molecularity refers to the number of molecules or atoms
that participate in the rate-determining step of a chemical reaction. It is a theoretical
concept that is used to describe the reaction mechanism. For example, a unimolecular
reaction involves the decomposition of a single molecule, while a bimolecular
reaction involves the collision of two molecules.
4. Rate constant: The rate constant is a proportionality constant that relates the rate of a
chemical reaction to the concentrations of the reactants. It is a unique constant for
each reaction and has a specific value at a given temperature. The value of the rate
constant depends on the order of the reaction and the activation energy of the reaction.
It is usually denoted by the symbol k and has units that depend on the order of the
 reaction. The rate law equation for a reaction can be written in terms of the rate
constant, the concentrations of the reactants, and the order of the reaction.

11. Explain the Phase rule, Phase, Component, and Degree

of freedom. Calculaion of P, C, and F values for phase
equilibriums.
The phase rule is a thermodynamic principle that relates the number of phases in a system,
the number of independent components, and the degree of freedom of the system. It can be
used to predict the number of phases that will be present in a system at equilibrium under
different conditions. The phase rule is given by the equation:

F=C-P+2

where F is the degree of freedom, C is the number of independent components, and P is the
number of phases in the system.

● Phase: A phase is a homogeneous and physically distinct part of a system that is

separated from other parts of the system by a boundary or interface. Examples of
phases include solid, liquid, and gas.
● Component: A component is a chemically distinct and independently variable species
that is present in a system. In general, the number of components is equal to the
minimum number of chemical species required to specify the composition of each
phase in the system.
● Degree of freedom: The degree of freedom is the number of intensive variables, such
as temperature, pressure, and composition, that can be independently varied without
changing the number of phases in the system. The degree of freedom determines the
number of variables that need to be specified in order to completely define the state of
the system.

12. Define Eutectic point, Eutectic mixture, and Triple

point.
Eutectic point, eutectic mixture, and triple point are terms used in the study of phase
equilibria.

Eutectic point: The eutectic point is the composition and temperature at which a eutectic
mixture form. A eutectic point is the lowest temperature at which the mixture can exist as a
liquid and is characterized by a sharp melting point.

Eutectic mixture: A eutectic mixture is a mixture of two or more substances that has a lower
melting point than any of its individual components. The eutectic mixture has a specific
composition that corresponds to the eutectic point.

Triple point: The triple point is the temperature and pressure at which the three phases of a
substance (solid, liquid, and gas) coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. At the triple point,
the three phases are in equilibrium and the temperature and pressure are fixed.

13. Discuss the phase diagram of water.

14. Discuss the phase diagram of Pb-Sn system.

15. How many degrees of freedom will be present in a

solution of sodium chloride in equilibrium with water
vapour?
In a solution of sodium chloride in equilibrium with water vapor, the degrees of freedom (F)
can be determined by applying the phase rule:

F=C-P+2

where F is the degrees of freedom, C is the number of components, and P is the number of
phases.

In this case, we have two components (NaCl and H2O) and two phases (the solution and
water vapor). Therefore,

F=2-2+2=2

This means that there are two degrees of freedom in the system, which can be any two
independent variables such as temperature, pressure, or composition. The values of the other
variables will be determined by the conditions of the system, such as the salt concentration,
the relative humidity, and the temperature.

16. Hess’s law of constant summations

17. Heats of formation, combustion. Relation between

enthalpy and IE.
Heats of formation and combustion are thermodynamic quantities that describe the energy
changes associated with chemical reactions.

Heat of formation (ΔHf): The heat of formation is the energy change that occurs when one
mole of a compound is formed from its constituent elements in their standard states at a
specified temperature and pressure. The heat of formation is usually measured in kilojoules
per mole (kJ/mol) and is a measure of the stability of the compound.

Heat of combustion (ΔHc): The heat of combustion is the energy change that occurs when
one mole of a substance is completely burned in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water,
and other products. The heat of combustion is usually measured in kilojoules per mole
(kJ/mol) and is a measure of the energy content of the substance.

The relationship between enthalpy and ionization energy (IE) is that both are measures of the
energy associated with a chemical system. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property that
describes the heat energy of a system at constant pressure, while ionization energy is the
energy required to remove an electron from an atom or molecule. The enthalpy change
associated with a chemical reaction is related to the ionization energy of the reactants and
products, as well as other factors such as bond energies and intermolecular forces.

In general, the enthalpy change of a reaction is related to the energy required to break the
bonds in the reactants and the energy released by forming new bonds in the products. The
ionization energy of the reactants and products can affect the strength of the bonds and the
overall energy change of the reaction. For example, a reaction that involves the ionization of
a reactant or product may have a higher or lower enthalpy change than a reaction that does
not involve ionization.

18. Fuels and types

A fuel is defined as the substance, which is combustible, burns in the presence of air and
produces a sufficient amount of heat energy.

16. Define solids, crystalline, and amorphous materials.

Compare the amorphous and crystalline materials.
Solids are one of the three fundamental states of matter, along with liquids and gases. A
solid is a material that has a definite shape and volume, and its atoms or molecules are held
together by strong intermolecular forces.

Crystalline materials are solids that have a highly ordered and regular arrangement of atoms
or molecules, forming a three-dimensional periodic lattice structure. The lattice structure of a
crystal is defined by a repeating unit called the unit cell, and the arrangement of the atoms
within the unit cell determines the crystal structure. Crystalline materials have well-defined
melting points and exhibit sharp X-ray diffraction patterns, indicating their highly ordered
structure.

Amorphous materials are solids that lack a regular and repeating lattice structure. The atoms
or molecules in amorphous materials are arranged randomly, giving rise to a disordered
structure. Examples of amorphous materials include glass, some polymers, and some
ceramics. Amorphous materials do not have well-defined melting points and exhibit broad X-
ray diffraction patterns, indicating their disordered structure.

Some of the key differences between amorphous and crystalline materials are:

Structure: Crystalline materials have a highly ordered and periodic lattice structure, while
amorphous materials have a disordered structure.

Melting point: Crystalline materials have well-defined melting points, while amorphous
materials do not.

X-ray diffraction: Crystalline materials exhibit sharp X-ray diffraction patterns, while
amorphous materials exhibit broad X-ray diffraction patterns.

Optical properties: Crystalline materials often have well-defined optical properties, such as
birefringence, while amorphous materials typically have isotropic optical properties.

Mechanical properties: Crystalline materials often have well-defined mechanical properties,

such as hardness and elastic modulus, while amorphous materials typically have lower
mechanical strength and hardness due to their disordered structure.

Overall, the regular and ordered structure of crystalline materials provides them with many
unique properties and makes them useful for a wide range of applications, while the
disordered and random structure of amorphous materials makes them useful for different
applications where regularity is not required.

17. Important properties of crystalline materials

The constituent particles are arranged in a regular fashion
containing short-range as well long-range order
They have definite geometric shapes
They have sharp melting points
They are anisotropic
They have definite heat of fusion
They undergo a clean cleavage
They are true solids
Example- Quartz is crystalline SiO2
 19. Definitions of unit cells, crystal lattice. Number of
atoms, coordination numbers in simple, face-cantered, and
body-centred lattices.

A crystal lattice is a regular and repeating arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a

crystalline solid. It describes the overall structure of a crystal, and the regularity of the
arrangement gives rise to the characteristic properties of a crystal.

A unit cell is the smallest repeating unit in a crystal lattice. It is a parallelepiped (a 3D shape
with six rectangular faces) that is used to describe the symmetry of the crystal lattice. The
properties of a crystal are related to the arrangement of the atoms or molecules within the unit
cell.

There are three basic types of crystal lattices: simple cubic, face-cantered cubic, and body-
cantered cubic. Each of these lattices has a specific number of atoms per unit cell and a
characteristic coordination number, which is the number of nearest neighbours that each atom
has.

In a simple cubic lattice, each atom is located at the corner of a cube. There is one atom per
unit cell, and the coordination number is 6.

In a face-cantered cubic lattice, each atom is located at the corner of a cube, and there is an
additional atom located in the centre of each face. There are four atoms per unit cell, and the
coordination number is 12.

In a body-cantered cubic lattice, each atom is located at the corner of a cube, and there is an
additional atom located at the centre of the cube. There are two atoms per unit cell, and the
coordination number is 8.

20. Define Braggs law. Calculations of miller indices.

Density calculations in solid state materials.
 21. what are defects and classification.

Frenkel Defect:
In ionic solids generally, the smaller ion (cation) moves out of its place and occupies an
intermolecular space. In this case, a vacancy defect is created on its original position and the
interstitial defect is experienced at its new position.

It is also known as dislocation defect.

The density of a substance remains unchanged.
It happens when there is a huge difference in the size of anions and cations.
Example: ZnS and AgCl.
Schottky Defect
This kind of vacancy defects is found in Ionic Solids. But in ionic compounds, we need to
balance the electrical neutrality of the compound so an equal number of anions and cations
will be missing from the compound.
It reduces the density of the substance.
In this, the size of cations and anions are of almost the same.

Impurity defect:
Impurity defects are foreign atoms that replace some of the atoms making
up the solid or that squeeze into the interstices; they are important in the
electrical behaviour of semiconductors, which are materials used in
computer chips and other electronic devices.
It has two types:
1. Substitutional impurities (Brass alloy Zn in Cu)
2. Interstitial Impurities (Stainless steel C in Fe)

22. Band theory. P-type and n-type doping.

Semiconductors and classification

According to band theory, the electronic structure of a solid can be described in terms of
energy bands, which represent allowed energy states for electrons in the material. The highest
occupied energy band is known as the valence band, while the lowest unoccupied energy
band is known as the conduction band.

In insulators, there is a large energy gap between the valence and conduction bands, so that
electrons cannot easily move from the valence band to the conduction band. In metals, there
is little or no energy gap between the valence and conduction bands, so electrons can easily
move from the valence band to the conduction band, making them good conductors of
electricity.

In semiconductors, there is a small energy gap between the valence and conduction bands, so
that electrons can be excited from the valence band to the conduction band by thermal or
optical energy. This makes semiconductors useful for a wide range of electronic applications.

P-type and n-type doping are two ways in which the electrical conductivity of a
semiconductor can be controlled. In p-type doping, impurities are added to a semiconductor
material to create an excess of positively charged "holes" in the valence band, which can
conduct current. In n-type doping, impurities are added to create an excess of negatively
charged "electrons" in the conduction band, which can also conduct current.

Semiconductors are classified into two main types: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic
semiconductors are pure materials, such as silicon or germanium, that have a small energy
gap between the valence and conduction bands. Extrinsic semiconductors are doped with
impurities to alter their electronic properties, as described above. Extrinsic semiconductors
can be further classified as n-type or p-type depending on the type of dopant used.
Semiconductors are used in a wide range of electronic devices, including transistors, solar
cells, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
 23. definition of polymers and its classification.

Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating units of smaller molecules called
monomers. They are long chains of molecules that can be either natural or synthetic in origin.

Polymers can be classified into several categories based on their properties and structure.
Here are some of the main categories:

Natural polymers: These are polymers that occur naturally in living organisms. Examples
include proteins, cellulose, and DNA.

Synthetic polymers: These are polymers that are made by humans through chemical
processes. Examples include polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene.

Homopolymers: These are polymers made up of only one type of monomer. For example,
polyethylene is a homopolymer made up of repeating units of ethylene.

Copolymers: These are polymers made up of two or more different monomers. Examples
include ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers and styrene-butadiene rubber.

Linear polymers: These are polymers that have a linear, unbranched structure. Examples
include polyethylene and nylon.

Branched polymers: These are polymers that have a branched or tree-like structure. Examples
include low-density polyethylene and polyisobutylene.

Crosslinked polymers: These are polymers in which the individual chains are linked together
in a three-dimensional network. Examples include vulcanized rubber and epoxy resins.

Polymers have a wide range of applications, including in plastics, fibers, coatings, adhesives,
and many other products. They are also used in medicine, agriculture, and many other
industries.

24. Difference between thermosetting and thermoplastic

polymers
25. classification of polymers based on configuration.
 Calculations of Molecular weight of polymers

26. definition of glass transition temperature.

The glass transition temperature (Tg) is the temperature at which an amorphous material,
such as a glass or a polymer, undergoes a transition from a hard, brittle, glassy state to a more
flexible and rubbery state. It is the temperature at which the amorphous material begins to
soften and exhibit some of the properties of a liquid, such as increased molecular mobility.

Above the glass transition temperature, the material can flow like a liquid, but below this
temperature, the material is in a glassy or rigid state. The glass transition temperature is an
important property of amorphous materials, as it can affect their mechanical, thermal, and
optical properties. It can be influenced by factors such as the chemical structure of the
material, the degree of cross-linking, and the presence of plasticizers or other additives.

27. Synthesis and properties of poly vinyl chloride,

Polyethylene terephthalate, nylon, polystyrene. Monomers of
some important polymers.

28. Demineralization of water using Zeolite process and

demineralization using acidic and basic polymers. Definition of
hardness and softness.
Demineralization is the process of removing mineral ions, such as calcium, magnesium,
and iron, from water. There are several methods for demineralizing water, including the
Zeolite process and the use of acidic and basic polymers.

The Zeolite process is a common method for softening water. It involves passing hard water
through a column filled with a resin containing sodium ions. The calcium and magnesium
ions in the water are exchanged with sodium ions, resulting in softened water. This process is
effective for removing temporary hardness, but not permanent hardness.

Acidic and basic polymers are also used for demineralizing water. Acidic polymers, such as
cation exchange resins, contain sulfonic acid groups that exchange hydrogen ions for cations
in the water, while basic polymers, such as anion exchange resins, contain amine groups that
exchange hydroxide ions for anions in the water. The result is demineralized water that is free
of cations and anions.

The terms "hardness" and "softness" are used to describe the amount of dissolved minerals in
water. Hard water contains high levels of calcium and magnesium ions, while soft water
contains low levels of these ions. Hard water can cause scaling and build-up in pipes and
appliances and can make it difficult to form lather with soap. Soft water, on the other hand,
can be more efficient for cleaning and can help prolong the life of appliances and plumbing
systems.

28. Definition and examples of electrochemical and

electrolytic cells
An electrochemical cell is a device that converts electricity into chemical energy. An
electrochemical cell is a device that can generate electrical energy from chemical processes
that occur spontaneously. Redox reactions are the chemical processes that take place
throughout this process. Electrons are transferred between chemical species in redox
reactions. A redox reaction is made up of two half-reactions: oxidation and reduction. When
an oxidation reaction occurs, electrons are always released into the system, but when a
reduction reaction occurs, electrons are taken away from the system. As a result, the two half-
reactions happen at the same time. Voltaic (galvanic) cells and electrolytic cells are two
forms of electrochemical cells. Two half cells make up an electrochemical cell. In two half
cells, half-reactions take place.
Examples: AA batteries

An electrolytic cell is a device that uses electricity to produce electricity. An electrolytic cell
is a form of an electrochemical cell that uses electrical energy to initiate a chemical reaction.
To put it another way, electrical energy should come from somewhere else. Then you can
start a nonspontaneous response. The most common type of electrolytic cell used for
compound electrolysis is the electrolytic cell. Solid metal electrodes are also used in
electrolytic cells. An external circuit is linked to two electrodes. One electrode serves as an
anode, while the other serves as a cathode. The anode will undergo the oxidation reaction,
whereas the cathode will undergo the reduction reaction.
Examples: Mobile battery

29. primary and secondary cells

Primary cells and secondary cells are two types of electrochemical cells that convert chemical
energy into electrical energy. The main difference between them is that primary cells are
designed to be used once and then discarded, while secondary cells can be recharged and
used multiple times.

Primary cells, also known as disposable cells, are typically used in applications where long-
term, continuous use is not required. They are made up of a positive and a negative electrode,
or cathode and anode, which are separated by an electrolyte. When the cell is connected to an
external circuit, a chemical reaction occurs, generating an electrical current. Primary cells
have a limited lifespan and cannot be recharged once they are depleted.

Secondary cells, also known as rechargeable cells, can be recharged and reused multiple
times. They operate on the same principles as primary cells, but they are designed with
materials that can be recharged through the application of an external current. The most
common types of secondary cells are lead-acid batteries, nickel-cadmium batteries, and
lithium-ion batteries.

Secondary cells are more expensive than primary cells, but they are more cost-effective in the
long run, as they can be reused many times. They are commonly used in applications where
long-term, continuous use is required, such as in portable electronics, electric vehicles, and
renewable energy systems.
30. Pb-acid battery (electrodes, chemical equations,
electrolyte, applications, advantages, and disadvantages)
31. Li-ion battery (electrodes, chemical equations,
electrolyte, applications, advantages and disadvantages)
Advantages of Lithium-Ion Batteries:

High Energy Density: Lithium-ion batteries have a high energy density, which means they
can store a lot of energy in a small and lightweight package.

Low Self-Discharge: Lithium-ion batteries have a low self-discharge rate, which means they
can hold their charge for a long time when not in use.

Low Maintenance: Lithium-ion batteries are low maintenance and do not require periodic
discharge and recharge cycles to maintain their performance.

Fast Charging: Lithium-ion batteries can be charged quickly, which is important for portable
electronic devices and electric vehicles.

Disadvantages of Lithium-Ion Batteries:

Limited Lifespan: Lithium-ion batteries have a limited lifespan and can only be charged and
discharged a certain number of times before they degrade and lose their capacity.

Safety Concerns: Lithium-ion batteries are susceptible to thermal runaway and can catch fire
or explode if they are damaged or exposed to high temperatures.

Expensive: Lithium-ion batteries are more expensive than other types of rechargeable
batteries, such as lead-acid batteries and nickel-metal hydride batteries.

Environmental Concerns: Lithium-ion batteries contain toxic and flammable materials that
can be harmful to the environment if not disposed of properly.

33. Fuel Cells (electrodes, chemical equations, electrolyte,

applications, advantages and disadvantages)
Advantages of fuel cells:

Efficiency: Fuel cells have higher efficiency compared to traditional combustion engines, as
they can convert a higher percentage of the fuel's energy into electricity.

Low emissions: Fuel cells produce fewer emissions than traditional combustion engines, as
they produce only water and heat as by-products.

Quiet operation: Fuel cells operate silently, making them ideal for applications that require
low noise levels.

Flexibility: Fuel cells can operate on a variety of fuels, including hydrogen, natural gas, and
propane, which provides flexibility in fuel choice.

Long lifespan: Fuel cells have a longer lifespan than traditional batteries, as they can be
recharged many times.

Disadvantages of fuel cells:

High cost: Fuel cells are currently more expensive than traditional combustion engines,
which makes them less accessible to many consumers.

Infrastructure: The lack of infrastructure for hydrogen fuelling stations and other
infrastructure required for fuel cells is a major challenge for widespread adoption.

Durability: Fuel cells are not as durable as traditional combustion engines and require
periodic maintenance.
Safety concerns: Fuel cells can be dangerous if not handled properly, as they involve the use
of highly flammable fuels and high pressure systems.

Limited power output: Fuel cells currently have limited power output, which makes them
unsuitable for high-power applications.