LOGICALTY STRUCTURHD

ENGLIS,H GRAMRftAR
by

@ G P@PA
THIRD EDIION (REVISION EDSRV1 t03EN)

THE PUBLISHING HOUSE

trEIFIFLEFIEFITF trErrTFtrL
http :l/w w w. c a rc I I afi heorems. com
TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS 5
BRIEF HISTQRY 15
FOREWQRD te
WHAT I$ NEW IN THIRD EDITION 20
ABBREVIATlQNS 21
CREI}ITS 23
INTRODUCT]ON 25
l1:PHONETICS 27
t2: MORPHOLOGY 28
13: $YNTM 29
14: PUNCTIJATION
31
15: ABOUT ENGLISI-I GRAMMAR 3t

FART 1: FFTQNETICS
ENGLISH FHONETICS 37
PH1 : ENGLlSFl SOL,ltlDS
37
PHZI VQWELS 39
PH3:$EM]-VOWFLS 40
PH4: QONSONANTS 40
PH5: D]PI{THOINGS AND TRIFHTHONGS 41
PHGr PRONOUNCTNG FOREIGN AND UNKNOWN WORDS 42

FART 2: MORPFIQLOGY
MT: NQUNS 4V
M1.T CATEGORTES OF NOUNS 4g
M1.2 THE NUMBER QF THE NOUN 54
M1.3 THE GENDER QF THE NOUN 60
llt1.3.t The Gender of Common Nouns 61
M1.3.2 The Gender of Froper Nouns 63
M1.3.3 Expressing Nouns' Gender Analytically 64
M1.3.4 Expressing Nouns' Gender using Personifications 65
M1.4 THE CASE OF TI-{E NOUN 66
M1.4.1 Nominative
68
M1.4.2 Dative 70
M1.4.3 Accusative 73
MX.5 GEN]TIVE 75
M1.5.1 Synthetic Genitive
77
M1,5.2 Anatytic Genitive
80
MT.6 NOUN DECLENS}ON AND SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS 83
M1.7 FORM]NG NOUNS AND EQUIVAI-ENT NCIUNS 86
M1.7.1 Forming Nouns Using Derivation
B6
M1.7.2 Forming Nouns and Equivalent Nouns Using Composition
88
l\d1.7.3 Fonning Nouns Using Gnammar Category Conversion
89

M2: ARTICLES 9'l

M2.1 READ1NG ARTICLES 93
M2.2 NOUNS TAKING NO ARTICLE 94
M2.3 INDEFINlTE ARTICLE 96
 6:

M2.4 DEF]NITE ART]CLE oo

M2"5 TMPLIC]TLY FRESENT OR MISSTNG ARTICLE
101

M3: ADJEGTIVES
103
M3.1 QUALIFY1NG ADJECTiVES 't05
M3. 1. 1 Qrialifying,Adjectives
Wo*ing as Common Attributes
108
M3.1.2 eualifying Adjectives Working as Subject Cornplernents
109
Ml.1-3 euatifying Adjectives Working as Object Compiements
111
M3.2 DETERMINING ADJECT]VES
M3.2.'l possessive Adjectives
112
112
M3.?.2 Dernonstrative Adjectives
114
M3.1.3 lnterrogative Adjectives
115
MS, 2.4 Relative Adjectives
117
M3.l.S lndefinite Adjectives
118
M3.3 QOMPARING ADJECTIVES
M3.3.1 euatifying Adjectives: $uperiority Comparison
QA
121
M$.3.2 eualifoing Adjectives: Equatity Comparison
126
M3.3.0 eualitying Adjectives: lnferiority Comparison
126
M3.4. QUALIFYING ADJECT]VES II{ COMPARATIVE COMPLEX
SENTENCES 128
M3.5 FORh4ING ADJECTIVES
Ml.S.1 Forming,{djectives Using Derivation
131
131
M3.S.2 Forming Adjectives Using Composition
132
M3.!3 Fonning Adjectives Using Grammar Category Conversion
r33
M3.6 FARTICUI.AR ADJECT]VES
M3.0.1 particuiar Adjectives: ,'much,', ,,many", -long"
134
134
M3.6.2 particular Adjectives: ,,litfie", "small', Tew'
135
M3.6.3 particular Adjectives: Tirsf, ,Tore", ,former',
137
M3.6.4 pafticular Adjectives: ,,[ast", -neaf , *next.
137
M3.6.5 Particular
Adjeclives: Tarther", Turthef
138
M3.6.6 Particular
Adjectives: "out",,,utter" .t
?o
M3.6.T particular
Adjectives: "oldeC', "eldef
particular .eaeh",'every,, 140
M3.6.8 Adjectives:
particular 140
M3.6.9 Adjectives: "alt",.one',
141
M3.6.10 partieular Adjectives: .some", ',any", ,,n0", ,,none',
142
M3.6.11 partieu{ar Adjectives: this', ,'that , these,, ,those"
143

M4: PRONOUNS 't46

M4.1 PER$ONAL FRQNOUNS
148
M4.2 POSSESSIVE PRONIOIJN$
156
M4.3 REFLEXI\IE AND ETUPHAT]C PRONOUN$
159
M4.4 DEMSNSTRAT]VE PRONOUNS
163
M4.4. 1 Demonstrative pronouns: -this",,that,,*these', -those"
-first",'last, 164
M4..4,2 Demonstrative pmnouns:
r66
M4.4.3 Demonstrative pronouns: "former,,,,tattef'
167
M4.4.4 Dernonstrative pronouns:,'othe/', .othen"
168
M4.4.5 Denonstrative pronouns:,,one,,,,one$,,
168
lrM.4.6 Demonstrative pronouns:,same',*such", -s0"
169
M4.5 INTERRSGATTVE PRQNOI.'NS
171
M4.6 REI.ATIVE PRONOIJNS
-what,' 175
hrl4.6.'l Relative pronouns; "who,', "which",
,,that" 177
M4,6.2 Relative pronouns:
,'as', 178
M4.6.3 Relative pronouns:
179
M4.6.4 Relative pronouns: .but"
180
M4"7 REqIFROCAL PRONOUNS
181
M4.8 iNEEFINITE FRONOUNS
182
tr,l4. g. 1 tndefinite pronouns:,,alt",'tvhole',',one"
18?
M4.8.1 lndefinite pronouns: *some,
tB3
M4.8.3 lndefinite pronouns: ,,any"
184
lrl4.B.4 lndefinite pronouns: "none", "no"
185
l\r14.8.S lndefinite Fmnouns:,,either", "neithef
186

TABLE OF CONTENTS T
 M4.8.6 lndefinite Fnnounsr "other', "others"
186
M4.8.7 tndefinite Pronouns: "each", "every"
187
M4.8.8 lndefinite Pronouns: "both', 'certain,, *several"
-it", 188
fu14.8.9 lndefinite Pmnouns: lmpersonal "we,,
.they"
!0u",',he", 189

M5: NUMERAI-S 191

M5.1 CARDINAL NI.JMERALS
194
M5.2 ORDINAL NI"IMERALS
198
M5.3 FRACTIONAL NUMERALS
200
M5.3.1 Cornmon Fraction
200
M5.3.2 Decimal Nurnbers
?al
M5"4 CQLLECT]VE NUMERALS
2A2
M5.5 MULTIPI.ICATIVE NUMERALS
203
M5.6 DlSTRlBUTIVE Nt..IMERAIS
204
M5. 7 ADVE RB lAL Iv UI\II ERAL$
205
M5.8 INDEFIN]TE NUMERALS
206
M5.9 WORKING WITI..I NIJMERALS
208
MS.9.1 Types of Numbers
208
M5.9.2 Addition and Subtraction
209
M5.9.3 Multiplication, Division, Exponentiation
209
M5.9.4 ldiomatic Numeral Expressions
210
M5.10 TECHINICAL NUMERALS
212
M5.11 ROMAN NUMERALS
215
M5.12 THE SYMBOLS OF THE LAT]N ALPHAtsET
216

M6: VERB$ 27V

M6.1 CATEGOR1ES OF VERBS
219
M6.1 .1 Transitive and lntransitive Verbs
22Q
M6.1.2 The Aspect of the Verb
221
tril6.1.3 The Voice of the Verb
223
M6.1"4 The Number of the Verb
2?5
M6.1.5 The Person of the Verb
226
M6.1.6 The Mood o the Verb
227
M6"1.7 The Tense of the Verb
228
M6.1.8 Principal, Auxiliary, and Modal Defeetive Verbs
230
M6.1.9 Regular and lrregular Verbs
231
M6.2 VERB FORMS CI{ARTS z:32
M6.2.1 Verb Forms Charl Common Aspect, Active Voice
ZJJ
M6.2.2 Verb Forms Charl Common Aspect, passive Voice
2U
M6.2.3 Verb Forms Chart Continuous Aspect, Active Voice
235
M0.2.4 Verb Forms Charl Continuous Aspect, Passive Voice
236
M6.3 PERSONAL MOODS 237
M6.3. 1 lndicative: Present
239
M6.3.1.1 &esenf lndlcafive; Common Aspecf, Aefrve Vojce
239
M6.3. f.2 Pmsenf lndrbafrve Conrnon Aspec{ passive fbjee
24'l
M6.3.1.3 Present Indreafire, Con{rnuous Aspeef, Acfrve Uoiee
242
M03.f .4 presenf lndieaffrre ConfinuousAspect, passlve Voice
242
M6.3.2 lndicative: Past
244
M6.3.2.1 Pasf fndrcafiyA Conrrnron Aspecf, Acfrve tlorce
244
M63.2.2 Pasf Indicafive, Cornrnon Aspecf, Fassjve Volce
246
M63.2.3 Fast lndlealivg Confinuous Aspect, Acllve Vtlce
247
M6.3.?.4 Fasf lndicafr'vg Contrnuous Aspecl passrve Voiee
248
M6.3.3 lndicative: Future
249
M6.3.3.1 Fulure /ndicaffvg Cornrnon Aspec( Acfrye Vbree
249
MS.3.3,2 Fufui,e lndieative, Connmon Aspeel, passlve Vorce ,4t
M63.3.3 Futue lndhalive ConfinuousAqpeef, Acfive Voiee
252
M6.3.4 lndicative: Future in the Past oEc
M6.3.4.1Fufure in fhe Pasf /ndieatire, Cornnrlon Aspec[ Acfrve l/oice
253
M6.3"4.2 Future rn lhe Pasl lndrbafive, Cornmon Aspect, passrve llorbe
255
M6.3.4.3 Fufure rn fhe Pasf Indrcafivq ConflnuousAspecf, Acfive Vaice
255

: TABLE OF CONTENTS
 B:

M6.3.S tndicative: present perfect

M6.3.S. presenf per&cf lndicative,
I 'rF.-l
Cormrnon Aspecf; Acfive Vorbe
M6.3.5,2 present penhcf /ndieaflye, 0ommon Asbect passne yote 25V
M6.3"5'i present perfuef Indrca&re, confrnuous Aspecf ?s9
Aetive vorce
M6.3.6 lndicative: past perfect 260
M6.3.6.1 Fasf perfecf /ndrcative, Comman Aspec{ .Acfrve 261
Volce
M6.3. 6.2 pasf pede et tndicatiye, Comrnon Aqpect pr*r**oi* 261
M6.3.6.3 past Ferfect lndicative,Oontrnuous Aspec{, Acfive Vome 262
M6.3.7 lndicative: Future perfect 2S3
M6.3.7.,1 Future pelect Indrbativg ConrnonAspec{ 2M
Actrre Vorce
M6.3.7.2 Ftiure per&cf lndlcafrve Common Aspect, passlve 2M
Vorce
MO3. Z.l Fulure per&cf lndreatrve Confrnuous 265
Aspect, Active tioie
M6.3.8 lndicative: Future perfect in ihe past 266
M6.3.8.1 Fufue perfecf rn ffre paer rndrcafive, Oommon tbt
,Aspect, Acilve t/oice
M6.3.8.? Fufure perfecf rln fhe pasf lndicafiye Cornrnon,+.lpeci pirr* 10t
fro,i" ?68
M6.3.&3 Furure perfecf in the Fasf Indrbafive, conrrnuous,qipe*Jrii*
ro,a,
M6.3.9 Subjunctive: present 269
M6"3.9.1 Fnsent Subiuncflve, Common Aspecl Actrve 270
Vorce
M6.3.9.? preseni Subjuncfiue, Common Aspect passve Voice 2V0
M6.3.9.3 present Sublunctlve, Contrnuous Aspecf, 273
Aetrve lroree
MO. J.S. 4 presenf Sublunctr'rre, Confrnuous,qsbecC passrne 273
iloie
M6.3.10 Subjunctive: perfect 2V4
M6.3,1 0. 1 pedect Subjuncfr'vg Conrrinon Aspec{ 275
Aclive Vbrce
M6.3.10.1 perfect Su$uncfrve, Common Aspecl passrve /,tc
Volce
M6. 3. 143 Pe/&ef $ub.lunctivq Confhuous Aspeef, 277
Acflye l/orci
" --
M6.3.11 Old.Form Subjunctive end Equivalent $ubjunctives 277
M6.3. 12 Conditionah present 279
M6.3.12.1 Fresenf Condrhbnal, Comrnon Aspecf, Aclrve ltorbe 2&2
M6.3. 1?.2 prese nt Csndifnnatr, eorcmon Aspeef, Fassive 283
Vojee
M6.3. f2.3 present Canditionat, Confrnuous Aspecl Ac#ve llolce 284
M6.3.1 2.4 Fqulvalen{ present Oondifr.onals 284
M6.3. 1 3 Conditional: perfect 285
M6.3. 13. f Ferfecl 287
Condrfionaf Conrmon Aspec{ Acliye Vorce
4d6.3.13.2 Ferfeet Conddlona{ Comrnon 287
Aspect passr.ve Vorce
M6.3.13-J pedecl Condlronal, Conllnuous Aspecl Acfive 288
lbrbe
M6. 3. 13.4 Equivalent perfeef Condltr.onals 289
M6,3. 14 lmperative: present 289
M6.3.14.I presenf ftnperafiue, Contmon Aspect, Active llolce 291
M6.3. f4.l presenf lrnperafve, Common Aspecl Fasslye l&rce 291
M6.3. f 4.3 prese nt fmperative, Conflnuous Aspeet Aef.re 252
Uoice
M6.3. 1 5 Common Oontractions 292
M6.4 ]MPFRSONAL I\{OODS 294
M6.4.1 lnfiniilve: present 297
M6.4.1.1 Presenf lnfnltr,ye, Comnron Aspeef Active Vaiee 298
M6.4.1.2 present lnfinitive, Conmon Aqpecfi Fassrve llor.ce ?98
M6.4. f .3 Fresent Infinitive, Conlrnuous Aspect, Ac$re t/orce 302
M6.4.2 lnfinitive: perfect 302
M6.4.2.1 perfeef lnfrnrfr're, Connmon Aspecl Aefive lbr.ce 303
M6.4.2.2 pelect Infinitive, ConrmonAspecl passlye Vofue 303
M6.4.2.3 perfect tnfinttive, eonfrnuous Aspe ct, Active Vaice 303
M6.4,3 Participle: present 344
M6.4.3.N Presenf parflcrple, Conrrnon Aspec4 Aefirre force 305
M6"4.3.1 Present partieiple, Common passnre 30s
Aspec{ lbme
M6.4.3,3 The "-ing', Form 347
M6.4.4 Farticiple: past 30r
M6.4.4.I pasf partrelple ComrnoRAspec{ Acflre ltorbe 309
M6.4.4.2 past particiBle, Cornmon Aspecl passrve forbe 309
M6.4.5 Farticiple: perfect 311
M6.4.5.1 perdeef parfhrp/A Comnon Aspect, Acfr.re l,bfce 312
M6.4.5.2 perfeet partieiple, Conrmon Aspec{ passlve 312
Vbrce
l\[6.4.6 Gerund: present 313
M6.4.6,1 Fresent Gerrnd; Cornmon,Aqpecf, Acilrre llorce 314
M04.6.2 Presenf Gerund, Conrman Aspee{ pass/ye Vorbe 314
316

TABLE Otr CONTENTS :

 .o

,7 M6.4.6.3 Orlfferenfraling Presenf Gerund and Present Fartrbrple 316

M6.4.7 Gerund: Perfect 318
'9 M6.4.7.1 Perfecf Gerund; 0omrnon Aspect, Actlve l&rce 3f8
i0 M6.4,7.2 Perfect Gerund, Common Aspeel Passrve llorce 319
1 MS.s IRREGULAR VERBS 320
1 M6.5.1 lnegular Verbs List 322
2 M6.5.2 Difftcult Verbs 328
J M6.6 AUX]LIARY VERBS
4
332
M6.6.1 Auxiliary Verbs:"to be" 335
4
M6.6.1.1 l&r.b Foms Charfs; 'lo be" 335
6
M6.6.1.2 Usrng "fo be' 336
6
M6.6.2 Auxitiary Verbs: "to have" 339
T
M6.6.2.1 tlerb Forms Charts; 'to have" 339
7
M6.6.2.2 Usrng "{o have' 340
I M6.6.3 Auxiliary Verbs: "to do' 343
I M6.0.4 Auxiliary Verbs: "to let' 345
l M6.7 MQDAL DEFECTIVE VERBS
] 347
M6.7. 1 Modal Defective Verbs: Characteristics 349
7
M6,7.1.1 Modal Oefeclive Verbs: Conlugafrons 350
3
M6"7. 1.2 Modal Defeelfire Verbs: General Charaefensflcs 350
4
M6.7,2 Modal Defective Verbs: "shall", "should" 353
t M6.7.3 Modal Defeetive Verbs:'will", "would" 356
t M6.7.4 Modal Defeetive Verbs: "can',
-could"
7
359
M6.7.5 Modal Defective Verbs; "may", "might" 361
1
M0.7.6 Modal Defective Verbs: "must', "ought to" 364
)
M6.7.6.I Model Defucflve 'musf' 364
I
M6.7. 6.2 fidodal Defectrve'ought to' 365
!
M6.7.7 fther Auxiliary and Modal Defective Verbs 367
t
M6.7.7.1 Seml-Modal Defecftve Vetts 367
t
M0 l. 7.2 Semr4ux*ary llerbs J0d
i M6.7.7,3 Near Fulure lndcafue; Aryuments Pro and Contra 3r0
7
M6.7.8 lndicative: Near Future 372
M6"7.8.1 Aiear Fulure lndlcalive Comrnon Aspecl Aclive Uoice Jtt
I
M6. L&2 Near Future lndrc*tlve, Cornnnon Aspecf Passive Vorce 373
l
M6.7.9 lndicative: Near Future in the Past 374
l
M6.7.9.1 Near Fulure rn ffie Pasf lndicatlve, Cornnron Aspec{ Aclrye Vorce 374
M6. 7.9.? /Vear Future in the Fasf /ndlcatrve, Cornmon Aspec{ Fasslye Voice 3/5
M6.B F'ORI\1I1NG VERBS 376
M6.8.1 Forming Verbs Using Derivation 370
M6.8.2 Forming Verbs Using Grammar Category Conversion 377
M6.8.3 Forming Verbs Using "Compounding Words'Melhod 378
M6.8.4 Forming Complex Verbs 378
M6.B.5 Forming Equivalent Verbs 379
M6.8.6 Onomaiopoetic Verbs 379

M7: ADVERBS 380

hX7.T CATEGORIES OF ADVERBS 383
M7.2 VERBS W]TH ADVERBIAL PARTICLE 385
M7.2.1 Adverbial Particte 385
tttl7.2.2 Verbs with Adverbial Particle 386
M7.3 QUALTFYING ADVERBS QF NIANNER 388
M7.3.1 Adverbs of Manner 389
M7.3.2 Adverbs of Quality 3S0
M7.3.3 lntensifier Adverbs 393
M7.3.4 Adverbs of Affirmation, Negation, and Probabitity 394
M7.3.5 Adverbs of Restriction 395
M7"3.6 Exptanatory Adverbs 396
M7.3.7 Adverbs of Quantity, Amount, Degree 396
M7.3.8 lntroductory Adverbs 397
M7.4 ADVERBS OF TIME, PLACE, QAUSE, AND DETERM]NING 399
M7.4.1 Adverbs of Flace 400
M7.4.2 Adverbs of Time 400

TABLtr OF CONTENTS
 ..C.
10 :

M7.4.3 Adverbs of Cause, Reason, Result

M7.4.4 Determining Adverbs 401
M7.5 PARTICULAR ADVERBS 447:

M7.S.1 Adverbs and predicative Adjectives 404

M7.5.2 Adverbs, Adjectives, and Nouns Having ldentical 404
Fonns
M7.5"3 Advehs l-laving Two Forms 405
M7.5.4 Particular Adverbs: -but", "still', ,,vet" 406
M7.5.5 particular Adverbs: ,,very" 406
M7.5,0 Particular Adverbs: "the", ,there", ,,too, 447
M7.5.7 particular Adverbs: ,,hardly ... when', .no sooner 408
.,. than,,, Just now,
M7.5.8 Particular Adverbs: "ago', ,,since,', "before", "besides, 409
M7.6 COMPARING ADVERBS 410
M7.7 POS1TIONING ADVERBS 412
M7,2.1 Fositioning Adverbs of Manner 417
M7.7.2 Positioning Adverbs of Time 417
M7.7.3 Positioning Adverbs of place 419
M7.7.4 Positioning Other Categories of Adverbs 4:21

M7.7.S Sptit lnfinitive 421

M7.7.6 posiiioning Many Adverbs 423
M7.7.2 Positioning a bw particular Adverbs 423
M7.8 FORMING ADVERBS 424
M7.8.1 Forming Derivative Adverbs 426
1d7.8.2 Forming Qonrpound Adverbs 426
427

M8: FREPOSITIONS
M8.1 COMPARING PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTTONS, 429
ADVERBS 431
M8,2 TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS
M8.2.1 Types of prepositions 433
M8.2.2 ptacing prepositions 433
MB.3 VERBS WITH FREPOS]TION 434

MB.4 VERBS WITH ADVERBIAL PART1CLE AND PREPOSITION 436

M8.5 USING PREPOSITIONS 438
439
M9: CONJUNCTTON$
I\49.1 TYPES OF CONJUNCT]ONS 4M
M9.2 SENTENCE FLEMENTS WORKING AS EQUIVALENT 446
CONJUNCTIONS 452
M9.3 PARTICULAR CONJUNQT]ONS: ''LJKE", -AS", "T[LL",'THAT", .Ir",
"WHETHER" 453
Ml0: INTERJECTIONS
455
PART SI SYNTAX
51: SENTENEE $YNTAX
51.1 TYPES OF SENTENCES 461
S1.2 SUBJECT 463
ST.3 PRED]CATE 468
51.3.1 Verbal predicate 474
51.3.2 Nominal predicate: Copula 476
S1.3.3 Norninal Fredicate: predicate Complement 477
51.3.4 Nominal predicate: Appositive predicate 479
51.3.5 Complete predicater predicate of Result 482
S1 .4 SUBJECT-FREDICATE 483
AQREEMENT
Taking predicates ln Either $ingular or ptunat Forrn 485
!'!.4.] luniects 485
$1.4.2 Fluralsubjects Taking predicates in Siniular Form
51.4.3 Singular Subjects Taking predicates in pjurat Form 486
51.4.4 Compound $ubjects predieate Agreemeni 487
^
S1.5 ATTRIBUTES 487

Sl .5.1 Using Attributes 490

S1.5.2 Positioning Conmon Attributes 491
492

TABLE OF CONTENTS :
 . ar

01 S1.5.3 Subjeei Complement Attributes 495

a2 S1.5.4 Object Complement Attributes 496
t4 S1.5.5 Appositions 4S7
M Sl.6 DIRECT OtsJECT 499
]5 51.0.1 Direct 0bject 4.99
l6 51.6.2 The 0ognate Object 501
l6 51.6.3 Verbs with Two Direct Objects
'\7 502
S1.7 IND]RECT OBJECT 503
t8 31.7.1 lndirect Objeqt
'IO 503
51.7.2 lndirect Object without Prcposition 5M
t0 S1.7.3 lndirect Object with Preposition 504
2 $1.7.4 Predicates Taking both Direct and lndirect Objects 506
v 51.7.5 Retained Object 507
t7 S1.8 PREPOS1TIQNAL OBJECT 509
i9 51.8. 1 Prepositional Objeet
509
l1 51.8.2 Comparison: Pr,epositional Object versus Prepositional Adverbiat 510
t1 S1.8.3 ldentical Frepositional Oblect and Prepositionat Adverbial 511
r')
51.8.4 Using Prepositional Object 511
:3 51.8.5 OomBlex Object 512
r4 S1.9 ADVERBIALS 513
o 51 .9.t Adverbials of Manner 514
o 31.9.2 Adverbials of Time 515
7 51.9.3 Adverbials of Place and Momentum 517
51.9.4 Adverbials of Cause 518
31.9.5 Adverbials of Purpose or Result 519
$1.9,6 Adverbials of Condition or Supposition 520
51.9.7 Adverbials of Concession 521
S1.9.8 Compound Adverbials 522
S1. 1 O $TRUCTURING SENTENCES 523
51.10.1 General Sentence Structure 523
$1.10.2 Accentuation 523
51.10.3 Resonance and Rhythm 524
S 1. 1 0.4 Natural Declarative Sentence Structure 524
St.10.5 Natural tntenogative $entence $tructure 525
l 51.10.6 The Subject-Predicate Order 526
) 51.10.7 The Order o:f Muttiple Attributes 528
:
! $2: COMPLEX $ENTENCE SYNTAX 530
S2.1 ANALOGY TO MORPI.{OLOGY 534
$2.1.1 Noun Subordinate Clauses 535
52.1.2 Adjective Subordinate Clauses 427
vvl
52.1.3 Adverb Subordinate Clauses 539
52 1.3. 1 Adverbial of Manner and Cornperisoil Clause 539
S?. f .3.2 Aduerbral of ilnre C/ause MA
$2. 1. 3. 3 Adyerbral of Place Clause 541
S2. 1 . 3. of Cause Clause
4 ,Aduerhral 542
S2. f .3.5 Aduedral of Parpose elause M2
S?. 1.3, 6 Advei'bral of Resulf or Oonsecufiye Clause 542
52. 1.3.7 Adverbial of Concessr'on Clause 543
52. f.3.8 Relatlre Clauees 544
SZ f "3.9 Adverbral of Condjtbn elause 548
S2.2 COI"IDITIOI\AL COMPLEX SENTENCE 550
52.2.1 Conditional Clause: Real Action Verbs 551
$2.2.2 Conditional Clause: Unreal Action Verbs 5s3
52.2.3 Tenses in Conditional Cornplex Sentence for Unreal Action Verbs 556
S2.2.4 Reduced Conditional Complex Sentence 557
$2.2,5 Reveming the Order in ConditionalComplex $entence 557
52.2.6 Extended Conditional Comptex Sentence s58
S2.3 ANALOGY TQ SENTENCE SYNTAX 559
32.3.1 Subjective Clauses 559
52.3.2 Predicative Clauses 560
$2.3.3 Attributive Clauses 561

TABLE OF CONTENTS
 12 :

52.3.4 Objective Ctauses

52.3.5 Prepositional Clauses 562
52.3.6 Adverbiat Ctauses 502
S2.4 COMPLEX SENTENCE SYNTAX ANALYSIS 563
32.4.1 Complex Sentence Syntax Analysis 564
$2.4.2 DoublelCornpound Sentence Syntax Analysis 565
S2.4.3 Mutiipte Sentence $yntax Analysis 566
567

53: THE SEQUENCE OF TENSE$

$3.1 THE SFeUENOE OF TENSES: RULES 570
S3.2 EXCEPT]ONS TQ RULE 3 570
S3.3 ADDITIONAL FXCEPTION$ TO THE SHOUENCE OF TENSES 571
RULES 573
S4: DIRECT AND rNntREeT STYLE
s4.1 TRANSFORMTNG DrREcr $TYLE To rNDrREcr srylE: 514
GENERAL RuLES 575
S4'2 INTERROGATIVE, EMPHATIC, AND IMPERANVC
SEruTEruCES IN ]NDIRECT STYLE s80
M.2.1 Transforming lntenogative Sentences to lndirect $tyle
54.2.2 Transforming Emphatic Sentences to lndhect Style 580
54.2.3 Transforming tmperative $entences to tndirect Style 58f
581

$5: INTERRQGAT|ONS AND NEGATIONS

55.T TNTERROGATIONS 583
S5.1,1 lntenogations with to be" 583
S5.1.2 tntenogations with ,,to have. 583
S5.1.3 lnterrogations with Modal Eefective Verbs 584
55.1.4 lntenogations with "All Other Verbs" Group 585
S5.1.5 Confirmative euestion 585
55.1.6 Rhetorical euestion 586
55.1 ,7 Other" Forms of lnterrogations 5S6
587
S5,2 NEGATIONS
55.2.1 Negations with ,to be' 5BB
$5.2.2 Negations with "to have,' 588
S5.2.3 Negations with Modal Defective Verbs 588
55.2.4 Negations with,Ati Other Verbs" Group 589
$5.2.5 Negative lntenogations 590
$5.2.6 Doubte Negation 591
-SO[!IE", -ANY",'NO' 591
S5.3 IN AFFIRMATIONS, INITERRQGATIONS, NEGATIONS
S5"4 U$ING SHORTANSWER 593
595

FART 4: PUNQTUATION
ENGTISH FUNCTUATION
Ftr FERIQD 60r
F2: QUQTES 604
P3r CQMhTIA 607
P3.1 USING COMMA }N CQMPLEX SENTENCES 610
P3.2 MARKING SUBORDINATE CLAIJSES 610
P3.3 ISOLATING APPOS1TIONS ANID NOMTNATIVE OF ADDRESS 611
P3.4 SEPARATING MULT1PLE ATTR]BUTES 614
F3.5 USINIG COh,rlMA tN SERTES 614
P3.6 USING CQMMA II\I VERTICAL LTSTS 615
P3.7 USING COMMA IN INTERJECT1ONS AND ELLIFTIC 616
CONSTRUETIONS 617
P3.8 USING COMMA TO ]NTRODUCE DIRECT STYLE
F3.g USING COMMA TO AVQID AMB}GUITY 618
F3.10 MAIN MISTAKES ]N COMMA USE 619
F4r SEMICOLON 619
F5: COTQN 6e1
622

TABLE Otr CONTENTS :

 .. f1aJ

62
P6: EXCLAIfiATION FQXNT AND QUESTTON ifrARK 62.*
02
63
P6-T USING TI.IE EXCLAMATION POINT 624
x F6.2 USING TI-IE QUEST;SN MARK 62S
65 P7: HYPHEN AND AASHES e26
66 P7.1 HYPHEN 626
67 P7.2 U$ING THE "EN" DASI-I 627
P7.3 TJSING THE "EM" DASFI 627
'0 P8: $OLIDUS ANn POINTS OF ELLIFSIS 630
'0 F8.1 USiNG SQLIDUS 6$0
,1
F&t2 USING POINTS OF ELLIPSIS 631
'3 P9: BRACKETS ANt) PARENTHESES 632
Pg.1 ANGLE BRACKETS 632
'4 P9.2 BRACES 632
'5 F9.3 SQUARE tsRACKETS 632
i0 P9-4 PARENTI.IE$ES 633
l0 F'10: APO$TROPHE 634
!1 P1O.X [.'S]NG TI.NE APOSTROPT{E IN $YNTHETIQ GENITIVE 634
|1 F1 0.2 FQRMING CUSTOM PLURAI-S WITHOUT AFOSTROPHE OM
P1 0.3 FORIVI]NG CIJSTQM ADJECTIVES
635
3 FTO.4 MARKING FhIONETIC OMISSIONS 635
3
n FINAL WORE}
t4 63?
rs
BIBLIOGRAFHY 638
t5 PUBLICATIONS CONSULTED 638
t6 INTERNET REFERENCES 639
6
t7

I N
4ntrr
E
I
I
0
t
1

3
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I
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: TABLE OF CONTENTS
FART t: FHONETIC$
USING THE ENEUSH FHQNETIC ATFHABET
ENGL]$H PHONEflC$

The English language is fundamentally dependent on its phonetics. That means, phonetics plays an important
role in determining the right form of the morphologic sentence elements, und eu.n in deciding on the
meaning of our messages. In addition, as a branch of grammar, phonetics helps pronouncing the-English
words correctly, and the foreign one as well.

The globalization of our world comes with increased information exchange form one language to another;
because English is 'othe" dominant international language, this also implies that foreign nu-.. need to
be
translated into English phonetic sounds appropriately. Pronouncing foriign names correctly is a matter of
consideration, respect, and it shows good knowledge/control of phonetics, ind of grammar.

The structure employed to present this part is:

PHl: English Sounds
PH2:Vowels
PH3: Semi-Vowels
PH4: Consonants
PH5: Diphthongs and Triphthongs
PH6: Pronouncing Foreign Names

PHt: ENGLI$H SQUNDS

Considering its phonetics, English is particularly difficult to master due to the following aspects.

1. The greatest problem in English is, words are pronounced dffirently compared to their written
form. There are words having one written form, though two different pronunciations, ("the apple";
oothe
man"), and there are words written differently, only they are pronounced the same: ('? tike fo-read
books";'oI got rid of all books").In addition, there are words having the same form and the same
pronunciation, but they take different meanings: ("1 like to fly"; "the fly was teruibly annoying"). In
other words, English has plenty of "multiple" and"implicit" meanings.

2. English laclrs sounds specific to other languages. There are very many known languages (existing,
dead, and artificial languages) and they employ an incredible variety of sounds. However, with littG
efforts, and knowing the phonetic alphabel, all foreign sounds may be translated acceptably into
English sounds.

3. English has a few particular "English sounds". Despite the fact that English is a Latin-roots
language, it has unique and specific sounds. Those particular English sounds form the so called
"British accent", and they are quite difficult to pronounce for all ESL students. English phonetics
helps a lot the ESL students, except it needs to be "translated" into sounds specific to .u"fu foreign
language. Note that the phonetics notions presented in this part are not sufficiently developi,
therefore additional, more adequate references are strongly encouraged.

4. Sqme written letters may have up to seven or eight dffirent pronunciations. Although there are
some general rules of pronouncing the English words correctly, the number of exceptioni is so great
 ?o

that the best approach is to learn each word according to its phonetic translation.

The English alphabet contains 26 letters: they are pronounced as 36 "bctsic soltnds,,, ,,phonetic
and, 47
sounds" (a phonetic sound may group several basic sounds). In order to use English
appropriately, ESL
students and native speakers as well need to know the phoneiic alphabet. "phonetii
symboir', fone.pond to
the basic phonetic sounds, and they are always written within squar" brackets. For
example, the phonetic
sound [e] is the letter (and the sound) ,,e,' from: o,ten,',,,seven',,,,error,,,,,lemon,,.

The following set of definitions explains a few phonetic notions which are further
needed in this book, in
Morpholog,, part.

DSEIilXTTON PI{'.

'phonetle sound" is a distlnct phonetic unit. phonetic

A "phonetlc phonetic saunds
sounds are
are grouped
grouped in:
A7. "basie sounds": vowels, semi-vowefs/
semi-voweJs/ cansonants;
A2. "complex sounds',: diphthongs, triphthpongs.
'77able" 1s a qroup of phonetic sounds pronounced naturally
"sy77able" toqether, and cor.
toqethert containinq
at feast one voweft or a semi-vowef. Generafly, a syJJabJe qroups a few cansonants
cansona
around ane or more vowefs.
und one
rds" are formed from one or more phonetic syJJabJes; therefore, they are
"words" are fut
further
categorized as beinq
subcategorized beinq:',monosyltable,,
:',monosyllabte,, or,,poJysyJ-J,abte,,.
or,,poLysyllable,,.
onetics" is the part of linguistics dealing with pronouncing
"Phonetics" pronc:uncing the words of a
9:uage. In EngJish, words are pronounced differently than
lang:uage. than their
their written form;
therefore,
refore, phonetlcs becomes automaticaJly
automatically a sub-branch
sub-branZh of the EngJlsh qramlnar needed
EnctLish qrailLmar
to communlcate (oraJly and in writing) meanings,/ideas carrectLy.

Note that the symbols used to represent phonetic sounds in this book are the ones used in most international
grammar books and dictionaries; however, in many publications phonetic symbols are written
differently
(parlicularly in N. America). Now, in order to identi$r the 36 phonetic symbois correctly, the method
of ,,the
analog comparison of the well-known words" is highly recommended. tne analog comparison method js
used a lot in English, therefore it is described in the following pages.

English phonetics differentiates the sounds as being: basic sounds, and compound (or complex) sounds.
Further, the basic English sounds are: vowels, semi-vowels, and consonants. Vowels are ample, resonant
sounds produced by the open or semi-open mouth. There are 12 vowels in English, and they are presented
in
details in the coming sections. Consonqnts are buffered sounds produced by an almost closed mouth, or
while opening it. There are 22 English consonants, and they are further divided into "pulmonic,, and oonon-
pulmonic". Semi-vowels are only 2 sounds: they have characteristics common to both vowels
and
consonants.

Complex saunds are grouped in diphthongs and, triphthongs. Diphthongs are groups of two
vowels/semi-
vowels pronounced together. English works with 9 diphthongs. Tiere ari only itriphthongs inEnglish:
they
are groups of three vowels/semi-vowels pronounced together. The following chart pr"r"nt, graphically
the
structure of the English sounds.

PHONtrTTCS :
 . 20

CHART PHl: THE STRUCTURE OF Tl{E ENGLTSH SOUNDS

?tic
iSL
Ito
:tic

Particularly important in phonetics is the accent, marked by a reverse apostrophe ahead of the accentuated
syllable. A few instances of accentuated syllables are highlighted in the following example.

sxiA$P&Es PHI.

ITARKING NATURJAT PHONETIC ACCENT

John 'd3cn l
three appJes
Slt down, please. 'sit 'daun pfi:zl
I see Jane. ai \s1: 'dgeinl
The cl-ock 1s tickinq. 6e'kfck iz'tikirll

In a sentence, natural phonetic accent stresses the most important sentence elements: nouns, main verbs,
some adjectives, some adverbs, some pronouns, and numerals.

ral
1y
he PHZ: VOWELS
is

Particular to English is, the vowel sounds have ample, harmonic resonance, and they have great frequency in
k. words. It appears that English is one of the best suited languages for singing songs, due to its pafticular,
nt melodious phonetics.
in
0r As mentioned, there are 12 vowels in English, but the difficult aspect is, there are many written letters
n- representing one and the same vowel sound. In order to identifz a vowel sound correctly (or any other
rd sound), the analog comparison of the well-known words method is employed, which is specific to English.
This method uses a few usual words, all having the same sound embedded, in order to help identifizing the
written forms (the letters) a particular sound could take.
1-
)y The following table lists all vowel symbols accompanied by a few instances of usual words, each having the
IE corresponding vowel sound embedded.

: PHONETICS
 40:

TABLE plr2: VQWEL SOUNDS

.iTffiffiffi:
=ffi:i.
':1 i,!iirtiliiii.'!i,I..,ir,':-
I^I cup, sun, some, Shut, Cover, Cof or . Cana,-la e!^-^- sum
1
la: (stfonq forn) larcte.- elerk <harn na*A^-
3l tel a, an, the, of , cover, other, labor, lJtir, fi"qe,
4 [e: ] or [s: (stronq fotr) fit sf.r
5 lal -r ;;; -;:; .
6 til is, in, the, finocr- rinn ffi _ e !-L
v
'7
li: (stronq form) see-ffi , - f .v

B
lcl Tom, on, doq, o", fost,
watch
9 lc: (strong fot*) e.
-10 lul
11 lu: I (stronq form) moon. fwo- ronfffi
L2 lel red end, ctuestion

rn Tqble PH2, phonetic vowels correspond to the letters in bold type-and

they are quite different
sometimes'Further references to the written form of the vowels are made in
Morphology. part two in this
book' Very important.is,,in written form voweLs are represented by
the letters: ,,a, e, i, o, u,,. Another
remarkable morphological aspect is, vowels can syttibles
form alone,or accompanied by consonants.

PH3: SEMI-VOWELS

There are only two semi-vowel sounds, and they have a double character:
of a vowel, and of a consonant.
However, in most instances semi-vowels behave as vowels do. The following
table lists the two semi-
vowels.

TABLE FIT3: SEMI-VoTIEL soUI{Ds

s, student/ yeJJow, few, nephew, Lndlan

with, white, window, week

Semi-vowels also can form syllables (alone or accompanied by consonants) . rn written Jbrm, semt-vowels
are represented by: "y" ando'w".

PH4: CON$ONANTS

Not all English consonants are equal, phonetically (and functionally), because
they are produced in different
ways' Accordingly, consonants are grouped in: pulmonic, and non-pttlmonlc.
Further, each group is sub-
categorized into many subgroups. However, in this book consonants
are presented summarily, as being
divided only in pulmonic and non-pulmonic because this division is
needed in part 2, Morphology. The
following table presents the group of pulmonic consonants.

PHONETICS :
 -..frro

TASLE PH4.1: THE GRQUF OE pUf,!tONIC CONSOr.rAlrrs

r.{.,-;:iil!j,Eiir.t;ir.:!l tii:l:a.rirl'riii-r;ij,:),,ti ilti:lj]'ffi

15 trl apple, middle, sheTf, qirI, fult, leq, Iearn, loval
L6 lrl red, roof, briqht, garage, ring, ettar, street, bravo
71 lsl pleasure, vision, :9ise
1B tdsl June, Jarge, jam, Jane , juicy, John, jade , qarag:e
I9 tdl the, with, this, ather, brother, th;t, tnose, tno h
20 tnl rinq, finqer, kinq, charminq, playinq: ihi;q, einq
2L Ibl bad, bench, but, Bufgaria, bun, blg, bag, bait, bafd
ldl did, duck, Oen.i@ dlq; deny, depart
23 tsl goat, grammar, giver lassip, grayt garmentt.gap, qross, eqq
24 lvl woice, wector, victory, wortex, weaf, veggie, vehicle
25 lz1 zoo, zeaJ, zeLa , zinc, zero, zeppeTin, xylene, Xerox
26 lml man, marine, Maine, minor, mercurv, mv. mea t
27 lnl no, neither, new, neqJected, nod, nothinq, nor, neck
NOTE
'ent Ihe consonant t6l is a unlque sound specific to Enqlish.
.his
her

The non-pulmonic group of consonants is presented in the following table.

IABLE FH4.2: EllE GROUP OF NON-PUIi{ONIC CONSONANTS

:,,:!i]:irge!,8#l+,..',.#
2B fl sharp, short, sure, shut, Shakespeare, shock, shunt, Engllsh
nt. 29 Irlt charminq, picture, watch, question, ehin, chlmney
ni- mouth, three, thouqht, path, thick, thrust, thanks
30 tel
31 tpl put, pen, part, pastry, pinq, pJum, pLenty, f>ulf, pencif
32 trl tea, teacher, tawn, plate, Tom, tune, tent, trick, true
JJ lkl or [x] cat, Canberra, Canada, contract, quail, consonant, quake
tfl

l
34 falL, funqi, feel, fun, festivaf, lrance, fence, frorn
?q lsl sound, so/ secret, solsticet sun, sauce, sensation
36 thl hoflor!, hen, harbar, Hamburg, high, humbLe, hint, hut

l NOTE
The consonant tel is a unique sound specific to EngLish.

:ls
In syllables, consonants are never pronounced alone: they are grouped around one or more vowels or semi-
vowels. Inwrittenform,consonantsarerepresentedby: "b,c,d,f,g,h,j,k,t,m,n,p,q,r,s,t,v,x,z,,.

PHS; D]PHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS

nt
Diphthongs are two vowel sounds pronounced together; they are presented in the following table.
b-
rg
IE

: PHONETICS
 42:

TABLE plts.l: THE ENGI]ISH DIPT{IrTONGS

. -S,]I#ffi;ffi
37 leil l\1i:iiirii!.tr'ffi
38 lail <:
I, white. f irrc, hntz
..,. -'z'Art t-^i c^
'-"-- ^, -, t';LgIIr. :
IIJ_ne
- ' '"-
39 loul qO, OPen. bone- \zattAE r-*^ -€vwll
__--, 4-+v, !!v11re/
<
40 Iau1 mouth, town, how, now, do
47 lcil boy, toy, noi"y
42 liel here, zero- bear-
:43 leel pear/ there, chai 1 1

44 lcal yolJr,
....- four, qoer
45 lual POO?, SUre, alurat- a*

Triphthongs are three sounds pronounced together;

they are presented in the following table.

FH6; PRONQUNCING FQREIGN AND uNKNowN

woRDs
English may be the only Latin-roots language employing
47 distinct sounds, and that richness in phonetic
sounds should be sufficient to translate ptronetlcatly
into ingliJ any foreign word. unfbrlunately, things
not that shiny' Despite the fact there are so many distinci are
nngrish ,ourid., most of them are specific to
English' only; as a result, many foreign sounds have
no English correspondent. The good news is, there
techniques and methods of breaking-and re-grouping are
the basic Engrish sounds, which allow for accurate
reproduction in English of almost any foreign rouni.
tf the reaJe;"r ;;;",rd ;;"il; English phonetics in
details, two prestigious Internet sites aie recommended:
4. "(JCL" (University College London) and;
B' "IPA" (International Phonetic Association)-their Internet addresses
are listed in Bibliography
section.

Foreign names need to be translated into English

using phonetic symbols for a correct pronunciation;
same technique is used for neologisms (new words; the
or ioi little known English words. phonetic translations
are inserted between square brackets in a few
dictionaries and thesaurus books because, unfbrtunately,
of them present phonetic translations. Following are the pn"n"ri" not all
words.
,r""rlrti"".- Ju ,n* foreign/unknown

A. READING FORETGN NAMES

Ghethe Dakka l'G h e 0 e .D n k nl

Naj6 XatJas \^T
f r\duJe5/\InS]
- i-

PHONtrTICS :