Course: School Administration and Supervision (8616)

Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years) Semester: Autumn, 2022

ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 What are administrative role and responsibility? Also describe the scope
of educational administration. (20)

Educational Administrative Roles and Responsibilities.

Faculty expectations in teaching, research/scholarship, and service and citizenship
are described above in Section V. The educational administrative roles
cataloged here are over and above typical citizenship activities and the only
roles for which there is associated salary coverage for faculty. The percent
salary coverage listed for each role are maximums and prorated if the duties
of a role are shared. Not all roles will be filled at all times depending on the
needs of the School. The Associate Deans for Education and Research and
Faculty Advancement oversee faculty administrative roles.

Quality assurance in education is a critical process that includes promoting

innovation in teaching and learning including, but not limited to,
synchronous and asynchronous online teaching and novel uses of technology
to enhance in-person teaching and learning, continuous quality improvement
of teaching and learning including the development, collection and analysis
of appropriate performance metrics, and building a culture of excellence in
teaching that rewards the best and supports the rest. It also includes on-
boarding of new primary and adjunct faculty, ongoing training and support
for teaching faculty including programs such as peer coaching. These
activities are best managed within departments. The work could be taken up
by the chair, associate chair, allocated to a faculty member, managed by
program staff or some combination.
A. Associate chairs
Associate chairs work closely with their respective department chairs in all
aspects of leadership and management of department faculty and staff in
advancing the mission of the school and the department. The particular mix
of responsibilities may vary depending on the agreement between the chair
and associate chair regarding how to best meet the needs of their particular
department. The responsibilities of associate chairs include assisting the
department chair in duties as assigned, and may include the following:
B. Program directors
Program directors oversee graduate studies within a degree program (PhD, DrPH,
MA, MS, MPH). Working with program faculty, department and SPH
leadership, the director shares responsibility for managing and improving
graduate education within a program. The responsibilities include:
overseeing the administration and governance of graduate studies within the
program
participating in Accepted Student Days, Prospective Student Information Sessions,
and other recruitment and yield events (expected of all faculty as part of
service and citizenship)
overseeing admissions to the program (except MPH and MS PHR admissions
which are handled by an Admissions Committee comprised of faculty from all
departments)
serving as a point of contact for graduate students enrolled in the program
acting as the liaison among the graduate students, program faculty, and SPH
administration
serving as the program’s representative on SPH governance committees, as
appropriate
identifying and managing funding opportunities for students, as appropriate
communicating relevant matters to the program faculty or its committees as
needed; informing the faculty of policies and deadlines, as appropriate; and
forwarding recommendations, nominations, and other information from the
faculty to the appropriate SPH and university administrators
receiving, reviewing, and monitoring the progress of student applications and
petitions
adjudicating requests for transfer credit and waivers (in consultation with
appropriate faculty)
orienting and advising graduate students with respect to program and degree
requirements until a permanent adviser is selected and assist in that
selection as necessary
ensuring compliance with accreditation requirements
submitting curricular changes to the Education Committee for approval
approving program requirements for annual bulletin deadlines
reviewing teaching schedules to ensure availability of course offerings
enforcing policies and regulations of the university, SPH and the degree program
overseeing maintenance of student program records and regular student
evaluation processes (including following up on student issues identified by
the Satisfactory Academic Progress committee, as appropriate)
providing periodic reports on the program to SPH as requested
The MPH director is additionally responsible for serving as the point of contact for
the stand- alone certificate in Public Health, the Executive MPH and the part-
time student organization, and for overseeing requirements for certificates,
course scheduling, the practicum and the integrated learning experiences.
The director is a standing member of the Education Committee.
The MPH dual degree director is responsible for managing dual degree programs
(MD/MPH, JD/MPH, MBA/MPH, MSW/MPH, MS/MPH), and for working
closely with faculty and staff in partner schools to create opportunities for
collaboration. The director is additionally responsible for working with the
MPH director, program faculty, departments across the University, and SPH
leadership. The director is a standing member of the Education Committee.

The Director of Undergraduate Programs is responsible for managing the BA/MPH

and BS/MPH programs and the minor in public health, working with faculty
 and staff in partner schools to create opportunities for collaboration. The
director is additionally responsible for working with the MPH director,
program faculty, departments across the University, and SPH leadership. The
director is a standing member of the Education Committee.
The MS in Population Health Research (PHR) director is additionally responsible
for overseeing the design and implementation of specializations embedded
within the program, research seminars, mentored research experiences, and
collaborating with faculty across multiple departments. The director is a
standing member of the Education Committee.
MPH certificate leads oversee the design and implementation of functional and
context certificates embedded within the program collaborating with the MPH
director and program

Responsibilities of functional certificate leads include:

drafting competencies for the certificate
identifying courses that meet certificate goals
mapping course assessments to competencies
drafting requirements of the integrated learning experience (ILE) and devising a
rubric for assessing satisfactory completion of the ILE
serving as a point of contact for MPH students enrolled in the certificate
participating in Accepted Student Days, Prospective Student Information Sessions,
and other recruitment and yield events (expected of all faculty as part of
service and citizenship)
attending meetings of certificate leads
communicating relevant matters (e.g., program updates, advising guidelines) to
the certificate faculty as needed; informing the faculty of policies and
deadlines, as appropriate
hosting certificate events for certificate faculty and students
overseeing and assessing the ILE for each student in the certificate; serving as
faculty of record for PH845 in fall, spring and summer sessions
host practicum information sessions for certificate students
coordinating with Career Services staff on certificate-related career panels
(identifying potential panelists), and participating in career information
sessions
ensuring compliance with accreditation requirements
submitting changes to certificate requirements to the Education Committee for
approval
communicating relevant events, research, and media to certificate faculty and
students
enforcing policies and regulations of the university, SPH and the certificate
Responsibilities of context certificate leads include:
identifying courses that meet certificate goals
serving as a point of contact for MPH students enrolled in the certificate
participating in Accepted Student Days, Prospective Student Information Sessions,
and other recruitment and yield events (expected of all faculty as part of
service and citizenship)
Program directors and certificate leads are also supported by departmentally-
based staff in many aspects of program administration, including but not
limited to: admissions, student advising and community building events,
student oversight, and data requests. The work of program directors and
certificate leads are also supported by the Education Committee, Admissions
Committee, Enrollment Committee, Practicum Committee, Doctoral
Programs Committee, and the MS Programs Committee (see Section II.4).
Q.2 Elaborate different levels of administration with reference to an
educational institution. What are the school head’s’ responsibilities?
(20)

Meaning:
Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the
appropriate human and material resources that are made available and
made effective for achieving the purposes of a programme of an educational
institution.
The term “Administration” doesn’t refer to any single process or act. It is like a
broad umbrella encompassing a number of processes such as: planning,
organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling and evaluating the
performance. The same situation occurs in the field of educational
administration. The concept of educational administration is applicable in
case of an educational organisation which has certain purposes or goals to
fulfill.
In order to achieve these purposes or goals, the head of the educational
organisation plans carefully various programmes and activities. Here the
educational organisation may be a school, college or university. The head of
the school/college/university organizes these programmes and activities with
co-operation from other teachers, parents and students. He/She motivates
them and co- ordinates the efforts of teachers as well as directs and
exercises control over them. He/She evaluates their performance and
progress in achieving the purposes of the programme.

He provides feedback to them and brings modification, if required in the plans

and programmes of the school or college or university. So the totality of
these processes which are directed towards realizing or achieving the
purposes or goals of the school/college/university is called educational
administration.

Nature of Educational Administration:

The Educational Administration has the following nature:
1. Educational administration doesn’t refer to any single process rather different
processes or aspects constitute administration. These are planning,
organizing, directing, Coordinating and evaluation.
2. Educational administration is a non-profit making task.
3. Educational administration is primarily a social enterprise as it is more
concerned with human resources than with material resources.
4. Educational administration is more an art than a science. The reason is that
human relationship prevailed here can’t be maintained by any set of formulae.
5. Educational administration is similar to general administration in many ways,
but it is also dissimilar to general administration in many more ways.
6. Educational administration is a complex affair.

Objectives of Educational Administration:

As we know the very fact that educational administration needs integration and
co-ordination of all the physical and human resources and educational
elements. Besides this it requires a great efficiency with it based on human
sympathy, understanding, knowledge and skill. The physical resources mainly
contribute building equipment’s and instructional materials.
The human resources include pupils, teachers, supervisors, administrators and
parents. The additional elements comprise the various aspects of educational
theory and practice including philosophy of education, objectives of education,
curriculum, method of teaching, discipline, role of the teacher, rules and
regulations etc.
These elements are “parts, made into whole” and are components brought into
harmonious relationship. So the purpose of doing such vital task is to fulfill
different purposes which are known as the objectives of educational
administration.
These are:
1. To provide proper education to students:
This objective seeks to mention the fact that good education doesn’t mean
education at a very high cost as is practiced in modern public schools. Rather it
means the right type of education from the right type of teachers within
reasonable cost. This objective also implies quantitative expansion and qualitative
improvement of education.

2. To Ensure Adequate Utilization Of All Resources:

For adequate realization of the various purposes of educational programme there
is the need of ensuring adequate utilization of all available resources-human,
material and financial.

3. To Ensure Professional Ethics And Professional Development Among

Teachers:
As teachers are the senior and mature human elements to accelerate the
programme in time their role is highly felt in this regard. They are to be
encouraged and given the facility to devise and try out innovative ideas on
instruction and to participate in service education programmes. In this
context, it can be visualized that educational administration should aim at
developing a desire for hard work, dedication and commitment for their job
among teachers.
4. To organize educational programmes for acquainting students with the art of
democratic living and giving them excellent training in democratic
citizenship.

5. To mobilize the community:

Like general administration, educational administration seeks to maintain and
improve the relations with the community. For this it should seek community
support and co-operation for quantitative expansion, qualitative
improvements, smooth and fair examination in the educational system.
6. To organize co-curricular activities effectively for developing talents of students
and work efficiency of educational teachers.
7. To get the work done:
The most important objective of administration is to get the work done
effectively, efficiently and with satisfaction to the individuals and benefits to
the society.
8. To prepare students for taking their places in various vocations and avenues of
life.
9. To train the students in developing scientific attitude and objective outlook
among them towards all aspects and activities of life.

10. To ensure qualitative improvement of education:

Good education can be provided to students by bringing qualitative improvement
in instruction. Regular supervision of teaching and guidance of teachers help to
ensure quality teaching in schools.

Scope of Educational Administration:

1. The educational administration encompasses all the levels of education in its
jurisdiction.
These are:
a. Pre-primary or pre-school Education.
b. Elementary or primary Education.
c. Secondary Education.
d. Higher Secondary or Post secondary Education and,
e. Higher or tertiary Education.

It is educational administration that determines what should be the nature and

system of administration for all the above levels of education.
2. It covers all forms of education such as:
a. Formal Education
b. Non-formal Education and Adult Education
c. General Education
d. Vocational Education
e. Special Education
f. Teacher Education
g. Integrated Education and
h. Technical and professional Education including Engineering, Medical, MBA, and
Computer Education.
Here the educational administration sets the systems of administration in
accordance to the objectives and nature of all the levels of education.
3. It includes all types and strategies of management that encompasses the
following:
a. Democratic Administration
b. Autocratic Administration
c. Nominal Administration
d. Real Administration
4. Educational administration covers the following aspects relating to
management in its jurisdiction:
a. Planning
b. Organizing
c. Directing
d. Coordinating
e. Supervising
f. Controlling and
g. Evaluating
5. Educational Administration takes place at various levels such as:
a. Central level
b. State level
c. District level
d. Block level and
e. Institutional level
Out of these above levels, educational administration has its ground reality and
importance at the institutional level. Because it is the practical ground to test
the significance of educational administration in practice.
For this, the following activities and programmes come under the scope of
educational administration at the institutional level:
a. Deciding the purposes of the institution or school.
b. Planning for academic or curricular and co-curricular activities.
c. Preparing the time table and the time schedules for various activities.
d. Assigning duties and responsibilities to the staff members.
e. Organizing curricular and co-curricular programmes.
f. Directing and motivating the staff of the institution.
g. Coordinating by efforts of people to achieve the purpose.
h. Exercising control over the staff.
i. Conducting periodical reviews about the progress, achievements and failures
of the institution.
j. Taking measures for staff development.
k. Maintaining order and discipline.
l. Management of materials.
m. Management of finance.
n. Maintaining records and registers up to date.
o. Maintaining human relationships.
p. Supervision of the work of teachers and other employees.
q. Giving feedback to the teachers performing well and taking remedial measures
for teachers not performing well.
Basic Functions of Educational Administration:
The prime concern of administration of any programme is proper accomplishment
of the pre-fixed purposes and goals. This becomes possible through adequate
utilization of both human and material resources with the purpose of
bringing qualitative improvement of the programme. For this there is the
necessity of different aspects of management which are accepted as the
functions of administration. In order to simplify it we can be said here that
proper management of a programme needs various aspects that are
regarded as the functions of administration.
These are:
a. Planning
b. Organizing
c. Directing
d. Coordinating
e. Supervising
f. Controlling and
g. Evaluating
In the field of educational administration, the educational authority as the
administrative authority exercises its functions in relation to the above
mentioned aspects. But it is essential to mention that the functions of
educational administration can be studied under two major perspectives.
 One is in general perspective and the other is in contextual perspective. Let
us discuss these functions one by one.

Q.3 How school heads are responsible in school administration and discuss
their key responsibilities. (20)
The School Principal as Leader: Guiding Schools to Better Teaching and Learning
Shaping a vision of academic success for all students
Although they say it in different ways, researchers who have examined education
leadership agree that effective principals are responsible for establishing a
schoolwide vision of commitment to high standards and the success of all
students.
Newcomers to the education discussion might find this puzzling: Hasn't concern
with the academic achievement of every student always topped principals'
agendas? The short answer is, no. Historically, public school principals were
seen as school managers,5 and as recently as two decades ago, high
standards were thought to be the province of the college bound. "Success"
could be defined as entry-level manufacturing work for students who had
followed a "general track," and low-skilled employment for dropouts. Only in
the last few decades has the emphasis shifted to academic expectations for
all.
"Having high expectations for all is one key to closing the achievement gap
between advantaged and less advantaged students."
This change comes in part as a response to twin realizations: Career success in a
global economy depends on a strong education; for all segments of U.S.
society to be able to compete fairly, the yawning gap in academic
achievement between disadvantaged and advantaged students needs to
narrow. In a school, that begins with a principal's spelling out "high standards
and rigorous learning goals," Vanderbilt University researchers assert with
underlined emphasis. Specifically, they say, "The research literature over the
last quarter century has consistently supported the notion that having high
expectations for all, including clear and public standards, is one key to closing
 the achievement gap between advantaged and less advantaged students and
for raising the overall achievement of all students."6
An effective principal also makes sure that notion of academic success for all gets
picked up by the faculty and underpins what researchers at the University of
Washington describe as a schoolwide learning improvement agenda that
focuses on goals for student progress.7 One middle school teacher described
what adopting the vision meant for her. "My expectations have increased
every year," she told the researchers. "I've learned that as long as you
support them, there is really nothing [the students] can't do.
Advice to Teachers Interested in Becoming a Principal
"There's a tradition of teachers who are really excellent exemplars in the
classroom of saying, 'I don't want to be a principal because it has nothing to
do with instruction,'" says Linda Darling-Hammond, a leading authority on
education policy and the teaching profession. [See Q&A with her.] "But one
of the things we found in our study was that as some of those people were
reached out to and got the message that being a principal could be about...
building the quality of instruction, they said, 'Oh, well I might actually want
to do that.' They've become spectacular school principals, and we've seen
them in action.So number one, do it if that's what you're passionate about.
"Number two, seek out the best preparation you can find for instructional
management, for organizational development, for change management - for
these things that we know matter because [being a principal] is a different
use of your skills and talents. There is a broader knowledge base to capture,
and not every place you may look to build your skills will have those pieces in
place. Be aggressive about finding the right support and training for yourself.
"Third, collaborate, collaborate, collaborate. Go into this with the idea that, 'I'm
going to build a team. It's not going to just have to be me. My job is to really
find the expertise and the skills and the abilities of the people that I work
with, cultivate those, glue them together.' You will be both a more successful
principal and you will be a saner principal who has at least a little bit of a life
beyond all of the effort that you put into the work in the schools."
So, developing a shared vision around standards and success for all students is an
essential element of school leadership. As the Cheshire cat pointed out to
Alice, if you don't know where you're going, any road will lead you there.
Creating a climate hospitable to education
Effective principals ensure that their schools allow both adults and children to put
learning at the center of their daily activities. Such "a healthy school
environment," as Vanderbilt researchers call it, is characterized by basics like
safety and orderliness, as well as less tangible qualities such as a "supportive,
responsive" attitude toward the children and a sense by teachers that they
are part of a community of professionals focused on good instruction.
Is it a surprise, then, that principals at schools with high teacher ratings for
"instructional climate" outrank other principals in developing an atmosphere
of caring and trust? Or that their teachers are more likely than faculty
members elsewhere to find the principals' motives and intentions are good?
One former principal, in reflecting on his experiences, recalled a typical staff
meeting years ago at an urban school where "morale never seemed to get
out of the basement." Discussion centered on "field trips, war stories about
troubled students, and other management issues" rather than matters like
"using student work and data to fine-tune teaching." Almost inevitably,
teacher pessimism was a significant barrier, with teachers regarding
themselves as "hardworking martyrs in a hopeless cause.
To change this kind of climate - and begin to combat teacher isolation, closed
doors, negativism, defeatism and teacher resistance - the most effective
principals focus on building a sense of school community, with the attendant
characteristics. These include respect for every member of the school
community; "an upbeat, welcoming, solution-oriented, no-blame,
professional environment;" and efforts to involve staff and students in a
variety of activities, many of them schoolwide.
Engaging parents and the community: continued interest, uncertain evidence
Many principals work to engage parents and others outside the immediate school
community, such as local business people. But what does it take to make
sure these efforts are worth the time and toil required? While there is
considerable interest in this question, the evidence on how to answer it is
relatively weak. For example, the Minnesota-Toronto study found that in
schools with higher achievement on math tests, teachers tended to share in
leadership and believed that parents were involved with the school. The
researchers noted, however, that "the relationships here are correlational,
 not causal," and the finding could be at odds with another finding from the
study.13 Separately, the VAL-ED principal performance assessment
(developed with support from The Wallace Foundation) measures principals
on community and parent engagement.14 Vanderbilt researchers who
developed the assessment are undertaking further study on how important
this practice is in affecting students, achievement. In short, the principal's
role in engaging the external community is little understood.

Principals play a major role in developing a "professional community" of teachers

who guide one another in improving instruction.
Cultivating leadership in others
A broad and longstanding consensus in leadership theory holds that leaders in all
walks of life and all kinds of organizations, public and private, need to
depend on others to accomplish the group's purpose and need to encourage
the development of leadership across the organization.15 Schools are no
different. Principals who get high marks from teachers for creating a strong
climate for instruction in their schools also receive higher marks than other
principals for spurring leadership in the faculty, according to the research
from the universities of Minnesota and Toronto.
In fact if test scores are any indication, the more willing principals are to spread
leadership around, the better for the students. One of the most striking
findings of the universities of Minnesota and Toronto report is that effective
leadership from all sources - principals, influential teachers, staff teams and
others - is associated with better student performance on math and reading
tests.
The relationship is strong albeit indirect: Good leadership, the study suggests,
improves both teacher motivation and work settings. This, in turn, can fortify
classroom instruction. "Compared with lower-achieving schools, higher-
achieving schools provided all stakeholders with greater influence on
decisions," the researchers write.17 Why the better result? Perhaps this is a
case of two heads - or more - being better than one: "The higher
performance of these schools might be explained as a consequence of the
greater access they have to collective knowledge and wisdom embedded
within their communities," the study concludes.
Principals may be relieved to find out, moreover, that their authority does not
wane as others' waxes. Clearly, school leadership is not a zero-sum game.
"Principals and district leaders have the most influence on decisions in all
schools; however, they do not lose influence as others gain influence," the
authors write.19 Indeed, although "higher-performing schools awarded
greater influence to most stakeholders...little changed in these schools'
overall hierarchical structure.
University of Washington research on leadership in urban school systems
emphasizes the need for a leadership team (led by the principal and including
assistant principals and teacher leaders) and shared responsibility for student
progress, a responsibility "reflected in a set of agreements as well as
unspoken norms among school staff.
Effective principals studied by the University of Washington urged teachers to
work with one another and with the administration on a variety of activities,
including "developing and aligning curriculum, instructional practices, and
assessments; problem solving; and participating in peer observations."22
These leaders also looked for ways to encourage collaboration, paying special
attention to how school time was allocated. They might replace some
administrative meeting time with teacher planning time, for example.23 The
importance of collaboration gets backing from the Minnesota-Toronto
researchers, too. They found that principals rated highly for the strength of
their actions to improve instruction were also more apt to encourage the
staff to work collaboratively.
More specifically, the study suggests that principals play a major role in
developing a "professional community" of teachers who guide one another
in improving instruction. This is important because the research found a link
between professional community and higher student scores on standardized
math tests.25 In short, the researchers say, "When principals and teachers
share leadership, teachers' working relationships with one another are
stronger and student achievement is higher."

Q.4 Write an audit report of an academic institute or an organization and

describe the importance of administrative evaluation. (20)
Auditing is defined as the on-site verification activity, such as inspection or
examination, of a process or quality system, to ensure compliance to
requirements. An audit can apply to an entire organization or might be
specific to a function, process, or production step. Some audits have special
administrative purposes, such as auditing documents, risk, or performance,
or following up on completed corrective actions.
The three different types of auditing
What are first-party, second-party, and third-party audits?
What are the four phases of an audit cycle?
Auditing resources
Become a certified auditor
THE THREE DIFFERENT TYPES OF AUDITS
ISO 19011:2018 defines an audit as a "systematic, independent and documented
process for obtaining audit evidence [records, statements of fact or other
information which are relevant and verifiable] and evaluating it objectively to
determine the extent to which the audit criteria [a set of policies, procedures
or requirements] are fulfilled." There are three main types of audits:
Process audit: This type of audit verifies that processes are working within
established limits. It evaluates an operation or method against
predetermined instructions or standards to measure conformance to these
standards and the effectiveness of the instructions. A process audit may:
Check conformance to defined requirements such as time, accuracy, temperature,
pressure, composition, responsiveness, amperage, and component mixture.
Examine the resources (equipment, materials, people) applied to transform the
inputs into outputs, the environment, the methods (procedures, instructions)
followed, and the measures collected to determine process performance.
Check the adequacy and effectiveness of the process controls established by
procedures, work instructions, flowcharts, and training and process
specifications.
Product audit: This type of audit is an examination of a particular product or
service, such as hardware, processed material, or software, to evaluate
whether it conforms to requirements (i.e., specifications, performance
standards, and customer requirements).
System audit: An audit conducted on a management system. It can be described
as a documented activity performed to verify, by examination and evaluation
of objective evidence, that applicable elements of the system are
appropriate and effective and have been developed, documented, and
implemented in accordance and in conjunction with specified requirements.
A quality management system audit evaluates an existing quality management
program to determine its conformance to company policies, contract
commitments, and regulatory requirements.
Similarly, an environmental system audit examines an environmental
management system, a food safety system audit examines a food safety
management system, and safety system audits examine the safety
management system.
Audit Considerations
Other methods, such as a desk or document review audit, may be employed
independently or in support of the three general types of audits.
Some audits are named according to their purpose or scope. The scope of a
department or function audit is a particular department or function. The
purpose of a management audit relates to management interests, such as
assessment of area performance or efficiency.
An audit may also be classified as internal or external, depending on the
interrelationships among participants. Internal audits are performed by
employees of your organization. External audits are performed by an outside
agent. Internal audits are often referred to as first-party audits, while
external audits can be either second-party or third-party.

WHAT ARE FIRST-PARTY, SECOND-PARTY, AND THIRD-PARTY AUDITS?

A first-party audit is performed within an organization to measure its strengths
and weaknesses against its own procedures or methods and/or against
 external standards adopted by (voluntary) or imposed on (mandatory) the
organization. A first-party audit is an internal audit conducted by auditors
who are employed by the organization being audited but who have no vested
interest in the audit results of the area being audited.
A second-party audit is an external audit performed on a supplier by a customer
or by a contracted organization on behalf of a customer. A contract is in
place, and the goods or services are being, or will be, delivered. Second-party
audits are subject to the rules of contract law, as they are providing
contractual direction from the customer to the supplier. Second-party audits
tend to be more formal than first-party audits because audit results could
influence the customer’s purchasing decisions.
A third-party audit is performed by an audit organization independent of the
customer-supplier relationship and is free of any conflict of interest.
Independence of the audit organization is a key component of a third-party
audit. Third-party audits may result in certification, registration, recognition,
an award, license approval, a citation, a fine, or a penalty issued by the third-
party organization or an interested party.
Industry Certification Through Auditing
Companies in certain high-risk categories—such as toys, pressure vessels,
elevators, gas appliances, and electrical and medical devices—wanting to do
business in Europe must comply with Conformité Europeënne Mark (CE
Mark) requirements. One way for organizations to comply is to have their
management system certified by a third-party audit organization to
management system requirement criteria (such as ISO 9001).
Customers may suggest or require that their suppliers conform to ISO 9001, ISO
14001, or safety criteria, and federal regulations and requirements may also
apply. A third-party audit normally results in the issuance of a certificate
stating that the auditee organization management system complies with the
requirements of a pertinent standard or regulation.
Third-party audits for system certification should be performed by organizations
that have been evaluated and accredited by an established accreditation
board, such as the ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board (ANAB).
Performance Audits vs. Compliance and Conformance Audits
Value-added assessments, management audits, added value auditing, and
continual improvement assessment are terms used to describe an audit
purpose beyond compliance and conformance. The purpose of these audits
relates to organization performance. Audits that determine compliance and
conformance are not focused on good or poor performance, yet.
Performance is an important concern for most organizations.
A key difference between compliance audits, conformance audits, and
improvement audits is the collection of evidence related to organization
performance versus evidence to verify conformance or compliance to a
standard or procedure. An organization may conform to its procedures for
taking orders, but if every order is subsequently changed two or three times,
management may have cause for concern and want to rectify the
inefficiency.
Follow-Up Audits
A product, process, or system audit may have findings that require correction and
corrective action. Since most corrective actions cannot be performed at the
time of the audit, the audit program manager may require a follow-up audit
to verify that corrections were made and corrective actions were taken. Due
to the high cost of a single-purpose follow-up audit, it is normally combined
with the next scheduled audit of the area. However, this decision should be
based on the importance and risk of the finding.
An organization may also conduct follow-up audits to verify preventive actions
were taken as a result of performance issues that may be reported as
opportunities for improvement. Other times organizations may forward
identified performance issues to management for follow-up.
WHAT ARE THE FOUR PHASES OF AN AUDIT CYCLE?
Audit planning and preparation: Audit preparation consists of planning
everything that is done in advance by interested parties, such as the auditor,
the lead auditor, the client, and the audit program manager, to ensure that
the audit complies with the client’s objective. This stage of an audit begins
with the decision to conduct the audit and ends when the audit itself begins.
Audit execution: The execution phase of an audit is often called the fieldwork. It
is the data-gathering portion of the audit and covers the time period from
arrival at the audit location up to the exit meeting. It consists of multiple
activities including on-site audit management, meeting with the auditee,
understanding the process and system controls and verifying that these
controls work, communicating among team members, and communicating
with the auditee.
Audit reporting: The purpose of the audit report is to communicate the results of
the investigation. The report should provide correct and clear data that will
be effective as a management aid in addressing important organizational
issues. The audit process may end when the report is issued by the lead
auditor or after follow-up actions are completed.
Audit follow-up and closure: According to ISO 19011, clause 6.6, "The audit is
completed when all the planned audit activities have been carried out, or
otherwise agreed with the audit client." Clause 6.7 of ISO 19011 continues by
stating that verification of follow-up actions may be part of a subsequent
audit.

Q.5 How can you differentiate between all approaches of supervision and
teaching? (20)

Through the effective supervision of instruction, administrators can reinforce and

enhance teaching practices that will contribute to improved student learning. By
skillfully analyzing performance and appropriate data, administrators can provide
meaningful feedback and direction to teachers that can have a profound effect on
the learning that occurs in each classroom. Because student learning is the
primary function of the schools, the effective supervision of instruction is one of
the most critical functions of the administrator. If schools are to provide equal
access to quality educational programs for all students, administrators must hold
teachers accountable for providing an appropriate and well-planned program.
These programs include a variety of teaching strategies designed to meet the
diverse needs of all students in our complex society.

This chapter reviews areas of focus for teacher evaluation, the components of
effective teaching, some basic strategies and procedures for data gathering and
conferencing, and steps administrators should consider in the effective
preparation of conference memorandums and letters of reprimand. Approaches
that are discussed which differ from existing procedures in the district should be
used to stimulate discussion and prompt a review of current practices. This
process may lead to a restructuring of practices and procedures that could result
in the enhancement of student learning.

Teacher Evaluation

To enhance the professional effectiveness of the teaching staff administrators

must be skilled in these areas: (a) what to evaluate, (b) how to observe and
analyze classroom observation information and other data, and (c) how to
translate the results of observations and the summary of data into meaningful
conference feedback that guides and encourages teachers to improve instruction.
Expectancies for teacher performance were enacted by California State Senate Bill
813 and are included in Section 44662 of the California Education Code. This
section requires the governing board of each school district to establish standards
of expected pupil achievement at each grade level in each area of study. Under
this code, evaluation and assessment of certificated employee competency are
required in four areas. These include: (1) the progress of pupils toward the
district-adopted standards, (2) the instructional strategies and techniques utilized
by the teacher, (3) the teacher's adherence to curricular objectives, and (4) the
establishment and maintenance of a suitable learning environment. Although this
code section prohibits the evaluation and assessment of certificated employee
competence by the use of published norms established by standardized tests, it
does give the board of education of each district authority to adopt additional
evaluation guidelines and criteria. In addition, the school board in each district is
required to establish and define job responsibilities of other certificated non-
instructional personnel (supervision or administrative positions) whose
responsibilities cannot be evaluated in the aforementioned four areas.

The ability to assess teacher competence in California in the four areas outlined in
SB 813 is a critical factor in achieving educational excellence and a positive
learning experience for all students. In the following sections, methods that can
be used to assess the competency of teachers in each of the four areas will be
addressed.

Assessing Pupil Progress

To assess student progress toward the established district standards and to

facilitate the planning of various types of instruction, administration should
ensure that teachers are utilizing information from a variety of valid and
appropriate sources before they begin planning lessons or teaching. This could
include data regarding students' backgrounds, academic levels, and interests, as
well as other data from student records to ascertain academic needs and to
facilitate planning appropriate initial learning. It is important for the
administration to note that information regarding students and their families is
used by the staff for professional purposes only and is kept confidential as a
matter of professional ethics.

Administrators should determine if teachers are using the numerous formative

and summative diagnostic processes available to assist in planning meaningful
instruction. Formative measures include ongoing teacher monitoring of student
progress during the lessons, practice sessions, and on daily assignments.
Measures administered periodically like criterion-referenced tests, grade level
examinations, or placement tests that are teacher-made or part of district-
adopted material, also provide helpful information on the status of student
learning as instruction progresses.

Summative measures like minimum competency examinations, district mastery

tests, the California Assessment Program examinations, and standardized tests
provide a different perspective from the ongoing formative measures. This type of
data enables the teacher to evaluate the long-term retention rate of their
students and to compare student learning on a regional, state, or national basis.

The administrators should verify that teachers are preparing and maintaining
adequate and accurate records of student progress. This will include the regular
and systematic recording of meaningful data regarding student progress on
specific concepts and skills related to the standards for each subject for the grade
level or course they are teaching. Once students' success levels have been
identified from the records, the teacher should use the information to plan
instruction and any necessary remediation and enrichment. By utilizing ongoing
information on achievement, teachers can maintain consistent and challenging
expectations for all students. Students and parents should be informed of the
students' progress toward achieving district goals and objectives through
comments on individual work, progress reports, conferencing, report cards, and
other measures. Students should be encouraged to participate in self-assessment
as a way of motivating students to improve academic achievement.

Instructional Strategies

When a profession deals with people, cause-and-effect relationships are never

identified as certainties, only as possibilities. Therefore, there are no certainties in
teaching. It is a situational process requiring constant decision-making which,
when properly implemented, increases the probability of learning. Research on
teacher effectiveness has been intensified in the last two decades. The results
have helped identify an instructional process that provides a solid and basic
framework for planning instruction which is helpful in guiding the administrator in
what to look for when visiting a classroom. These steps include planning,
preparing, presenting the lesson, monitoring student progress, and conducting
practice sessions.

Planning the Lesson

Formulating a well-defined objective of the lesson is a critical first step as it

provides the direction and framework for the decisions which will follow. The
objective should describe the specific content to be learned and the observable
behavior the student will exhibit to demonstrate that learning has occurred. No
matter how expertly the objectives are stated, objectives facilitate learning only if
they are appropriate to the academic achievement of students. A well-written
objective includes specific information on what is to be included in the lesson and
what is not. This specifically expedites the next step, which is the identification of
sub-skills or sub-objectives. A task analysis of each of the sub-objectives enables
the teacher to sequence them in order of difficulty to provide a logical sequence
to the lesson.

Preparing the Lesson

Administrators will know if the appropriate planning for instruction has taken
place when the teacher is able to design a lesson that achieves the objective. This
means everything the teacher and students do during the lesson is related to the
objective. Birdwalking is a term coined by Madeline Hunter that refers to the
inability of a teacher to focus on the objective of the lesson (Gentile, 1987).
Instead, the teacher birdwalks, pecking at interesting ideas with what seems to be
worthwhile or informative digressions, distracting the students' thinking
processes and leaving the students confused about the topic of the lesson.
Avoiding birdwalking does not mean there can never be spontaneity. The decision
to adjust a lesson must be a conscious one where the advantage of postponing or
interrupting the lesson is weighed against the disadvantage of interrupting the
logic of the lesson (Gentile, 1987).

Presenting the Lesson

The beginning of each lesson provides the challenge of how to change the focus
of students' attention from previous classes or discussions with friends to the
objective of the lesson. The importance of eliciting appropriate associations prior
to presenting a lesson can be found in research on positive transfer and advanced
organizers (Ausubel, 1960; Bransford & Johnson, 1972; Emmer & Evertson, 1979).

Research indicates that the learning of facts is greatly facilitated when memories
of organized principles and prerequisite concepts related to the lesson are
reviewed at the beginning of the lesson. The focus portion, or anticipatory set as
it is called by Madeline Hunter, requires the student overtly or covertly have the
prerequisites in memory. The activity must be designed effectively to elicit
information related to the lesson objective.

During the opening it is important for students to know the direction of the
instruction, the relevance of what they are learning, and to have a sense of
continuity. Students are often not able to see the relationship between today's
work and the work from yesterday. Sharing the objective of the lesson informally
with students would include teacher statements such as "what we are going to do
today" and "the reason we are studying this concept.

The body of the lesson includes the presentation of information; what

Rosenshine (1986) would call the explanation-demonstration stage of the lesson.
To implement this phase of the lesson, administrators should note that teachers
have a wide variety of different styles and models of teaching from which to
choose. The larger the number of alternative teaching styles teachers are
comfortable utilizing, the more likely they will select techniques that match the
desired objectives, learning styles, and academic levels of their students.
Publications that describe a wide variety of models of teaching include Joyce and
Weil (1986) and Bellon, Bellon, and Handler (1977). Other authors have described
specialized models like cooperative learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1975) and Ethna
Reid's ERIC model. Current literature is in agreement that there is no single right
way of teaching or one approach that will be effective for all learning objectives.
To determine if the best teaching strategy was selected administrators should
determine if the teacher achieved the objective.

While well over a hundred instructional strategies have been identified, there are
some attributes common to all strategies (Joyce & Weil, 1986). Classroom
observers should be aware that each strategy has a set of activities with a distinct
purpose and role for the teacher and students. Each strategy has a logical
sequence which is necessary if students are to accomplish the objective of the
lesson. Therefore, the selection of an instructional strategy is a complex task
because there are numerous effective strategies that could be used, depending
on the instructional goal. Joyce and Weil (1986) drew from a wide range of
teaching studies to organize the methods of instruction into four major categories
which they refer to as families of instruction.

Based upon research in education and psychology, the four families categorize
strategies according to the intended learning outcomes.

The families include information processing, personal, social interaction, and

behavioral. The information processing family promotes a discovery process of
learning. Methods included in this family stress thinking kills and the content and
process of learning. There is no single right answer. Motivation comes from the
natural curiosity of the students. Models in the information processing family are
based upon the findings of Bruner, Piaget, Taba, Suchman, and others. Some
examples of teaching styles that promote information processing are inquiry,
concept attainment, and advanced organizers.

The personal family, derived from the work of Rogers, Perls, Gordon, and A.S.
Neill, emphasizes individual student development and problem-solving
techniques. In this model the teacher assists the students in developing
interpersonal and cognitive skills and creativity. It enables the students to
determine and evaluate their own learning. Some examples from this family
include non-directive teaching, synectics, and the classroom meetings.

The work of Dewey, Thelen, Staffel, Glasser, and others is the basis for models in
the social interaction family. The focus is on group problem-solving skills and the
relationship of the individual to society or other people. Selecting a model of
instruction from this family is appropriate when the goal of the lesson is to teach
group process and academic skills. Examples include various forms of cooperative
learning and role-playing. The behavioral family emphasizes convergent thinking
and a linear learning process where learning is broken down into small,
sequenced behaviors with frequent rewards for correct responses. This family
includes the work of Skinner, Bandura, Gagne, Walper, and others who share an
emphasis on changing the behavior of the learner. It is an appropriate method of
instruction when the objective of the lesson is to teach facts, concepts, or skills.
Examples of teaching strategies included in this family are direct instruction and
contingency management.

An ability to utilize several models in each of the four families enables teachers to
review the needs of the students and the objectives of the lesson, and select the
particular approach that is most likely to facilitate achievement of the learning
objective. Classroom observers should understand that the four families provide a
valuable source of information for staff development training sessions.

Monitoring Student Progress

It is clear that good teaching requires diagnosing student progress during the
lesson and adjusting instruction accordingly (Good, 1983; Rosenshine & Stevens,
1986; Hunter, 1982). Periodic and formal assessments of student learning through
a mid-term or final examination may be helpful in formulating grades, but are not
frequent enough to enable the teacher to adjust the teaching to correct for
misconceptions. When observing a lesson, administrators should note points in
the lesson where teachers should monitor instruction as it progresses to enable
them to immediately respond to students' misunderstandings and insure that all
students are learning the material. Checking for understanding can be done in
large groups by having all of the students signal the response at the same time to
the same question. This can be done with the use of their fingers to signal
multiple choice answers 1, 2, or 3, the first letter of a word, or thumbs up or down
to indicate true or false (Hunter, 1982). Other techniques for group signaling
include the use of individual chalkboards, ceramic tiles, or laminated cards on
which students record their responses with a grease pencil or crayon and flash
the answer. A group choral response can also be used. Students' understanding
can also be checked through the use of brief written responses, or mini-diagnostic
tests. As students are completing the quick quiz the teacher walks around the
room monitoring the approach the students are using to solve the problems as
well as their answers, and determines if adjustment in teaching needs to be
made. Another method would be a pair share where students take turns telling
each other the answers to two different questions related to the same objective
while the teacher monitors. Although some measures may not indicate
specifically which students are confused, they do provide the teacher with the
information needed to determine if the direction or pace of the lesson needs to
be adjusted.

Teachers who monitor progress as part of their teaching have all students
perform some observable behavior congruent with the objective of the lesson
while they check the behavior. They analyze the correctness and completeness of
the responses and determine if it is necessary to reteach certain segments of the
lesson before they move on. Once this is completed they proceed to the next
concept--teaching, re-teaching if necessary, and providing the necessary practice.

Conducting Practice Sessions

Once students have an adequate level of understanding, research concludes that

it is extremely important that students be given the opportunity to practice the
new skill and its application (Russell & Hunter, 1977). In the initial phase, practice
should be conducted under the direct supervision of the teacher. Hunter refers to
the process as guided practice. The teacher moves about the room providing
support, encouragement, praise, individual assistance, and re-teaching. It can be
particularly effective during this portion of the lesson if the teacher utilizes
cooperative learning groups or heterogeneous grouping strategies to form
practice groups. This provides an opportunity for peer-tutoring while the teacher
circulates among the groups and keeps them on task while monitoring their level
of understanding.

It is important to remember that individuals are only able to assimilate a certain

amount of information before it needs to be organized. Otherwise, new learning
interferes with the old and produces confusion. For longer or more complicated
lessons it may be critical to stop and get closure at several points throughout the
lesson as well as at the end. Students who actively participate in the process are
able to reorganize the material and achieve greater retention and clarity of the
information.

Prior to allowing students time for independent practice, the use of summary or
review statements helps students put the information into perspective and
identify the key points. It is also helpful if the teacher identifies how it will relate
to the lesson planned for the following day. Providing closure, at any point in the
lesson, provides students with the opportunity to consolidate and organize what
they have learned.

After providing adequate explanation and practice in a monitored setting,

students should be provided the opportunity to practice the new skill
independently. To insure that this practice session is positive and productive, the
material must relate directly to the lesson just mastered.

Adherence to Curricular Objectives

The third area supervisors are required to evaluate and assess is the teacher's
ability to adhere to curricular objectives. To comply with this requirement of SB
813, administrators should assure that teachers are utilizing state frameworks,
district curriculum guides, scope and sequence charts, and course outlines to
assist them in planning instruction. Lesson plans should have a clearly defined
objective that is appropriate to the class learning level and consistent with
established district, school, department, or grade level curriculum standards for
expected achievement. Further, plans should incorporate the needs, interests,
and special talents of students in the class and include enrichment or acceleration
activities for students who complete basic tasks early. Activities in the lesson
should revolve around the acquisition of new learning.

Planning should include a time line so the teacher can monitor the pace of
instruction to insure that the intended curricular objectives are taught and
mastered in the allocated time. Administrators should verify that a variety of
ongoing assessment measures are being utilized by the teacher to monitor
achievement of intended objectives. Information from these measures should be
used to make adjustments to the pace, objectives, or sequence when necessary.
Teachers should utilize district-adopted materials and appropriate supplemental
materials to meet individual student's academic needs and learning styles.

Teachers should be encouraged by administrators to participate in recommending

texts and supplementary materials and developing curriculum so they can utilize
their knowledge of students' skills, needs, and interests in selecting a product that
will more closely meet the needs of students in the school or grade level.

Suitable Learning Environment

The fourth and final requirement of SB 813 is that evaluators verify that teachers
establish and maintain a suitable learning environment. Therefore, each teacher
should develop and implement clear classroom routines and appropriate
standards at the beginning of each school year to insure the health, safety, and
welfare of their students. This includes maintaining a clean, safe, and orderly
learning environment that includes establishment of good work habits and
discipline. Teachers should post and communicate the classroom standards and
procedures as well as the consequences for misbehavior with students and their
parents. Students should show evidence of respect for the rules in the classroom
and on the campus. Teachers should strive to be fair, firm, and consistent as they
maintain effective student control in the classroom and uphold the rules
throughout the school. Teachers should refer students to support staff when
necessary to maintain the appropriate learning environment.

Administrators should ensure that appropriate behavior is supported with regular

and ongoing recognition and reinforcement activities. Mutual respect among
pupils, teachers, and staff should be evident on campus and in classrooms.
Everyone should work together cooperatively, communicate with sensitivity, and
utilize appropriate language. Administrators and teachers should serve as role
models for students in developing self-control, a sense of responsibility, and
attitudes of tolerance and sensitivity.

Emergency procedures should be reviewed with students and practiced regularly.

In addition, administrators should verify that materials and supplies that will be
needed in an emergency, including exit routes and student information, are
readily available.

Teachers should adjust the heating, lighting, and ventilation to promote comfort.
The classroom arrangement should make good use of space, foster good study
habits, and enable students to see and hear instruction. The classroom should
have attractive and appropriate visuals and decorations that do not distract from
learning.

Good home-school relationships help create a positive learning environment and

can be enhanced by regular communication. This can include information on what
is to be taught as well as the methods and materials that will be used to achieve
the objectives. Evaluators should check to see that systems have been established
to communicate with parents on a regular basis regarding student progress.
Parents should have opportunities for classroom visitations as well as parent
conferences. Teachers should make every effort to promptly return parents'
phone calls.

Supervision Strategies

Supervision of instruction must be built on the observer's thorough understanding

and in-depth knowledge of instructional theory, not on a check list of what should
be in a lesson.

Gathering Data

Three main sources of information help identify a teacher's competency on the

four SB 813 criteria. They include: observations, interviews, and documents.

Observations should include walk-throughs conducted on at least a weekly basis.

These brief visits, lasting only a minute or two, provide a quick look at teacher
performance and classroom environmental factors. Walk-throughs are helpful in
identifying ongoing patterns of behavior. An informal observation is an
unannounced visit lasting more than 10 minutes during which the teacher's
behaviors or classroom factors may be observed to document consistent trends
or patterns of behavior. The informal observation can be followed by a written
summary or conference with the teacher.

A formal observation is an announced visit lasting an agreed-upon amount of

time. During the observation, the administrator records what was said by the
teacher and the students. The formal observation also includes a pre- and post-
conference and a written summary. The summary includes a description of the
conference, observation, observer's judgments, and agreements or directions for
changes in teacher behaviors, activities, or classroom environment. A peer
observation is agreed upon by the teacher and peer and can be used to verify a
trend or pattern of behavior perceived by the evaluator.

Interviews are also a helpful source of obtaining information. They can include
discussions with students to verify perceptions. At times, parents request a
conference to discuss their perceptions. In addition, other members of the
administrative team or classified employees who are assigned to work in the
classroom can be interviewed to provide their perceptions.

The review of various types of documents can be helpful in identifying trends or

behaviors. These include written parent and student letters or complaint forms.
Individual pieces of students' work, folders, or portfolio assessments which
contain a number of samples of studentActivitie

so provide helpful information on their achievement. Documents should include

both formative (ongoing assessment measures) and summative measures
(culminating assessment) including homework, practice exercises completed in
class, examinations, and student projects.

Reviewing student work on district developed criterion-referenced tests is also

helpful. An analysis of the lesson plans in respect to required or recommended
district curriculum requirements or course outlines is also beneficial.

Teacher Conferencing

Conferences throughout the year provide a means to communicate the

evaluation of the teacher's performance. Decisions shared during the conference
are based upon the data collected through observations, review of documents,
and interviews that relate to the assessment and evaluation of the teacher's
ability to meet the requirements of SB 813 as adopted by the local district
governing board. The conference should provide the teacher with the means to
change unsatisfactory behavior or options for enhancement of performance. The
conference should provide an opportunity to expand the teacher's knowledge and
concepts and reinforce his or her understanding of the missions of the school. The
pre-conference is held before a formal observation and provides the
administrator with the opportunity to obtain as much information about the
upcoming observation as possible.

Post-conferences can be collaborative, guided, or directive in nature. Each type of

conference is planned by the supervising administrator to achieve a different goal.
A collaborative conference is effective when the teacher is able to identify
problem areas, suggest alternatives, develop a plan, and is ready and willing to
grow professionally, needing little support. This conference is designed to
conclude with mutually determined follow-up activities that will enhance the
teacher's capabilities. The conference begins with the teacher presenting an
overview and analysis of the lesson that was observed. The teacher identifies the
strengths and weaknesses of the lesson while the administrator listens to the
teacher's perceptions. The administrator then verifies the teacher's perceptions
and offers his or her own opinions. After this mutual exchange, possible activities
for the next steps are discussed and the conference concludes with agreement on
a final plan.

A guided conference is effective for teachers who have difficulty identifying

problem areas and alternatives to current practices and need support to carry out
the action plan. In addition, the guided conference is effective with a teacher who
has little or no difficulty identifying areas that need improvement but is unwilling
or not committed to making the necessary changes. During a guided conference it
is important that the principal provides prompts to encourage the teacher's
thinking, to allow the teacher freedom to explore various possibilities, and to
enable the teacher to make a commitment.

During the guided conference the teacher is encouraged to describe the lesson
observed. The administrator probes for further information and possible plans for
growth and time frames. The administrator paraphrases his or her understanding
of the teacher's messages and asks for clarification when necessary. At the
culmination of the guided conference the teacher restates the criteria for action
and the time frame.
A directive conference is effective for teachers who cannot identify problem
areas, require a great deal of support, and are unwilling or unable to change. In
conducting the directive conference the administrator identifies the problems and
allows the teacher to provide input. The administrator shares the details of a plan
for support and assistance that is designed to enable the teacher to meet the
desired expectations. Following the conference the administrator directs and
monitors the follow-up activities. It is the administrator's responsibility to provide
support, monitor the time line activities, and to evaluate the degree of
effectiveness resulting from the assistance.

During each conference it is important to stay on the topic and focus on the data
and documentation regarding the lessons observed. If the data collected clearly
indicate a change must occur to increase student learning, a directive for change
is appropriate. Some administrators find this type of conference difficult. It is
important to avoid compromising statements that provide an excuse for poor
performance like, "I know this is asking a lot since it's your first year in advanced
science," or "You shouldn't be concerned that the lesson didn't go well, it
happens to everyone." When teachers make threats or caustic statements, the
administrator must remember that teachers who use this strategy are often
diverting attention from the task at hand. It is important to avoid this diversion
and remain on task.

At the close of a collaborative, guided, or directive conference there should be an

agreed-upon or directed statement clearly outlining the changes expected in the
undesirable patterns of behavior, and where appropriate, the specific
professional growth activities that will be utilized to achieve the desired changes.
The statement should include the support and assistance, monitoring process,
time lines for skill transfer, observable changes, and which data will be reviewed.
When preparing the statement it is important to select several changes that will
have the greatest effect on students' learning. Once the focus is established it is
important to consider what is reasonable to achieve in the given time frame. The
administrator who will monitor and conduct the review should consider all data
needed to document whether the desired changes have taken place.

Planning the Conference

In preparation for the conference, the administrator will need to review the data
and identify the strengths and areas of concern. The administrator should select
only one or two behavioral changes and the professional growth activity or
activities that will have the greatest effect on the learning for the largest number
of students. These selected areas will be the focus or objective of the conference.
It will be necessary to identify specific aspects of the data collected that support
the need for growth in these areas. It is helpful to formulate questions before the
conference that will help the teacher focus on these issues or clarify aspects of
the lesson for the administrator. The administrator should identify possible
resources and personnel that could assist in a follow-up plan prior to the
conference. The recommendations considered should be doable and reasonable
based on the teacher's readiness and the time available. The administrator should
select the type of conference collaborative, guided, or directive) and prepare a
conference outline. A good conference should last 30-40 minutes. Longer sessions
become an ordeal for both the teacher and the administrator. It is the
administrator's responsibility to have his or her thoughts well-organized and to
keep the conference on task so it can be completed in a timely manner.

During the conference the teacher and/or administrator should cite purpose,
strengths, and areas of concern with reference to supporting data. A follow-up
plan with the desired specific outcome, activities, and a summary of decisions
should be developed.

The evaluation conference should be held at the close of the evaluation period or
at the end of the year. The purpose of the conference is to communicate the
teacher's rating based upon the SB 813 performance criteria adopted by the
district and should include any commendations for exemplary performance.
Additionally, the conference should provide an opportunity to expand the
teacher's thinking and develop means to strengthen performance. The
conference provides yet another forum to communicate and clarify the school's
missions, goals, and values. The administrator prepares for the evaluation
conference in much the same manner as other conferences. The administrator
should review all of the data collected to-date, including conference memoranda
and data prepared during the evaluation period. He or she should determine the
teacher's ratings,

commendations, and recommendations, then prepare the evaluation forms. In

addition, the administrator should identify the objectives that will have the
greatest effect on student learning, recommendations for improvement, methods
of improvement and support, and a reasonable time line. The administrator
should select the type of conference (collaborative, guided, or directive) and
formulate questions that help guide the staff to review specific areas of
performance.

The teacher and administrator should develop plans for enhancement or

improvement. Following the conference the administrator should prepare a
legally sound evaluation conference memorandum following the format
suggested in the next section. Summative evaluation written documentation is
required by law and must be delivered in person to the teacher no later than
thirty days prior to the end of the school year.

Memorandum and Letters of Reprimand

In education, a memorandum is often defined as any written material given to a

teacher regarding his or her performance or conduct. There are a wide variety of
administrative correspondence that qualify as memoranda. These include
observation checklists, letters regarding an observation or conference, and letters
summarizing a conference. To insure that the desired results are achieved it is
important that memoranda be legally sound. Memorandum, as well as letters of
reprimand, must be written in a timely manner, should include a reference date,
and state specific facts. These can include the date, time, place, and names of
others who were present and/or witnesses of the actions of the staff member
being evaluated or reprimanded. These actions should be described in an
explicitly factual and objective manner using sensory facts (what was seen, heard,
touched, tasted, or smelled). Subjective opinions, conclusions, or educational
jargon should be avoided. The consequences of the performance or action on
students, teachers, classified staff, administrators, or the work unit, should be
described.

Extenuating or enhancing circumstances surrounding the performance should

also be noted, as well as the teacher's reasons or motives for the action if they
were expressed. The appropriate and related teaching certificates of the staff
member should be referenced as well as related staff development efforts. Letters
which cite unsatisfactory behavior should reference the contract provision, rules,
regulations, students' rights, guidelines, and curriculum guides that were upheld
or violated. Previous oral or written commendations or reprimands or warnings,
including compliments or complaints from students or parents that are related to
the actions described in the memo, should be noted. Efforts related to this area
that have been made in the past to assist the staff member and the employer's
reactions to these efforts (positive and negative) should be teviewed. The author
should state his or her belief regarding the likelihood of recurrence. If it is a letter
of reprimand; it must be specifically stated. If this is the case, the letter should
indicate that the staff member is being given another opportunity to improve
their performance with the hope they will be successful. The letter should state
that if the staff member does not improve, further disciplinary action will follow,
although the specific action should not be noted. On both the memorandum and
letter of reprimand it must indicate that the staff member has the right to
respond. The letter should be handed, not mailed, to the employee with a copy
forwarded to the personnel office for inclusion in the staff member's personnel
file.

Staff Development
The quality of student learning is directly related to the quality of classroom
instruction. Therefore, one of the most important aspects of instructional
leadership is to provide the necessary climate to promote ongoing instructional
improvement. To accomplish this, the instructional supervisor must be able to
plan and deliver effective staff development programs. The leadership needs to
insure that staff development efforts have the appropriate financial resources;
adequate time set aside to plan, conduct, and implement the programs; and time
for staff to practice the new skills. Further, teachers need the verbal support and
physical attendance at sessions by the supervisors to verify their commitment.
Teachers should be involved in the identification of their own staff development
needs. They must be involved in the planning and delivery of staff development
activities to gain the greatest acceptance. Collaboration of teachers and
supervisors will enhance the staff development program and lead to improved
student learning. Staff development programs need to be comprehensive and
continuous programs that are carefully designed for personal and organizational
growth. The activities should be founded upon strong theoretical, conceptual, or
research bases. The information must be related to practice with ample
opportunities provided for modeling and coaching. Professional training sessions
developed for teachers must be consistent with adult learning theory. A well-
planned and administered staff development program may be one of the most
critical factors in the improvement of instruction and subsequently in the increase
in student learning.

Conclusion

The supervision of instruction is by design a developmental process with the main

purpose of improving the instructional program, generally and teaching,
specifically. Only when this process is carefully planned and executed can success
be assured.

The supervisory function is best utilized as a continuous process rather than one
that responds only to personnel problems. Administrators with supervisory
responsibility have the opportunity to have tremendous influence on the school
program and help ensure the benefits of a strong program of instruction for
children.