Lecture 16

Operational Amplifiers (Op-amps)

An op-amp amplifier is a very high gain amplifier having very high input impedance (a few MΩ)
and a low output impedance (< 100Ω). For the sake of this course, we will not be considering the
implementation of op-amps using transistors, though such an understanding helps in better
appreciation. However, this is not a pre-requisite as the operational amplifiers can be effectively
considered to be black boxes and with knowledge of its properties, circuits can be designed
around them.
Op-amps are used in several modes that fit a wide range of applications ranging from sensor
interfacing where the op-amps are used as amplifiers to comparator, converter, filter and Schmitt
trigger circuits among others. We shall consider such interesting concepts one by one and the
corresponding application. Grasping the principles and characteristics of these modes is essential
to understanding their use in systems and for their correct design.
As discussed before for diodes, the concept of an ideal component simplifies analysis and then
understanding the differences from the ideal and real components allows catering for the
divergence of the real component from ideality. We’ll start the analysis of op-amps in this way.

The Ideal Op-amp

The symbol for an op-amp is shown below:

The +Vs and –Vs terminals represent the power supply to the op-amp and are sometimes omitted
from circuit diagrams for clarity. The V+ and V- terminals are the input terminals for applying
voltages/signals and are respectively called the inverting and non-inverting input terminals.
Finally, the output voltage appears at the output terminal Vout.

Properties of the ideal op-amp:

Infinite input impedance, i.e., it does not consume any power.

No output impedance, i.e., it does not cause any loading effect on the circuit it feeds.

Infinite open-loop gain.

Same gain for all frequencies, that is, it amplifies all frequencies equally. It has a uniform
frequency response.

The equation governing the operation in the open-loop mode is:

Vout = Ao*(V+ - V-) where Ao is the open loop gain of the op-amp

Vout can only be within the range [-Vs, Vs] since ultimately it is derived from the power supply.
Since A is very large, the slightest difference between V+ and V- saturates the op-amp positively
or negatively depending on whether V+ > V- or V+ < V-. Saturation relates to the state of the op-
amp where the output takes extreme values.
So the op-amp input terminals V+ and V- should be virtually at the same potential to ensure the
op-amp does not saturate. On the other hand, saturation is a desired effect in certain applications
as we shall see later. The following graph shows the gain characteristics for an ideal op-amp.

Understanding this ideal op-amp, we now consider the deviations observed for a real op-amp.
Properties of the real op-amp:
• Very high input impedance but not infinite; hence it consumes little power.
• Small output impedance.
• Very high gain but not infinite.
• Frequency response is not uniform; that is it does not amplify all frequencies by the same
gain.
• The maximum value taken by the output is not equal to the supply voltage. This is mainly
due to the barrier voltage present in transistors. Typically, it is taken as 1V less than the
voltage supply. Thus for a ±12V supply voltage to the op-amp, the maximum output can
be taken as ±11V.

So in the equation Vout = Ao*(V+ - V-), Ao has a very high value. For this gain the difference in
V+ - V- that causes saturation can be computed and hence the maximum value V+ - V- can take to
be still in the linear region (see graph below) can be determined. The gain characteristics curve
for such a real op-amp is shown below:
Example:
An op-amp has an open-loop gain of 1x105. The output voltage can swing from +12V to -12V.
Draw the gain characteristics showing the threshold values for the x-axis for transition into
saturation.
Ao = 1x105
Vm = 12V ⇒ V+ - V- = 12/1x105 = 120 µV

NOTE: Gradient of graph in the linear region gives the open-loop gain.
Such a circuit can effectively be used as a comparator, for which only positively and negatively
saturated outputs are required with the result that the output is a square wave. The rising edge of
the waveform is not exactly vertical due to the finite value of the op-amp gain and the slew rate
of the op-amp. The latter is the maximum rate of change of output permitted by the op-amp. We
shall see the effect of the slew rate on the op-amp operation later.
We start with analysing the op-amp applications with the comparator.
Comparator
The circuit diagram for a comparator simply uses the op-amp alone, though reference levels can
be set for the inverting or non-inverting inputs using potential divider circuits.

The behaviour of the comparator can be described using the following sets of mathematical
conditions: When V+ > V-, Vout saturates positively and hence equals Vm.
When V- > V+, Vout saturates negatively and hence equals –Vm.
Examples: (a)

Assuming an ideal op-amp, sketch the output waveform for the following input waveforms
applied at V+.

A potential divider circuit is used to set the inverting input voltage at +2V. Show how this can be
achieved and sketch the corresponding output waveform for the sinusoidal wave.
(b)

The input signal at the non-inverting terminal is a saw-tooth waveform as shown below:

The reference voltage applied across the inverting terminal is variable by adjusting a
potentiometer. Sketch the output waveform for the following values of Vref: (a) 4V (b) 1V (c) 5V
(d) -3V.
Q. What happens when the reference voltage is changed? Give your answer in terms of the ON
time and frequency of the output waveform.
Lecture 17
Feedback
Like in any system, the use of negative feedback is used to bring about stability. The use of
feedback from the output voltage brings about a controllable gain between the input and the
output, dependant on the values of the components used to bring about the feedback. Another
possibility for feedback is positive feedback and its main application is to keep the op-amp in
saturation always and this principle is made use of in Schmitt trigger, which we’ll analyse further
in this section.
Coming back to negative feedback, based on the terminal to which the input signal is applied, the
circuit is known as inverting or non-inverting amplifier. It is also possible to apply input signals
to both input terminals.

Negative feedback: Inverting amplifier

The output is fed back to the inverting input via a resistor Rf known as the feedback resistor. The
input is applied to the inverting terminal. The circuit of such an inverting amplifier is shown
below:

Derivation of closed loop gain, Vout/Vin

The point marked E should be approximately equal to V+ for the op-amp to operate in the linear
region. This is known as virtual earth approximation. So V- ≈ V+ = 0V.

Consider the following voltage divider.

P.d across Rin = Rin*(Vout – Vin)/(Rin + Rf)

= VE – Vin
⇒ Rin*(Vout – Vin)/(Rin + Rf) = -Vin
⇒ (Vout – Vin)/Vin = -(Rf + Rin)/Rin
Vout/Vin – 1 = -Rf/Rin – 1
⇒ Closed loop gain, Ac = -Rf/Rin

The negative value of the closed loop gain is the reason for the inverting nature of this op-amp
configuration. Using appropriate values of Rf and Rin, the gain can be set.

Example:

Calculate Vout if Vin is at (a) 100mV (b) -0.5V

A sinusoidal waveform of peak value 1V and 50 Hz frequency is applied to the circuit below.
Sketch the output waveform stating the output peak-to-peak value.
Non-inverting amplifier
Based on the discussion for the inverting amplifier, we expect the non-inverting amplifier to
keep the same phase as the input signal while providing amplification. The input signal is thus
applied to the non-inverting input, though the non-inverting amplifier still relies on negative
feedback to bring about a given gain as shown.

Using the voltage divider equation for the two series resistors gives:

VAG = R1*(Vout – VG)/(R1 + Rf)

= R1*Vout/(R1 + Rf)

VAG = VA – VG = VA = R1*Vout/(R1+Rf)
⇒ Vout/VA = (R1 + Rf)/R1

Now V- = VA
For the op-amp to operate in the active region (non-saturated),
V+ ≈ V-
But V+ = Vin
Hence V- = Vin
∴ V- = VA = V+ = Vin

Vout/Vin = (R1 + Rf)/R1 = 1 + Rf/R1 > 0

The gain is always positive and hence does not invert the phase of the input signal (non-inverting
amplifier).

Example:

The following input signal is applied to the V+ terminal of the op-amp. Sketch the output voltage.
Voltage Follower
The voltage follower provides unity gain between the input and output with no phase change; the
output follows the input. One might speculate on the use of such a device which does not provide
amplification, but it does offer many desirable properties namely high input impedance and low
output impedance. Examples further should make the importance of these properties clearer.
First let’s consider the circuit for such a voltage follower.

Consider the non-inverting circuit we considered earlier:

The closed loop gain for this non-inverting circuit was shown to be 1 + Rf/R1
If Rf is made zero and R1 infinity, that is, Rf = 0, R1 → ∞
The expression becomes, Ac = Vout/Vin = 1 + 0/∞ = 1
Zero resistance is simply a short-circuit and infinite resistance is open circuit.
Hence the circuit for the voltage follower is:
 Vout/Vin = 1

To show the functionality of a voltage follower, consider the following simple voltage divider
circuit.

Now a load of resistance RL is connected across R2. The voltage divider circuit is used to feed
the load. Hence the voltage divider acts as an input to the load.

Q. Calculate Vout for the following values of RL (a) 100Ω (b) 10KΩ (c) 10MΩ

The aim of the circuit was to supply 2.5V to the load but the above calculations shows the
loading effect of a load; the effect of the resistance of load on the output voltage.
Q. What can you conclude about the desirable connected load impedance?

Let’s consider the voltage divider circuit from a different perspective now.

R1 and R2 are now variable but they are always equal so as to supply a voltage of 2.5V still. The
load resistance is now fixed at 10KΩ. Calculate Vout for R1 = R2 = (a) 100Ω (b) 1KΩ (c) 10KΩ
(d) 10MΩ.
Now these calculations show the desirable properties of the output impedance of a circuit.
The first series of calculations was treating the connected load RL as receiving power from the
voltage divider circuit and it was found that high impedance is desirable.
The second series of calculations treated the voltage divider as feeding the load RL and it was
found that low output impedance was desirable.
In summary, it is desirable to possess a high input impedance and a low output impedance. The
voltage follower being built from an op-amp provides these desirable properties without any
amplification or phase inversion. Let’s consider an application for the voltage follower:

Example:
An old battery of emf 10V is required to supply a load of 100Ω. Due to ageing, the internal
resistance of the battery has a poor value of 25Ω. Calculate the voltage appearing across the load.

Vout = 100*10/125 = 8V.

The performance of this circuit needs to be improved and a voltage follower is used for this
purpose. Show how this can be done.

Summing amplifier
The summing amplifier is similar to the inverting amplifier save it has more than one input. A
four-input summing amplifier is shown below:

To derive the expression modelling the behaviour of the op-amp, the virtual earth approximation
is used.
Since V+ = 0, V- ≈ 0
Hence VE = 0
Using Ohm’s law,
I1 = (V1-0)/R1, I2 = (V2-0)/R2, I3 = (V3 – 0)/R3, I4 = (V4 – 0)/R4
Using the Kirchhoff’s current law,
If = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
Also If = (0 – Vout)/Rf
⇒ -Vout/Rf = V1/R1 + V2/R2 + V3/R3 + V4/R4
⇒ Vout = -Rf*( V1/R1 + V2/R2 + V3/R3 + V4/R4)
So the output is a weighted sum of the input voltages as determined by the resistances.

If R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = Rf = R,
Vout = -(V1+V2+V3+V4)
The summing amplifier can also serve as a D/A converter. The purpose of a D/A converter is to
convert a digital value formed by a combination of 1’s and 0’s into an analogue value.
Let’s see how we can achieve that. Consider the following circuit:

As we studied in our digital lectures, the high logic state ‘1’ may be represented as a high voltage
and the low logic state ‘0’ as a low voltage. Usually 5V represents logic state ‘1’ and 0V
represents logic state ‘0’. Hence say for the 4-bit binary number 11112, all the voltages V1, V2,
V3 and V4 are 5V. Similarly, the following binary numbers give the following inputs to the
summing amplifier: 1001: V1 = 5V, V2 = V3 = 0V, V4 = 5V
0111: V1 = 0V, V2 = V3 = V4 = 5V
1011: V1 = 5V, V2 = 0V, V3 = V4 = 5V
The equation for the summing amplifier circuit becomes:
Vout = -R(V1/2R + V2/4R + V3/8R + V4/16R)
= -(V1/2 + V2/4 + V3/8 + V4/16) = -5*(B3/2 + B2/4 + B1/8 + B0/16)
Where B0 is the LSB and B3 is the MSB.
Hence 11112 has an analogue equivalent:
Vout = 5*(1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16) = 4.6875V considering magnitudes only. The 16 possible
combinations and their analogue equivalent voltages are shown in the following table:
Binary Numbers Analogue Equivalent
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0.3125
0 0 1 0 0.625
0 0 1 1 0.9375
0 1 0 0 1.25
0 1 0 1 1.5625
0 1 1 0 1.875
0 1 1 1 2.1875
1 0 0 0 2.5
1 0 0 1 2.8125
1 0 1 0 3.125
1 0 1 1 3.4375
1 1 0 0 3.75
1 1 0 1 4.0625
1 1 1 0 4.375
1 1 1 1 4.6875

Using this circuit, binary numbers can be mapped onto analogue voltages. Usually we have 8-bit
D/A converters and the circuit can be expanded to cater for 8 inputs.
Assignment/Discussion: Build the circuit for an 8-bit D/A converter. Derive the equation relating
bits to analogue voltages and hence compute the analogue equivalence for the following binary
numbers: (a) 110011002 (b) 111111112 (c) 000000002
Lecture 18

Further op-amp parameters to consider in design

For a proper design of circuits using op-amps, its limitations to operate under certain conditions
should be borne in mind. Three important such design criteria are the frequency response, slew
rate and maximum signal frequency.

Gain-Bandwidth characteristics
To stabilise op-amps, they are in-built with compensation circuitry. This has the side effect of
reducing the open-loop gain with increasing frequency. The gain versus frequency plot is as
shown:

The frequency f1 produces unity gain and it is called the unity gain bandwidth. The cut-off
frequency, fc, is the frequency at which the gain is reduced by √2. The relationship between f1
and fc is f1 = Avd*fc

Slew Rate, SR
The slew rate, specified for op-amps by manufacturers, is the maximum rate at which the op-amp
output can change in volts per microsecond. If the signal applied to the op-amp has a voltage
change much smaller than the slew rate, the op-amp can change the output at the input rate, but
should the output be required to change at a rate of voltage greater than the slew rate, the output
would not be able to change fast enough resulting in signal clipping or distortion. The following
diagrams show the effect of slew rate.
Assume op-amp SR = 1V/µs.
Consider applying these two square waves to an op-amp circuit with closed-loop gain of 5.
Clearly, the output waveform depends on the slew rate of the op-amp, gain and input rate of
change of voltage.

Example:
An op-amp has a slew rate of 2V/µs. The input signal changes by 0.4V in 10µs. What is the
maximum closed loop gain for the op-amp.
Input voltage rate of change = 0.4/10 = 0.04 V/µs.
Permitted slew rate = 2V/µs.

Maximum gain = 2/0.04 = 50

Put as variables, Vout = ACL*Vi

Differentiating with respect to time,

∆Vout/∆t = ACL*∆Vi/∆t
ACL = (∆Vout/∆t)/(∆Vi/∆t) = SR/(∆Vi/∆t)

Maximum signal frequency

The maximum sinusoidal frequency that can be applied to an op-amp circuit depends on the
Bandwidth (B) and slew rate (SR).
Vout = K*sin(2πft)
dVout/dt = 2πf*K*cos(2πft)
d2Vout/dt2 = -(2πf)2*K*sin(2πft)
Maximum dVout/dt when d2Vout/dt2 = 0
⇒ sin(2πft) = 0
2πft = 0, π, 2π, … = k1.π , k1 = 0, 1, 2, …
⇒ t = k1.π/2πf = k1/2f
Therefore, dVout/dtmax = k*2πf*cos(2πf*k1/2f) = k*2πf or –k*2πf

Considering magnitudes only,

Maximum rate of change = 2πfk

To prevent distortion, 2πfk ≤ SR

f ≤ SR/2πk (Hz)
ω ≤ SR/k (rad/s)

The maximum frequency should also be less than the unity gain bandwidth.

NOTE: Usually op-amps are not operated in open-loop mode but are used in closed-loop mode.
The reduction in gain results in several benefits:
 The amplifier voltage gain is more stable.
 Input impedance is increased.
 Output impedance is reduced.
 Frequency response of the circuit is increased.
Multi-stage gains
Consider the following frequency response.

If a gain Areq is required at a frequency of freq, then from the Bandwidth-Gain characteristics, it is
seen that for such an op-amp, the desired gain cannot be obtained at the input signal frequency.
However operating two op-amps in series with Areq1 and Areq2 being the gains for each stage
respectively such that Areq = Areq1*Areq2 can be a solution. Operating the op-amp at lower gains
of Areq1 and Areq2 improves the frequency response and makes it possible to get the desired
specifications.
As discussed above, a number of amplifier circuits can be connected in series to bring about a
larger gain. Using more stages than just one circuit makes the circuits more stable as discussed.

This can be represented as the following blocks:

A1 = 1 + Rf/R1; A2 = -Rf2/R2
Vout = A1 x A2 = (1 + Rf1/R1)*-Rf2/R2

Example:

Calculate the output for the first stage, Vout1 and the final output Vout2 if V1 = 25mV, V2 = 75mV
and V3 = 125mV.
Principle of Superposition for analysing circuits with two sources
To analyse circuits with two sources applied to the op-amp circuit, the principle of superposition
is used. This principle considers the effect of each source individually on the op-amp and finally
the actual response to the sources is due to the addition of the separate impetuses.
Let’s work out an example:

A voltage source is replaced by a short-circuit when it is removed from the circuit.

Considering the effect of source V1. Hence short-circuiting source V2.

VA = R3*V1/(R1 + R3) = V-
VB = R2*Vout1/(R2 + R4) = V+
V- = V+
:. R3*V1/(R1 + R3) = R2*Vout1/(R2 + R4)
 ⇒ Vout1 = (R2 + R4)/R2 * R3/(R1 + R3) * V1

Considering the effect of source V2. Hence short-circuiting source V1.

VB = 0 = V-
VAC = R2*(Vout2 – VC)/(R2 + R4)
VC is at a potential of V2
⇒ VA – V2 = R2*(Vout2 – V2)/(R2+R4)
⇒ VA = R2*(Vout2 – V2)/(R2 + R4) + V2 = V+
V+ = V- = 0

⇒ R2*(Vout2 – V2)/(R2 + R4) + V2 = 0

R2*(Vout2 – V2)/(R2 + R4) = -V2
Vout2 – V2 = -(R2 + R4)*V2/R2

⇒ Vout2 = -(R2 + R4)*V2/R2 + V2 = -R4*V2/R2

Finally, Vout = Vout1 + Vout2
= (R2 + R4)/R2 * R3/(R1 + R3) * V1 – R4*V2/R2
Using the resistances, the output waveform can be shaped. Furthermore, one of the two sources
may be an ac signal and the other dc so that the circuit can be used as a clamper to offset the ac
signal. We shall do such kinds of examples during the tutorial classes.

Simple low pass filter using op-amp

 1 1
X = =
c
2πfC1 ωC1
Rg
VA = * Vout = V −
R f + Rg
1
jωC1
VB = * Vin = V +
1 + R1
jωC1
1
⇒V+ = * Vin
1 + jωR1C1
V+ =V −
Rg 1
⇒ * Vout = * Vin
R f + Rg 1 + jωR1C1
Vout R f + R g 1
= *
Vin Rg 1 + jωR1C1
Vout R f + Rg 1
= *
Vin Rg 1 + ω 2 R12 C12
Vout Rf
For small ω = 2πf, →1+
Vin Rg
Vout
For large ω = 2πf, →0
Vin
This is the behaviour of a low pass filter which rejects high frequencies and keeps low
frequencies. The cut-off frequency is defined as the point where real and imaginary parts are
same. Hence ωcR1C1 = 1
⇒ ωc = 1/(R1C1)
⇒ fc = 1/(2πR1C1)

Vout R f + Rg
Hence = at cut-off frequency.
Vs 2Rg
Show the cut-off point on the magnitude response graph.
Implementing an integrator using op-amp
The following circuit can be used to perform integration on a signal.

i1 = i 2
Vin dV
= −C f * out
R dt
1 t
Vout = * ∫ Vin dt
RC f 0

Implementing a differentiator using op-amp

The circuit diagram for a differentiator is as shown:

In a similar way as for the integrator,

i1 = i 2
dVin V
C = − out
dt Rf
dVin
Vout = − R f C
dt

Positive Feedback (Schmitt Trigger)

An example where positive feedback is used is the Schmitt trigger. While negative feedback
tends to render the circuit stable, positive feedback causes the op-amp to operate only in the
saturation region so that the output is only high or low, similar to the comparator circuit we
considered earlier. However, it has some important differences to the comparator circuit as we
shall see.
A circuit diagram using positive feedback is shown below:
Let’s first consider the transition of the output from positive saturation to negative saturation.
Hence the output changes from VH to VL.
R2
V+ = * (VH − Vb ) + Vb
R1 + R2
Therefore, for the output to saturate negatively, V- must be greater
R2
than * (VH − Vb ) + Vb which is nothing but Vin. So when Vin goes above this value, the
R1 + R2
circuit transits from positive to negative saturation.

Next let’s consider the transition from negative to positive saturation.

R2
V+ = * (VL − Vb ) + Vb
R1 + R2
So when Vin goes below this value, the transition from negative to positive saturation occurs.
Clearly, the threshold voltages are not the same for these two transitions and this is said to
introduce hysteresis in the system as shown by the following symbol:
This hysteresis is given by the difference between these two thresholds. Hence,
R2 R2 R2
Vhys = * (VH − Vb ) + Vb − * (VL − Vb ) − Vb = (VH − VL )
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 R1 + R2

The hysteresis can be used to advantage in circuits to prevent erroneous transitions that a normal
comparator will cause. The following diagrams depict this benefit provided by the Schmitt
trigger.

The voltage levels for these two thresholds can be set using the voltage Vb and the resistance
values. Knowing the noise level, these threshold limits can be set to prevent noise transitions
causing output transitions.