}

Universidad Nacional de Córdoba

Facultad de Lenguas
English Language IV

Reading to Write from Source Texts:

Summary-Response Writing

María Marcela González de Gatti

Natalia Verónica Dalla Costa

Reading furnishes the mind with materials of knowledge; it is thinking that makes
what we read ours. We are of the ruminating kind, and it is not enough to cram
ourselves with a great load of collections; unless we chew them over again, they will
not give us strength and nourishment.
John Locke

Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body.

Joseph Addison and Richard Steele

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 Table of Contents

Preface.....................................................................................................................5

Part I: Guidelines for reacting to texts and writing and summary response

What is your reading purpose and how do you read?........................................................7

Active reading.......................................................................................................................7
TASK 1..................................................................................................................................9
Critical thinking skills..........................................................................................................9
What does critical thinking when reading involve?.........................................................10
Why are critical thinking skills important for academic reading?..................................10
Critical reading....................................................................................................................11
Literal, inferential and evaluative meanings.....................................................................12
Reading between the lines..................................................................................................12
Reading beyond the lines...................................................................................................13
TASK 2.................................................................................................................................13
TASK 3.................................................................................................................................16
Using background reading texts and learning to learn from texts: quoting and
paraphrasing........................................................................................................................17
Direct quotation..................................................................................................................18
Paraphrasing........................................................................................................................18
Aspects to consider in direct quotation and paraphrase...................................................19
TASK 4.................................................................................................................................20
Using background reading texts and learning to learn from texts: summarising...........22
Technical terms associated with summary writing...........................................................23
The importance of summaries............................................................................................23
Contents of a summary.......................................................................................................24
The qualities of an effective summary...............................................................................25
Techniques for summarising..............................................................................................25
TASK 5.................................................................................................................................26
Steps in the process of writing a summary........................................................................27
General guidelines for writing a summary........................................................................30

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Pointers for writing effective summaries..........................................................................31
Using key words, synonyms and context clues when summarising................................31
TASK 6.................................................................................................................................32
Identifying main ideas........................................................................................................33
Supporting ideas: supporting details, minor details, irrelevant details, repetition and
redundancy..........................................................................................................................34
What is a summary response?............................................................................................36
Steps in the process of writing a summary response.........................................................37
Planning a response............................................................................................................37
General form of a summary response................................................................................37
Alternative summary-response formats............................................................................39
Pointers for an effective summary response.....................................................................40
Problems to look out for when writing a summary response..........................................40
Ratio of summary to analysis in summary responses........................................................43

Part II: Genre-based materials

The teaching-learning cycle in practice............................................................................44

1. Activities aimed at building the social context of the target text................................44
2. Activities aimed at modelling.........................................................................................46
3. Activities aimed at joint construction............................................................................74
4. Activities aimed at independent construction..............................................................76
5. Activities aimed at linking related texts........................................................................79
Appendix A..........................................................................................................................81
Appendix B..........................................................................................................................91
Bibliography………………...…………………………….…………………………........94

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 Preface

This handbook is organised in two sections. Part I, Guidelines for reacting to texts and
writing and summary response, presents the theoretical background and guidelines for
students to enhance their academic literacy by developing some of the critical thinking,
reading and writing skills necessary to succeed in this course. Part II, Genre-based
materials, provides practical activities based on the cycle of teaching and learning:
building the social context, modelling, joint construction, independent construction
and linking related texts (Feez, 1998 in Hyland, 2007). These activities have been
designed for English Language IV students. This class will complete two syllabus units
during the first term: Mediations in a Globalized World and Educating in Humour,
Happiness an d Freedom, which will provide the basis for work on the genre summary
response. The aim of this material is for students to:

 Develop content knowledge: an understanding of the topics dealt with in each

of the units.

 Develop context knowledge: knowledge of the social context in which the

summary response is written and read (its purpose, audience, roles and
relationships of those who read and write it, and register).

 Develop genre knowledge: an understanding of the organisational/generic

structure of the summary response and its lexico-grammatical features.

Most of the sample summary responses included in this material have been selected
and/or adapted from former students‟ answers to final exam questions. We would
therefore like to acknowledge those students´contributions without which designing
this material would not have been possible.

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 PART I

Guidelines for Reacting to Texts and

Writing a Summary Response

 What is your reading purpose and how do you read?

Each of us is bombarded with information. Every day, we encounter new facts and
opinions. In textbooks, newspapers, magazines and on the Internet, writers present
ideas they want us to accept. As a reader, you have the tough job of deciding which
authority to believe, and which conclusions to accept or reject. You must make a
choice about how you will react to what you read, see and hear. One alternative is to
accept what you encounter passively; doing so results in your making someone else‟s
opinion your own. A more active alternative consists in asking questions in an effort to
reach a personal decision about the worth of what you have experienced.
One approach to thinking is similar to the way in which a sponge reacts to
water: by absorbing. This approach has some advantages. First, the more information
you absorb about the world, the more capable you are of understanding its
complexities. A second advantage of the sponge approach is that it is relatively passive.
Rather than requiring mental effort, it tends to be rather quick and easy. The primary
mental effort involves concentration and memory.
While absorbing information provides a start toward becoming a thoughtful
person, the sponge approach has a serious disadvantage: it provides no method for
deciding which information and opinions to believe and which to reject. In order to
choose what to absorb and what to ignore, you must have a questioning attitude. Such
thinking style requires active participation. We call this interactive approach the
panning-for-gold style of thinking. Finding gold is a difficult task. The process of
panning for gold provides a model for active readers and listeners as they try to
determine the worth of what they read and hear. The sponge approach emphasises
knowledge acquisition whereas the panning-for-gold approach stresses active
interaction with knowledge.
The individual who takes only the sponge approach reads material carefully
underlining sentences, summarising major points and trying to remember as much as
he/she can. His/her mission is to understand what the author has to say memorising but
not evaluating it. The reader who takes the panning-for-gold approach not only
approaches reading to acquire new knowledge but also to clarify logical steps in the
material, identify omissions and question why the author makes claims. He/she
indicates problems with the reasoning and interacts with the material. The intent is to
critically evaluate the material and formulate personal conclusions. This evaluation
should be based on certain criteria and may be positive, negative or mixed (some
positive and some negative aspects).
Everyone reads with some kind of purpose in mind. Generally speaking, the
purpose is either to enjoy oneself – pleasurable reading – or to obtain information of

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some kind – instrumental reading. In some cases, the fact that readers may have an
instrumental purpose in mind does not deprive them of enjoying their reading and the
other way round. The two distinctive purposes in reading will determine different rates
of reading and the different strategies / skills used to approach texts – for example:
reflective reading, skim reading, scanning, or intensive reading.
Regardless of their purpose, readers have to be able to read accurately and
efficiently, and to understand as much of the text as they can in order to achieve their
purpose. In some cases, it may also be necessary to reproduce the content of the passage
in some way or other, which can be done, for example, by writing a summary. Not
everyone can read effectively even in their own language.
Sometimes, lack of efficient reading may not be the result of reading in a second
language but it may happen in the reader‟s own language, too. Comprehension failure
may be a simple matter of not knowing the meaning of a word but it is just as likely to
be a deficiency in specific reading skills. If comprehension failure happens, readers are
unable to achieve their ultimate reading purpose.
Now let us address the issue of accurate and efficient reading. There is no
denying that in order to read accurately and efficiently, it is important to read actively
and critically. This is why we will need to analyse these two notions.

 Active reading

One cannot read a book: one can only re-read it. A good reader, a major reader, an
active and creative reader is a re-reader.
Vladimir Nabokov

Three universals about reading hold for all material, namely, skimming, reading and
reinforcing. These universals have parallels in the writing process. Skimming, like
planning in the writing process, means getting ready to read. Reading, like drafting in
the writing process, means moving through the material according to your purpose.
Reinforcing, like editing in the writing process, means rereading, clarifying and
finetuning. These universals help readers read actively and think critically.
Various systems for applying these universals have been suggested. SQ3R is a
widely endorsed system originated by Francis P. Robinson in 1946. Each letter stands
for one step in the active reading process:

S: Survey the text in advance

Q: Question the text and look for answers
R: Read the text part by part
R: Recite to yourself what you have read
R: Review what you have read along with the answers to your questions

Now, we will briefly describe what each step consists of:

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Survey: Surveying is part of- skimming. The reason for surveying is to get an
overview of the material before you start reading closely and begin to make
predictions about the material. These are some suggestions for surveying:

- Read the title and subtitle and any information about the author.
- Notice headings and subheadings, words in italics and boldface.
- Read the first paragraph or introduction.
- Read the first sentence of each paragraph as it often contains the main idea of
the paragraph.
- Notice any charts, diagrams, pictures or other graphic material and use them
as road maps.
- Read the last paragraph, the conclusion or the summary.
- Think about what you already know about the subject. This provides an initial
framework into which you can place the new information and helps you to
think about relationships between ideas from different sources.
- Try to establish the purpose of the material and how the author goes about
achieving it.
- If the author takes a special approach or reveals an attitude, note it down and
keep track of its development.

Question: Questioning is also part of skimming. Asking questions stimulates your

brain to prepare for learning as it improves comprehension and recall. Try to be
clear about what you want to get from the text, your reading purpose, and begin
questioning from the very beginning. If you are at the preliminary stage of your
reading and are not sure about what exactly you want to know, try turning each
heading into a question. Then try to answer the questions. This gives a focus to
your reading and achievable goals.

Read: Reading is the core activity. Your comprehension will be enhanced if you
have surveyed and questioned before you start reading. The text you read may be
broken up into paragraph length units or groups of paragraphs. However it is
organised, establish what the gist of each paragraph or group of paragraphs is.
Make sure you question as you read. Some of the time, you will slow down reading
attentively so that you are able to understand and absorb details. At other times,
you may be scanning a unit and, sometimes, skimming.

Recite (or recall): Reciting is part of reinforcing. Reciting calls for you to look away
from the page and repeat the main points. Tell yourself out loud (recite) what you
have just read (recall). This process involves you actively in reading. When you
organise the material mentally and put it into your own words, you are
demonstrating understanding of it. This is a version of the technique of
summarising which also helps you to fix meaning in memory.

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 Review: Reviewing is also part of reinforcing. When you finish reading, survey
again, review your questions and ask yourself if you have got everything you need
from the text to answer them as fully as possible. This refreshes your memory
about the initial overview you got during surveying. It also gives you a framework
into which to fit new material you have just learned. If you made notes and wrote
down summaries of paragraphs as you went along, reviewing them will further
help the process of retaining what you have learnt. Writing can help reinforce
learning. You can keep a learning log in which to take notes on the reading
material and have a conversation on paper with the material. You can also
paraphrase difficult sections and write your own summaries and analyses.

TASK 1

List the steps you usually go through when you read a text. Next, apply SQ3R to your
reading of a text and list the steps you go through. Compare the two lists and discuss
which steps helped you learn most successfully from your reading.

 Critical thinking skills

Critical thinking is an essential tool in both academic reading and writing, and it has
been defined as follows:

Critical thinking calls for a persistent effort to examine any belief of supposed
form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports it and the further
conclusions to which it ends (Glaser, 1941, p. 5).

At the heart of critical thinking is a willingness to face objections to one‟s own beliefs,
to adopt a sceptical attitude not only toward authority and views opposed to our own
but also toward common sense – that is, toward the views that seem right to us. Critical
thinking requires that we use our imagination, seeing things from perspectives other
than our own and envisioning the consequences of our position. This list synthesises
what good critical thinkers are able to do:

 Sort out general and specific points

 Understand the difference between facts and opinion
 Summarise
 Synthesise information from a variety of sources
 Analyse
 Evaluate
 Interpret information
 Support and defend an opinion
 Make judgements

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 Make inferences
 Draw conclusions
 View a topic objectively (in an unbiased way)
 Understand a variety of viewpoints
 Think logically
 Ask questions

 What does critical thinking when reading involve?

Thinking is not something you choose to do; it is part of our human nature. However,
while thinking may come naturally, awareness of how to think does not. When you
think critically, you take control of your conscious thought processes. Without such
control, you risk being controlled by the ideas of others. When critical thinking is
combined with reading, it has particular implications as to the result of the reading
process.
Reading critically, that is, reacting with a systematic evaluation to what you
have read, requires a set of skills and attitudes. These are built around a series of critical
analysis questions that provide a structure for critical thinking. The word critical here
has a neutral meaning. It does not mean reading and taking a negative view or finding
fault. If you do not believe everything you read or hear, you are a critical thinker. The
essence of critical thinking is thinking beyond the obvious. It is an attitude as much as
an activity.

 Why are critical thinking skills important for academic reading?

 They help us develop our knowledge and understanding.

 They help us develop our own views and the arguments to support them.
 They help us develop our own interest in a subject.
 They are an essential part of the process of academic writing, which includes critical
analysis of the work of others.

These guidelines will help you sharpen your critical thinking skills in order to write a
summary response. Reading can help us make sense of the world and come to original
conclusions. A critical analysis provides a fresh look at the world through the concepts
presented in a text and enables us to experience reality from a new perspective. If the
writer makes sense, our view of the world becomes enlarged. On the other hand, we
may doubt the writer‟s claims. In this case, we can choose which thoughts to accept or
reject based on a conscious evaluation of ideas. The process of assimilating new ideas
from our reading is a slow one. The question behind any critical analysis of reading
material is: Do my own observations fall into the patterns or categories suggested by
the reading? If your observations agree with the reading, then the reading makes sense.
If your observations do not agree with it, the ideas of the writer should be called into
question.

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 Critical reading

To read critically is to make judgements about how a text is argued. This is a highly
reflective skill requiring you to stand back and gain some distance from the text you
are reading. When reading critically there are some tips to take into account:

 Don't read looking only or primarily for information.

 Read looking for ways of thinking about the subject matter.
 Avoid approaching a text by asking "What information can I get out of it?" Rather
ask "How does this text work? How is it argued? How is the evidence used and
interpreted? How does the text reach its conclusions?

These are the necessary steps to assess an argument:

a- Analysing 1. Identify the conclusion and reasons asking these questions:

 What is the passage trying to get me to accept or believe?
 What reasons and evidence is it using in order to get me to
believe this?
2. Identify unstated assumptions:
 assumptions supporting basic reasons
 assumptions functioning as additional reasons
 assumptions functioning as intermediate conclusions
 assumptions concerning the meaning of words
 assumptions about analogous or comparable situations
 assumptions concerning the appropriateness of a given
explanation

b- Evaluating 3. Evaluate the truth of reasons / assumptions.

4. Assess the reliability of any authorities on whom the
reasoning depends.
5. Is there any additional evidence which strengthens or
weakens the conclusion?
6. How believable are the explanations you have identified?
7. Assess the appropriateness of any comparisons you have
identified.
8. Can you draw any conclusions from the passage?
9. Is there any reasoning in the passage parallel with reasoning
which you know to be faulty?
10. Is the conclusion well supported by the reasoning? If not, can
you state the way in which the move from the reasons to the
conclusion is flawed?

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 Literal, inferential and evaluative meanings

Reading, like writing, helps to compose meaning. At university, you get many
assignments that assume you have the ability to analyse and evaluate information, that
is, to think critically. If you can think critically, you can use it to the fullest during the
reading process. Reading is not a passive activity; it involves more than just looking at
words. In fact, reading is an active process – a dynamic, meaning-making encounter
among page, eye and brain. When you read, your brain actively makes connections
between what you know already and what is new to you. You learn new material by
associating it with material you already know.
During the reading process, the full meaning of a passage emerges on three
levels: literal, inferential and evaluative. Unfortunately, most readers stop at the literal
level. Unless you move to the next two levels, you will not be able to develop your
critical thinking skills.
Reading for literal meaning, sometimes called reading the lines, requires
understanding what is said. It does not include opinions about the material. Reading to
make inferences, sometimes called reading between the lines, means understanding
what is implied but not stated. You often have to infer information. The process of
inferring is an invaluable critical thinking skill for interpretation. Reading to evaluate,
sometimes called reading beyond the lines, is essential for critical thinking. Once you
know the author‟s meaning and have drawn as many inferences as possible, you must
evaluate. Evaluative reading calls for many skills including recognising an author‟s
tone, detecting prejudice, and differentiating fact from opinion. It also demands the
ability to recognise faulty reasoning and logical fallacies.
As reading between the lines and beyond the lines are important steps in the
process of reading critically, we will analyse what each of them involves:

Reading between the lines: Checklist for making inferences

 What is being said beyond the literal level?

 What interpretation is implied rather than stated?
 What does the author assume?
 What information does the author expect me to have before I read the material?
 What is the author‟s bias?

Reading beyond the lines: Checklist for evaluating the writer‟s reasoning

1) Recognising the author‟s tone: An author‟s tone (e.g. serious, humorous, emotional,
etc.) reveals his/her attitude towards the material. Tone is communicated by all
aspects of a piece of writing, from the choice of words to the content.

2) Detecting prejudice: Prejudice is revealed in negative opinions based on beliefs

rather than facts or evidence. Negative opinions may be expressed in positive

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 language but critical readers should not be deceived by such tactics. The following is
an example of a prejudicial statement: “Women are not aggressive enough to succeed
in business.”

3) Differentiating fact from opinion: Facts are statements that can be verified by
observation, research, or experimentation. Opinions are statements of personal
beliefs and are open to debate. An author can, sometimes intentionally, blur the
difference between fact and opinion, and a discerning reader must be able to tell the
difference. One aid to do so is to think beyond the obvious. Another is to remember
that facts sometimes masquerade as opinions and vice versa. In some cases, it may
also be useful to consider the source and know who exactly made a particular
statement.

TASK 2

Differentiating between fact and opinion: On the line before each sentence below,
write whether the statement is a fact or an opinion. As you read these sentences, think
about how facts can be proved and how opinions are more like feelings and beliefs.

1. __________ All Americans should stand together in times of war.

2. __________ About 3,000 people died in the terrorist attack on September 11,
2001.
3. __________ President Bush was the commander-in-chief of our Armed Forces.
4. __________ During this emergency President Bush was the best man for the job.
5. __________ We must go to war against the terrorists to make our country safe.
6. __________ Osama Bin Laden was the most evil man in the world at that time.
7. __________ Osama Bin Laden was being investigated by many countries.
8. __________ We will sadly miss all those thousands of people killed when the
Twin Towers of the World Trade Centre collapsed.
9. __________ Cleanup of the wreckage of the buildings took several years.
10. __________ In order to show that Americans were not going to stay down, we
rebuilt the area of the World Trade Centre.

Some other aspects to consider when evaluating an argument are the following:

4) Recognising faulty reasoning:

 Using evidence to think critically: readers expect writers to provide evidence for any
assertion made or conclusion reached. Evidence consists of facts, statistics, examples

13
 and opinions of experts. Evidence should be ample, representative, relevant,
qualified and accurate.

 Evaluating cause and effect: If you want to use reasoning based on a relationship of
cause and effect, evaluate the connections carefully. Causes and effects normally
occur in chronological order. There must be a pattern of repetition. There should be
no oversimplification; problems may have multiple causes or produce multiple
effects.

 Understanding reasoning processes: To think critically, you need to be able to

understand reasoning processes. Induction and deduction are reasoning processes.
Induction is the process of arriving at general principles from particular facts and
instances. Inductive conclusions are considered reliable or unreliable, not true or
false. Deduction moves from general to specific. Deductive arguments have three
parts: two premises and a conclusion. A deductive argument is valid when the
conclusion logically follows from the premises. Example:

Premise 1: When it snows, the streets get wet.

Premise 2: It is snowing.
Conclusion: Therefore, the streets are wet.

5) Recognising logical fallacies: Logical fallacies are flaws in reasoning that lead to
illogical statements. Most are attempts to manipulate readers and are known by
labels that indicate that something has gone wrong during the reasoning process.

 Hasty generalisation occurs when someone generalises from inadequate evidence.

Stereotyping is an example: “Everyone from country X is dishonest.”

 False analogy is a comparison in which the differences outweigh the similarities or

the similarities are irrelevant to the claim the analogy supports. For instance: “Old
Joe Smith would never make a good president because an old dog cannot learn new
tricks.” (Learning the role of a president is hardly comparable to a dog learning new
tricks.)

 Circular argument or definition is an assertion restated in slightly different terms.

For example: “Boxing is a dangerous sport because it is unsafe.” (“Unsafe” conveys
the same idea as “dangerous”.)

 Non sequitur, from the Latin “does not follow,” means that a conclusion does not
follow from the premises. For example: “Jane Jones is a forceful speaker so she will
make a good mayor.”

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 Post hoc, ergo propter hoc means “after this, therefore because of this,” and results
when someone assumes that sequence alone proves something. For instance:
“Because a new weather satellite was launched last week, it has not stopped raining.”

 Self-contradiction occurs when two premises are used and cannot be simultaneously
true. For instance: “Only when nuclear weapons have finally destroyed us will we
be convinced of the need to control them.”

 Red herring is sometimes referred to as ignoring the question and sidetracks an issue
by bringing up a totally unrelated issue. For example: “Why worry about pandas
becoming extinct when we should be concerned about the plight of the homeless?”

 Appeal to the person is also known as ad hominem and attacks the appearance,
habits or character of the person involved instead of dealing with the merits of the
issue. For example: “We could take her plea for money for the homeless seriously if
she were not so nasty to the children who live next door to her.”

 Bandwagon is also known as going along with the crowd and implies that something
is right because everyone is doing it. For instance: “Smoking must not be bad for
people because millions of them smoke.”

 False or irrelevant authority is also known as ad verecundiam and means citing the
opinion of an expert who has no claim to expertise about the subject, for example, a
popular movie star praising a brand of cheese.

 Card-stacking is also known as special pleading and ignores evidence on the other
side of the question. From all the facts, the person selects only those that will build
the best case; for example, television commercials that praise a new diet plan and do
not mention that it does not work for everyone.

 The either-or fallacy is also known as false dilemma and offers only two alternatives
when more exist. For example: “Either go to college or forget about getting a job.”

 Taking something out of context separates an idea or fact from the material
surrounding it, thus distorting it for special purposes. For example, if a critic says
“The plot was predictable and boring but the music was sparkling,” and an
advertisement tells us, “Critic calls movie „sparkling‟” the words have been taken out
of context.

 Appeal to ignorance assumes that an argument is valid simply because there is no

evidence on the other side of the issue. For example: “Since no one has proven that
depression does not cause cancer, we can assume that it does.”

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 Ambiguity and equivocation describe expressions that are not clear because they
have more than one meaning. An ambiguous expression may be taken either way by
the reader. An equivocal expression is one used in two or more ways within a single
argument. For example, “They were entertaining guests” is ambiguous. Were the
guests amusing to be with or were people giving hospitality to guests?

TASK 3

Identify and explain the fallacy in each item.

1. UFO‟s must exist because no reputable studies have proved conclusively that
they do not.
2. Politics should not interfere with participation in the Olympics because many
athletes are not old enough to vote in their countries.
3. I just saw my first Tennessee Williams play, The Glass Menagerie. He‟s the
twentieth century‟s greatest playwright, I‟m positive.
4. Water fluoridation affects the brain. Citywide, students‟ tests scores began to
drop five months after the fluoridation began.
5. A 34-year-old female lawyer working in Washington, D.C., for the federal
government was denied permission to take the bar examination to practise law
in her home state because she was living with a man who was not her husband.
6. Plagiarism is unethical because it is dishonest.
7. Seatbelts are the only hope for reducing the death rate from automobile
accidents.
8. Medicare is free; the government pays for it from taxes.

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 Using background reading texts and learning to learn from texts: quoting and
paraphrasing

Quotations are the wisdom of the wise and the experience of ages.
Isaac D‟Israeli

Stay at home in your mind. Do not cite other people‟s opinions.

I hate quotations. Tell me what you know.
Ralph Waldo Emerson

I quote others to better express myself.

Montaigne

The core of every writing project is its content. In many writing assignments, the
source of that content is expected to be your own thinking. For many other
assignments, however, you are expected to draw upon outside sources – such as books,
articles, films and interviews in order to explain and support your ideas. Quoting,
paraphrasing and summarising are three different techniques that writers use both to
take notes from sources and to incorporate the ideas of others into their own writing
according to accepted academic practice.
Quoting a source means using someone else‟s ideas and exact words. You must
use quotation marks and cite the source. Paraphrasing means rewording a text word-
by-word or phrase-by-phrase; it is a sort of translation of the author‟s language into
your own. A paraphrase is, therefore, as long as the original or even longer because it is
not an abridgement but a rewording. Summarising means stating the gist of the
original. A summary is much shorter than the original as it leaves out details. When
you summarise, you are standing back and seeing the forest, not the individual trees.
When you paraphrase, you are walking through the forest, scrutinising each tree, i.e.
finding a synonym for every word in the original. You should not incorporate a
summary or a paraphrase into your own writing without acknowledging your source.
Correct practices for using outside sources in your writing will prevent you
from committing plagiarism. This is a form of cheating that involves borrowing or
paraphrasing ideas from another person without acknowledging the source. That is, it
involves stealing from other people‟s published or unpublished texts. In fact,
“plagiarise” comes form the Latin word for kidnapper and literary thief. Plagiarism is a
crime in many countries because of copyright laws related to one‟s ownership of a
created work. It is a serious offence that can be grounds for failure of a course. You
need to learn how to cite sources correctly so as to avoid plagiarism. When citing
sources, it is necessary to inform the reader about the authors and texts used. Such
statements, called acknowledgements, clarify where one source ends and another
begins. They also indicate which ideas are yours and which are from sources. You have
to acknowledge both directly quoted and paraphrased information.

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 Direct quotation

Direct quotations involve copying the author‟s words exactly as they are written in the
original source and using quotation marks around all of the copied material. Quotations
lend credibility and support to your statements. If you use quotations in moderation,
they add impact to your work. You can gain authority by quoting experts, but if you
use too many quotations, you lose coherence; rather than a single piece of carefully
woven fabric, you get a patchwork quilt. In fact, quotations should support, not make,
your points. Therefore, do not overuse direct quotation; use it only when the author‟s
exact words present the information more succinctly than a paraphrase would, or when
paraphrasing would detract from the impact of the statement.

 Paraphrasing

In order to respond to other people, we need to understand their thoughts, but we

often read inaccurately. Writing a paraphrase – that is, putting the meaning of a text
into new words – makes you pay close attention to the author‟s ideas and improves
your level of understanding. Paraphrase can serve as a form of notetaking allowing you
to preserve the writer‟s exact meaning in those terms you understand best. Therefore,
the process of paraphrasing can help you untangle difficult passages. Even more
important, it can serve as a way of referring to other writers‟ thoughts in your own
writing. It involves restating the original wording in your own words and reproducing
the source‟s order of ideas and emphases. Thus, a paraphrase is a parallel text that goes
alongside the original. This restatement calls for very close approximation of a source
and must include careful word choices that fit the context of the original passage. It
does not aim to shorten the length of the text, merely to restate it. In order to avoid
plagiarism, it is best to make as many changes as possible to the original text. The
following techniques can help you make different changes to the source text so as to
paraphrase it:

 Using synonyms that can occur in the same context as the original word or phrase.
For example: studies > research , society > civilization

 Changing word forms or word classes, e.g. converting verbs to nouns and vice versa.
For example: mountainous regions (adj. + n.) > in the mountains (n.)
A third group was given no special instructions about going to sleep. >
A third group was not specially instructed about going to sleep.

 Changing voice, i.e. converting active verbs into passive verbs when it is appropriate
to do so.

 Changing clauses to phrases.

For example: Ancient Egypt collapsed > the collapse of Egyptian society began.

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 Changing word order.

 Rearranging sentence structure.

For example: There are many practical applications to research into insomnia. >
Research into insomnia has many practical applications.

Let us analyse the following passage and study different steps in the process of
paraphrasing.

The Gettysburg Address

Four scores and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth on this continent a
new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men
are created equal.

a. Replacing synonyms may lead to this first draft of the paraphrase in which the
unfamiliar terms are replaced by more common words:

Eighty-seven years before now, our ancestors founded in North America a new
country, thought of in freedom and based on the principle that all people are born
with the same rights.

b. Restructuring the sentence might lead to a more total paraphrase:

Our ancestors thought of freedom when they founded a new country in North
America eighty-seven years ago. They based their thinking on the principle that all
people are born with the same rights.

 Aspects to be considered in direct quotation and paraphrasing

Let us consider some linguistic and formal aspects related to direct quotation and
paraphrasing

 Reporting verbs: Use reporting verbs (e.g. say, report, state, claim, argue, believe,
contend, maintain, point out, allege, assert, explain, observe, suggest, etc.) with
direct and indirect quotations when you mention the source.

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 Conventions:

Direct quotation

Dr. Benjamin Spock (1990, p. 10) stated, “Children – especially young children – will
pattern themselves after violent behaviour just as readily as they will imitate good
behaviour.”

Write the author´s (last) name followed by the year of publication and page number
between parentheses. Place a comma after the reporting phrase, put quotation marks
before and after the words quoted and capitalise the first word of the quotation. Notice
the quotation marks are placed after the final period. If you omit part of a quotation,
use three dots (…) or ellipsis points. Occasionally, it may be necessary to insert a word
into a quoted phrase to clarify the quotation. It may be done by putting brackets [ ]
around the added words. Finally, if the material is more than three lines, you should
use an indented format when using direct quotes.

Paraphrasing (indirect quotation)

Dr. Spock (1990) claims that young children in particular are just as likely to imitate
violent actions as they are non-violent ones.

Note: It is important to follow the formal conventions for quoting and paraphrasing but
it is even more important to develop a sense of when to paraphrase or quote material
form a source. What you do will depend on the assignment. On the whole, you should
use paraphrases and quotations to support your points, not to substitute for them. Try
to use quotations sparingly – only when the exact wording of the original is
particularly striking or important. Otherwise, paraphrase or summarise.

TASK 4

a) Study each quotation and its paraphrase on the right. In the space provided, list the
paraphrasing techniques used for the paraphrased words. There may be more than
one technique in each paraphrase.

It is generally accepted that on-screen Most people agree that TV and movie
violence is harmful to children. violence affects children adversely.

Technique(s):

Children – especially young children – He maintained that young children in

will pattern themselves after violent particular are just as likely to imitate
behaviour just as readily as they will violent actions as they are non-violent
imitate good behaviour. ones.

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 Technique(s):

Watching violence has a desensitising Spock also said that people who watch
effect on people – children and adults too much violence will become
alike. desensitised to it regardless of age.

Technique(s):

I mean that individuals brought up by As Spock explained, when people who

kindly parents will at first be shocked
and horrified when they see one person
committing an act of violence against
another. But if they continue to see
violence regularly, they will gradually
begin to take it for granted as a standard
human behaviour.
are from good families are first exposed
to violence, they react with shock and
horror. However, the more violence
they see, the less shock and horror they
feel. Thus, violence becomes an
everyday experience.
Technique(s):

b) Read the text below and then decide which the best paraphrase is, (A) or (B).

Ancient Egypt collapsed in about 2180 BC. Studies conducted of the mud from
the River Nile showed that at this time the mountainous regions which feed
the Nile suffered from a prolonged drought. This would have had a devastating
effect on the ability of Egyptian society to feed itself.

A) The sudden ending of Egyptian civilisation over 4,000 years ago was probably
caused by changes in the weather in the region to the south. Without the regular
river flooding there would not have been enough food.

B) Research into deposits of the Egyptian Nile indicates that a long dry period in the
mountains at the river‟s source may have led to a lack of water for irrigation
around 2180 BC, which was when the collapse of Egyptian society began.

c) Now paraphrase the following passage as fully as possible using the techniques listed
before.

The Antarctic is the vast source of cold on our planet, just as the sun is the source of
our heat, and it exerts tremendous control on our climate (…) The cold ocean water
around Antarctica flows north to mix with warmer water from the tropics, and its
upwellings help to cool both the surface water and our atmosphere. Yet the fragility
of this regulating system is now threatened by human activity.
(From “Captain Cousteau”, 1990, p. 17)

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 Using background reading texts and learning to learn from texts: summarising

It is my ambition to say in ten sentences what others say in a whole book.

(Friedrich Nietzsche 1844-1900)

On a daily basis, everyone summarises information in one way or another and for many
different reasons. We are bombarded by vast amounts of information and none can
deal with this information without some kind of filtering system – summarising is part
of that system. Besides, summaries can be found all around you. Television and radio
stations regularly air two-minute news broadcasts to summarise in a few sentences the
major stories covered in detail on the evening news. Popular magazines condense seven
days of news into short articles. Newspapers also employ summaries printing on the
first page brief summaries of news stories that are discussed in detail later in the paper.
Each profession has its own special needs for summaries. There is a wide variety of
reports – progress, sales, test, etc. – whose effectiveness depends on a faithful summary
of events. This is a practical real-life skill.
Summaries are widely used in academic work. They are often found at the end
of textbook chapters to help students review key points. Professors may give a brief
summary at the end of a lecture or begin a class with a summary of what was
previously covered. By reading a summary or abstract of an article, you can quickly
determine whether the article is a possible source when doing library research. An
effective student must be able to summarise material while listening to lectures,
summarise readings to include them in papers, assignments and test questions, and
summarise material to write an analysis or response.
A summary is a short, condensed and differently worded version of an oral,
visual or written text. No two summaries can be exactly the same. It is a unique text.
The goal of the summary is to give readers an objective, complete, and accurate view of
the main ideas in a text. It states the author‟s main ideas in the summariser‟s own
words, so it involves transforming material written by others into your own words
without distorting the meaning or copying the author‟s exact words. A successful
summary shows a thorough understanding of the piece that is summarised and exhibits
sound language skills, accuracy, range of vocabulary and grammar. The length of the
summary depends on the assignment, the length and complexity of the source text and
the audience. Like paraphrase, the summary allows you to reproduce another writer‟s
thoughts but in shortened form.
In fact, most of the paraphrasing you will do will be in the form of summaries. It
is unlikely that you will ever paraphrase an entire text. However, it is possible that you
will paraphrase the main points of the text. That is, you will summarise the main points
in your own words to support your writing. Writing summaries is probably the most
frequently used technique for taking notes and for incorporating sources into your own
writing. Sometimes, the summary contains indirect quotation or paraphrase but it does
not usually contain direct quotation. It includes the attitude and opinion of the author,
so you should not let your opinion interfere with the ideas you are summarising. Also,
you should not add any ideas to the summary that are not in the text. Do not elaborate

22
with details not used in the original passage. A summary should be concise, accurate,
clear, complete and well organised. It should reflect your ability to understand the
meanings of words, the author‟s attitude and any implied meanings.

 Technical terms associated with summary writing

In academic writing, you will frequently be asked to respond to written material. That
is, you will be asked to read something (an article, a chapter of a book), write a
summary of what you have read and, sometimes, also a response. These assignments
may be referred to as:

 An abstract (a brief outline of a piece of writing)

 A précis (a summary that strives to keep the tone and style of the original)
 A digest
 A summary response or summary analysis
 A book report
 A critique
 A literature review
 A report on reference material
 A response to written material
 A response to a critical article
 A research report

Whereas these assignments may differ somewhat, generally a response to written

material consists of two basic parts:

a- a summary of the written material

b- an analysis of (i.e. a response to) the material

 The importance of summaries

The summary is one of the basic modes of academic writing and one of the most basic
college-level skills upon which more sophisticated types of writing depend, so practice
in writing summaries will benefit you in important ways as a student:

 It will give you practice in close attentive reading. Many writers are ineffectual
because they have not learnt to read first, think second and formulate their own
reactions third. The best way to demonstrate comprehension of a piece of writing is
to compose a summary. For all kinds of reasons, people do not always read closely.
Either they read so inattentively that they skip over words, phrases or even whole
sentences, or they do see the words but do not see their significance. When a reader

23
 fails to pick up the meaning of long stretches of reading, inattentive reading creates
problems. Grasping the central idea and distinguishing the main points takes a lot
more determination than casual reading. But in the long run, it is an energy-saving
method because it enables you to retain the content of the material and use it as the
basis for your own responses. In other words, it allows you to develop a
commentary that can go beyond summary. Writing summaries is an excellent way
of encouraging the essential habit of accurate and thoughtful reading.

 It will strengthen your sense of structure in writing. It will make you pay close
attention to how writers organise their material, how they develop a point, and
how they move from one point to another.

 It will develop your sense of what is important in a piece of writing. It will make
you distinguish between a key point, the material backing it up and mere asides.

 It will allow you to include other people‟s ideas in your own compositions. It allows
you to provide support for claims, add credibility to your writing, refer to work that
leads up to work you are doing, give examples of several points of view on a subject,
call attention to a position that you wish to agree or disagree with and expand the
depth of your writing. The most frequent and important use of summary is to refer
to another writer‟s work in an essay. Summary has the advantage over paraphrase
that it allows the writer to focus only on those aspects of the original that are most
relevant to the new points being made. The flexibility of wording in a summary
also allows the writer to fit it in smoothly with his or her statements.

 It will help you take lecture notes, summarise chapters in your texts and write
synopses. Writing summaries of your lecture notes or your chapter assignments in
preparation for a test helps you study. It is an excellent way to learn material
because the process helps you lock information into your memory. It forces you to
read closely and comprehend clearly.

 Contents of a summary

The chief problem in writing a summary is deciding what to include and what to omit.
A summary is an abbreviated version of the original, a review of only the most
significant points in your own words. You will not help your readers save time by
paraphrasing the original and calling this a summary. You make your summary useful
by briefly telling readers about the main points of a text: its purpose, scope, and
conclusions. You should not add your own opinions or evaluate the author‟s main
points; a summary is a short report, not a critique. The list below includes information
that should not be included in a summary:

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 Your own opinion
 New data
 Irrelevant specifics
 Examples
 Background information, anecdotes and details
 Reference data, footnotes, bibliographies, appendixes, tables, graphs, etc.
 Technical definitions or jargon

 The qualities of an effective summary

 Brevity: While it is hard to set limits about length, effective summaries are generally
one third of the length of the original. A general guide is one sentence per
paragraph. Although the length and complexity of the material and the purpose of
the summary (i.e. your audience‟s needs) will determine an appropriate length, a
good rule of thumb is that a summary should be no longer than one third of the
original passage.

 Objectivity: No idea that is not the author‟s should be included in the summary, and
no opinion of the summary writer should be in the summary. No judgements are
permitted.

 Completeness: the summary should contain every main idea in the original source.
Stating only the main idea or only one main idea and the details to support it will
not give the reader a complete idea of what the article is about.

 Balance: Giving equal attention to each main idea and stressing ideas that the author
emphasised will result in an accurate summary.

 Techniques for summarising

Four techniques can help you shorten the material:

 Selecting: Highlighting the central ideas and underlining key words can help you
see how the main parts fit together.

 Deleting less important material: You should include the main points and omit less
important information crossing out unnecessary words, repetitions, digressions, and
minor supporting details.

 Notetaking: Taking notes on key ideas of the original reveals the connections among
them and the logic in the whole piece. As you write down the key idea for each

25
 paragraph, you will be more concerned with large chunks of meaning than with
specific details. The notes become an outline of the author‟s thought.

 Miniaturising: As you summarise the original, think of a large photograph reduced

to wallet size. In a sense, all the parts remain the same; only the scale has changed.
Notice the shape, flow and overall impression of the original so you can create a
miniature version of it.

TASK 5

a) Having had a brief introduction to summary writing, discuss which of the following
characteristics makes for an effective summary. (Yes / No / Not necessarily?)

1. The same order of facts and ideas as the original.

2. Similar wording to the original with occasional phrases exactly the same.
3. Different sentence patterns from the original.
4. Additional information, which the original writer omitted but which helps an
understanding of the subject.
5. A personal comment on the subject.
6. Details in the original of secondary importance.
7. Simpler vocabulary than the original.
8. Identification of key points in the original.

b) Read the following text and compare the summaries. Decide which the best one is
giving reasons.

Researchers in France and the United States have recently reported that baboons are
able to think abstractly. It has been known for some time that chimpanzees are capable
of abstract thought, but baboons are a more distant relation to mankind. In the
experiment, scientists trained two baboons to use a personal computer and a joystick.
The animals had to match computer designs which were basically the same but had
superficial differences. The baboons performed better than would be expected by
chance. The researchers describe their study in an article in the Journal of
Experimental Psychology.

1. French and American scientists have shown that baboons have the ability to think
in an abstract way. The animals were taught to use a computer, and then had to
select similar patterns, which they did at a rate better than chance.

2. Baboons are a kind of monkey more distant from humans than chimpanzees.
Although it is known that chimpanzees are able to think abstractly, until recently it

26
 was not clear if baboons could do the same. But new research has shown that this is
so.

3. According to a recent article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology, baboons are

able to think in an abstract way. The article describes how researchers trained two
baboons to use a personal computer and a joystick. The animals did better than
would be expected.

 Steps in the process of writing a summary

To write an effective summary, you will need to read the material very carefully,
making sure that you understand it thoroughly. Then you will have to identify the
major points and exclude everything else. Finally, you will have to put the essence of
the material into your own words. This process demands an organised plan. When
preparing a summary, four steps need to be covered: reading, outlining, checking and
writing. These can provide an approach to the complex process of summary writing.

A) READING

A successful summary depends on your ability to read and understand the original text.
It is important to become an active reader and use a variety of strategies to make
meaning from a text. Active reading strategies include:

- Predicting what the text is about after reading the title or opening paragraph.
- Previewing or prereading the material – this involves skim reading to form a general
impression.
- Creating mind pictures of what you read – this involves visualising.
- Making notes of important details.
- Underlining unknown words and transitional words and phrases.
- Using prior knowledge – this involves making links with what you already know
about the subject.
- Questioning the text – this involves looking for specific information and reading for
meaning.

 First reading:

Read all the material once quickly looking for main ideas to get a general idea of
what it is about. This is called skim reading or skimming and involves a quick search
of the text to form an overall impression, become familiar with its purpose,
organisation and the audience for whom it was written. Look at visual cues –
headings, subheadings, words in italics or boldface type – which will later help you
classify main ideas. A summary must capture the entire sense of a text in very little
space so you must read through or listen to all the content before you write.

27
 Second reading:

Reread the material more slowly and carefully. Absorb the information noticing
what is fact and what is opinion, what is general statement and what is particular
example. During the second reading, you will be outlining and / or making notes.
Reread difficult sections. Look for the thesis that sums up the major point and topic
sentences; these will give you the main ideas of the article. Also, pay special
attention to the last sentences of each paragraph as they often summarise the
paragraph. To spot the main points, pay attention to key transition words. Such
words often fall into the following categories:

- Words that enumerate: first, second, third, next, finally, another

- Words that express cause: accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, therefore
- Words that express contrasts and comparisons: although, despite, different from,
however, in contrast, in comparison, likewise, on the other hand, similar, unlike
- Words that signal essentials: basically, central, crucial, fundamental, important,
major, obviously, principal, significant

 Third and additional readings:

As part of your checking stages, you will need to reread the original passage to check
the accuracy of your notes, check the suitability of your word choice and the
appropriateness of your summary.

B) OUTLINING

This involves making notes to help you compose your summary. There are two separate
stages.

 First outlining stage: After the first reading, you are ready for the first outlining.
Number each paragraph, write a statement of the author‟s purpose, and question the
text. The six big questions are:

Who? Pick out the person or thing having to do with the main event.
What? Pick out the most important event or topic dealt with.
Where? Identify the place where the main event happened.
When? Identify when the main event occurred.
Why? Identify the reason for the main event happening.
How? Identify the way the main event happened.

 Second outlining stage: This stage occurs during the second reading stage. The
purpose is to identify and record main ideas and important details in note form and

28
 organise your notes to show the order and relationship between them. These are the
steps to follow:

(a) select the major ideas you will need to use in your summary underlining the
topic sentences in each paragraph,

(b) make notes recording main ideas and important details,

(c) write down a statement of the main idea of the passage, and

(d) combine information from more than one paragraph when possible.

Leave out unnecessary detail and reduce explanation and illustration to the essential
minimum. Write statements that digest the material in your own words. Use the
most economical wording possible, for example, where the original uses a whole
clause, try to sum up the same idea in a phrase; where it uses a phrase, try to use a
single word. The successful summary will pick its way through different rhetorical
devices in the original text – such as repetitions, analogies, figures of speech and so
forth – and arrive at concise statements of the essential ideas. You have to be alert
for words signalling information you do not want to include in your summary, such
as the following:

- Words announcing opinion or inconclusive findings: from my personal experience, I

feel, I admit, perhaps, presumably, might possibly
- Words pointing out examples or explanations: for example, for instance, such as, as
illustrated by

C) WRITING

This step involves writing the first draft and the final version. Once you have
completed the outlining notes, you are ready to begin writing the first draft. Create a
title for your summary and put the original aside. Link the ideas in your notes. Start
writing the final version only after you have checked or edited the first draft. The
following are guidelines that will help you edit your draft and write the final summary:

 Arrange the main ideas in order to achieve balance and completeness. Collect your
underlined material or notes and organise the information to write your first-draft
summary. Write down the key points you have identified in your own words
avoiding the author‟s words. Do not, however, write a paraphrase as the result is
likely to be longer than the original. The summary should be a condensation of the
whole, not a selection of bits and pieces. Write your summary from the author‟s
point of view keeping the flavour and tone of the original. Omit extraneous
comments as the summary is no place to record your opinion.

29
 Identify the source of the original text. Begin the summary with a sentence that
informs your reader of the title and author of the text (underline the titles of books
and put the titles of articles in quotation marks). Example:

In the article “The Making of the Dutch Landscape,” Audrey Lambert (1999) states
that…

C) CHECKING

Checking takes place three times: (a) after the outlining notes have been made, (b) after
the first draft is completed and (c) after the final version.

(a) After the first outlining stage, check the accuracy of the notes you have made. Make
sure you have identified and recorded the main ideas and important details, and that
you have not copied from the original.

(b) When the first draft is completed, read through it and delete whatever information
you can. Check its accuracy against the original text. Make certain that you have not
copied from the original and check the clarity of your expression and your faithfulness
to the original.

(c) After the final version is completed, make sure your reworded summary has
eliminated nonessential words. Ensure that your summary is an accurate representation
of the original. Check that it is a fluent and grammatically correct piece of writing that
does not use words from the original and meets the word count. Tie together your
summarising sentences with appropriate transitional expressions to show the
relationships between ideas. As you summarise, you may be tempted to interpret
something the author says or make a judgement; however, your opinions do not belong
in a summary.

 General guidelines for writing a summary

 Read the text at least twice – first quickly for main ideas and then more carefully.
 Decide what the author‟s purpose is and write it down.
 Ask questions of the passage.
 Underline the key words and topic sentences.
 Make outlining notes. Decide on the main ideas and write them down in your own
words.
 Reject ideas that are irrelevant, repetitive or unimportant.
 Write the first draft and check it against the original.
 Write the final version.

30
 Pointers for writing effective summaries

 Do not write a summary until you understand the main idea of the original passage
and how it is supported.
 Include all the important ideas.
 Use your outlining notes as your only source of information to write the first draft as
you might be tempted to use some of the words and phrases in the original.
 Distribute information evenly throughout the summary. Do not write too much for
the first half of the passage and then find that you have few words left to summarise
the remainder of the passage.
 Change figurative language into straightforward language avoiding ambiguous
expressions.
 Avoid unnecessary words.
 Do not write word-for-word or sentence-for-sentence treatment of the original.
Where necessary and when possible, compress a phrase into a single word, a
sentence into a phrase, and so on.
 Use transitional links to make it easier for the reader to see the connection between
different ideas.
 Write in fluent, continuous prose, not in disjointed sentences or point form.
 Rewrite your first draft in order to rephrase awkward expressions and refine the
word count.
 Make sure that the final version reads smoothly as an organised, logical piece of
writing that reflects the balance and emphasis of the original.
 Eliminate spelling, punctuation and grammar mistakes.

 Using key words, synonyms and context clues when summarising

Recognising and knowing how to use these will help improve your understanding and
make your summary writing more effective.

 Key words: When reading, you will notice that certain words stand out as having
the most important information. These words are known as key words. Finding the
key words in a passage is essential as they are guides to the main idea. For example,
in the sentence:

The beautiful Siberian tiger is close to extinction.

The words underlined are keywords because they reveal the most important
information. In the example:

A four-legged member of the canine family…

31
Even if you did not know the meaning of canine, you should be able to eliminate the
creatures that do not fit the definition – fish (no legs), human beings (two legs), spiders
(eight legs).

 Synonyms: When writing a summary, you are expected to use your own words, not
those of the original passage. Sometimes, it seems impossible to find an alternative
word or way of rephrasing the original without changing its clarity or meaning.
Fortunately, there are alternatives for many words. Synonyms seldom mean the same
as the original word but they are often close. For example, the words hazard, risk, peril,
threat are all synonyms of danger. When choosing a synonym, keep in mind its context
and connotations.

 Contextual clues: All readers come across words that they do not know, but it is not
always necessary to check them in a dictionary. Many words have several meanings
and it can often be confusing to know what the intended meaning is but we can use the
context to decide. Look at this example:

She took some money with her to the bank by the river. (River bank or money bank?)

The word in bold has more than one meaning and may create confusion for the reader.
We cannot be certain which meaning is intended until further clues are provided to
help us decide which the most suitable meaning is. These are known as contextual
clues. When you come across an unknown word, look at what is said before and after
the word. There are different types of contextual clues:

Clues that define: The unknown word is given a definition. E.g. A kampong is a
Malaysian village.

Clues that use a synonym: A familiar word is given as an alternative for an unknown
word. E.g. A dogged or persistent way is bound to see him succeed.

Clues that compare or contrast: The unknown word is compared or contrasted with
another word or phrase. E.g. Even though I admit my brother is slothful, he is certainly
not as lazy as Roger Tompkins.

TASK 6

a) Identifying key words: Underline the key words in the following phrases and circle
one word that best fits the description.

1. A piece of equipment used to dig holes.

spoon – spade – saw – hammer – drill

32
 2. A disease that seriously affects the tonsils.
influenza – smallpox – chickenpox – tonsillitis
3. A container for liquids and other things.
chopstick – bowl – fork – sieve – straw
4. A book used to record information of a personal nature.
dictionary – diary – telephone directory – encyclopaedia – novel

b) Identifying synonyms: Identify the synonyms for each of the following words:

1. Halt: stop, pause, hello, cease, push

2. Rough: uneven, coarse, cause, harsh
3. Frenzy: serene, whirl, rush, flurry, peaceful, turmoil
4. Fearsome: terrifying, formidable, frightening, fearless, frank

c) Identifying contextual clues: Use contextual clues to complete the sentences in the
following exercise. Use a word that describes a quality or characteristic of the person
or people involved.

1. Peter is always cracking jokes; he is so …………………….

2. Julie is always smiling. She is such a ………………… girl.
3. If you want my …………. opinion, I can see that the job will never be finished.
4. I was so ……………. to finish the race that the pain in my chest didn‟t bother
me.

d) Identifying contextual clues: Use contextual clues to identify the misprinted word
and correct it.

1. The car swerved on the corner before splashing into a tree.

2. Window treatments: we supply Venetian and vertical blonds.
3. Owing to long delays caused by heavy fog, thousands of passengers were
strangled at the airport.
4. Experienced bra staff wanted for international hotel.

 Identifying main ideas

An effective summary must be based on a clear understanding of what the original text
is about. Identifying main ideas is important in summary writing. The main idea is the
central or controlling idea in a piece of writing. To find the main idea, follow these
steps:

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 Read the text carefully at least twice.
 Decide what the author‟s purpose is and write it down.
 Number the paragraphs of the original passage and create subheadings for them.
This will force you to succinctly express important ideas.
 Underline the key words and the topic sentence in each paragraph.
 In your own words, write down the main idea.

Example Find the main idea in this sentence

Weather records in Australia, covering the last three decades, clearly reveal a reduction
in the total amount of rain that has fallen, not only in central regions but also along the
coastal perimeter.

Steps

 Read the sentence carefully at least twice.

 What is the author‟s purpose? To inform the reader about the decrease in rainfall in
Australia.
 Underline the key words.
 Identify the main idea and write it down: Australian rainfall figures show a 30-year
decline.

Weather records in Australia, covering the last three decades, clearly reveal a reduction
in the total amount of rain that has fallen, not only in central regions but also along the
coastal perimeter.

Note: it helps rewording and reducing the number of words without changing the main
idea.

 Supporting ideas: supporting details, minor details, irrelevant details, repetition

and redundancy

It is important to identify the main idea in a text. However, there are always other
ideas or details in the text. Some are relevant to the main idea; they back up or support
it. Others are irrelevant or redundant.

 Supporting details: A supporting detail is a detail that supports or backs up the

main idea. In order to decide if a detail is a supporting detail, it is necessary to look
at the context in which it appears. Is the detail directly linked to the main idea? If
the detail were removed from the passage, would the overall meaning of the passage
still be the same? How important is it to an overall understanding of the passage?

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 Minor details: If a detail is not a supporting detail, but it is still connected to the
overall concern of the passage, it is a minor detail. Look at this example:

The growth in the acquisition of words is a key stage in child development. For
example, the average child will know approximately 1,500 words by his or her
fourth birthday. By the fifth birthday, an additional 500 words will have been added
to the child‟s vocabulary. It is at this time that the child will begin to ask direct and
often awkward questions about sex, death, God and birth.

The main idea is reflected in the first sentence. Supporting details are found in the
second and third sentences and a minor detail is found in the last sentence.

 Irrelevant details: If a detail is not a supporting or minor detail, it was included in

the passage to provide background, interest or embellishment. A detail of this kind is
known as an irrelevant detail.

 Repetition: Sometimes, a writer will repeat an idea without adding anything new. A
writer may repeat an idea for emphasis or some other reason. You must consider the
detail within the context. Example:

The room was square, with four walls and a large wooden door.

Here “four walls” need not be mentioned. A square room has, by definition, four
walls.

 Redundancy: This refers to the overuse of words to make a point. Example:

The gorgeous, beautiful, attractive fish passed in front of us.

The adjectives above are saying the same thing. Descriptions are not improved by
listing synonyms.

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 What is a summary response?

A summary response or summary analysis is a critique of a text. Critique is a French

word that means a critical assessment (positive, negative or a mixture of both). Some
common types of critique that you may be familiar with are film reviews in newspapers
or book reviews in journals. Instructors may assign summary responses to ensure that
students do reading assignments, to assess their understanding, develop habits of
analytical reading, and to integrate the assigned reading with other readings. They may
have various structures but the simplest is a short summary followed by an evaluation.
We have already discussed the characteristics and contents of a summary. Let us
now look at what the response section adds to the writing process. A response to a text
is basically an analysis. An analysis is your own input usually in the form of evaluation
of the work. To analyse means to observe carefully, to take an idea apart, and to
discover what you think about it. In the analysis or response section, you react with
your personal interpretation of the text material agreeing or disagreeing and supporting
your position with personal experiences or references to assigned readings.
In order to write a summary response, you will need to follow all the guidelines
previously discussed for summary writing except one; in a summary response you will
have to include your opinion of the material and will be expected to develop an
informed opinion and support your ideas with examples, details, and facts from your
experience and other sources. You cannot just give a general opinion such as “I
liked/disliked this article”.
In this type of writing, you are entitled to respond to and develop your position
about a piece in any way that pleases you provided that you are willing to take
responsibility for what you write and are prepared to defend it. This provides an
opportunity for you to illuminate an author‟s ideas for others. Equally important, it
provides an occasion for you to illuminate these ideas to yourself, and even more
important, to illuminate your own ideas to yourself. In the process of writing a
response you are forced to examine your own knowledge, your own beliefs and
assumptions. This analysis becomes a meeting of three minds – your own, that of the
author and that of your reader. It is important to remember that since analyses are
personal responses, no two people‟s analyses of the same text will be identical or even
similar.
The process for writing a summary response (or summary analysis) breaks down
into two broad steps. First, you need to generate a summary of the contents, and then
you need to generate some ideas about the content. The analysis must be systematic.
We do not respond to the material by making arbitrary judgements but by measuring
its validity according to some set of explicit criteria so that your reader can follow the
process of thought by which you arrived at your conclusions. Unfortunately, there is
no easy, ready-made formula for writing an analysis; however, we will look into some
steps in the process of writing a summary response that can guide you.

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 Steps in the process of writing a summary response

To do a good job, you must first understand the source material. Here are some steps in
writing a summary:

 Skim the text.

 Determine what type of text you are dealing with (argumentative, narrative,
descriptive, expository) and its genre (letter, essay, article, etc.). This can help you
identify important information.
 Highlight important information and take notes.
 Write down the main points in your own words.

In writing a response, it may help to have a set of critical analysis questions to guide
your thinking as you read and to provide the foundation for your analysis.

 Planning a response

Until you have understood the content of a text, you have no basis for evaluating it.
Before you can use or argue with anyone‟s ideas, you should understand these
accurately. As you read a text, you will respond to the material, that is, you will form
your opinions about the ideas. Analysis requires answering these two questions:

Why do you agree or disagree with the author?

What support do you have for your opinion?

To communicate the results of your analysis to an audience, you must be able to show
the audience why your opinion is worthwhile. You support your opinion with facts,
statistics, examples, description, and / or personal experience. Some critical analysis
questions that may help you begin to think critically in order to analyse a text are the
following:

 What are the issue and conclusions?

 Who wrote the text and what are his/her qualifications for writing it?
 What is the primary purpose of the work? Does the work achieve its purpose?
 Who is the intended audience? Is the material relevant to the audience?
 What is the significance of the piece?
 What are the main points, ideas, or arguments of the work?
 How is the work organised? Does it help me understand it or hinder my
understanding?
 What evidence / support / reasons does the author give (i.e. facts, statistics, personal
experience, reliable sources, examples)?
 How good is the logic? Are there fallacies in the reasoning?
 Are there any problems with weak or insufficient evidence to support the points?
 Can I supply further explanation to clarify or support any of the main points?

37
 Are there any sections I don‟t understand? Are any key terms ambiguous?
 What is the particular appeal or lack of appeal of the piece? What are some of its
most illuminating qualities? What are its most striking deficiencies?
 Does it have a distinctive style or tone?
 Is anything about the language or style noteworthy?
 How carefully is the subject researched?
 Is the writer or speaker objective?
 What assumptions underlie the piece? Are these explicit or implicit?
 How do the assumptions compare to your own assumptions?
 What biases pervade the piece? Are they obvious or do they lurk behind a stance of
objectivity?
 Do your knowledge and experience allow you to support the author‟s position?

The questions above may help you come to grips with your subject but they are
designed to stimulate thought, not to replace it. You can follow these steps to write
your response to text:

1. Read the text.

2. Read it again marking the points you will respond to.
3. Decide on an overall thesis that agrees or disagrees or perhaps agrees and disagrees
with the main points of the text.
4. Begin to generate support for your opinions using the strategies discussed for critical
thinking: use facts, statistics, examples, description, and / or personal experience.

 General form of a summary response

A summary response is not a loosely connected list of ideas. Whether it consists of one
paragraph or several, it is structured with an introduction, a body and a conclusion. As
with all good writing, the ideas are smoothly connected by techniques such as
repetition of key words, pronoun reference, and transitional words and phrases.
Whatever the assignment, if both a summary and a response are required, the general
format will remain the same. Below is a diagram of the general form for a summary
response paragraph.

I - Introduction: objective summary (1/3 of the summary response)

a. Type of text
b. Name of author
c. Title of the text
d. Main ideas of the material to be analysed

38
 II- Body: subjective, personal response (2/3 of the summary response)

a. Your main ideas (your thesis statement of opinion about the main points of
the article, i.e. your response to the material either agreeing or disagreeing).
b. Developers or supporting sentences proving your points: reasons, facts,
examples, statistics, description, personal experience, other readings.
c. Perhaps a suggestion for the improvement of the author‟s major point.

III-Conclusion

a. Statement of your conclusions after reading and thinking about the material.
b. What points can you make? Where did the article lead you?

In a summary response paragraph, the response section usually follows the summary
section. Depending on its purpose, a summary response of a longer source text may
take the form of an essay.

 Alternative summary response formats

The arrangement of summary response essays can follow one of the patterns shown
below:

I- Introduction I- Introduction
II- Body paragraphs II- Body paragraphs
Summary Summary
Summary Analysis
Analysis Summary
Analysis Analysis
III- Conclusion III- Conclusion

I- Introduction I- Introduction
II- Body paragraphs II- Body paragraphs:
Summary followed by or combined Summary
with analysis Summary followed by or combined with
Summary followed by or combined analysis
with analysis Summary followed by or combined with
Summary followed by or combined analysis
with analysis Analysis
Summary followed by or combined III- Conclusion
with analysis
III- Conclusion

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 Pointers for an effective summary response

 Use your own words except when a key word or phrase is the author‟s concept, or
when a word or phrase has no synonyms.
 Organise your ideas in your own way.
 Leave your own ideas out of the summary.
 Use your own style of writing trying not to copy the author‟s style.
 Remember: the summary should be objective whereas the response is subjective.

Useful expressions

In the listening passage / text…

In an authoritative article / essay / book / commentary…
In an investigative / scientific / down-to-earth / original / all-encompassing account /
description / explanation / report / portrait …

A renowned / acclaimed / prestigious / leading / world-famous / popular / universally

respected…

commentator / critic / lecturer / author / writer / scholar / theorist / expert / specialist

in / on / at…

conveys / devotes / includes / argues / states / contends / discusses / holds / takes his
readers / listeners on an investigation of / explores / offers solutions to / unravels /
unfolds / stresses the importance of / grapples with / presents a study of / reveals /
unveils / comments on / points out / remarks / interprets / explains / expounds /
illustrates / examines the question of how / offers an accessible account of / focuses on /
renders an account of …

Balancing … with …, an experienced scientist gives a new / revolutionary / radical /

enlightening / illuminating vision of …

Combining … and …, the author …

 Problems to look out for when writing a summary response

One problem that student writers often have when writing a summary response is
keeping a clear distinction between the ideas in the article and the student writer‟s
opinions and ideas. To solve this problem:

1. Use the title of the article or the author‟s name both to keep your reader aware of
the topic and as a coherence device. (When using the author‟s name, use the last,
not the first name).

40
2. Be certain that your topic sentence clearly agrees or disagrees with the author‟s ideas
(or partly agrees and partly disagrees).
3. Do not use examples or facts from the article to support your opinions. Use ideas
that you generate yourself.

The following are some other areas of weaknesses that teachers have identified in
students‟ summary response writing:

 Reading problems

 The student‟s reading comprehension is poor. He or she fails to concentrate,

understand, draw inferences and reach conclusions.
 The student lacks vocabulary for understanding.
 Reading is hurried and inaccurate. The student loses thread, skips important words
and ideas and makes mistakes in processing information.
 The student misunderstands important ideas. He or she gives the wrong emphasis to
details, misses implied meanings and fails to recognise the tone of the text.

 Outlining weaknesses

 Emphasis is given to the wrong details and ideas.

 Notes are made out of sequence and this leads to the wrong emphasis.
 Irrelevant material is included in the notes.
 Too many examples are used.
 Figures of speech are used.

 Writing defects

 The summary is written only in simple sentences and fails to show relationships
between ideas.
 Key phrases and sentences from the original are simply strung together.
 Every sentence is summarised.
 The summary is like a series of unrelated or poorly related points.
 Sentences are linked only with conjunctions such as “and” and “but”.
 The summary is overparagraphed. Every new point is written as a new paragraph
instead of being linked to others in the same paragraph.
 Contractions are used.
 The summary is too long or too short.

 Checking faults

 Not enough care is taken to determine the accuracy of the notes and drafts when
checking them against the original text.

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 Checking is done hurriedly or carelessly. Mistakes in punctuation, spelling and
grammar are not corrected.

 Writing style

Style may be thought of as the way in which a piece of writing is expressed. All
writing has a style. Our purpose in composing a summary is to condense ideas but
still keep true to the flavour of the original. When we write a summary, we must be
aware of using an appropriate style.

 Transitions

Transitions are words and phrases that link ideas. Their use lends cohesion and
fluency to a piece of writing. They can be used within sentences, between sentences
and between paragraphs. In the material you are asked to summarise, always look to
see if the author uses transitions to connect ideas, to enhance the flow of the
writing or to introduce an idea.

General list of common problems in summary-response writing

 Poor use of transitions, choppy sentences

 Wordiness
 Choppy style
 No use of punctuation or conventions in academic writing
 Unbalanced summary (the summary is too long and could be condensed further
without any loss of meaning)
 No topic sentence to introduce agreement or disagreement
 Writer‟s ideas in the summary section
 Distortions in the summary section
 Incomplete summary
 Repetitive ideas and oversimplification in the response section
 Response section includes ideas that should be in the summary section
 Irrelevant ideas in the response section
 Disorganised response section: listing of ideas expressing agreement or disagreement
without supporting sentences
 Logical fallacies in the response section
 Poor content in the response section: ideas for academic writing should come from
required readings and research
 Acknowledging and citing sources
 Too much of the text is written in the words of the original (plagiarism).

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Additional suggestions

In an analysis or response, agreeing totally with the article often leads to a repetitive
composition. Since it is difficult to think up new examples of why an author is correct,
it may be easier to disagree with the author. Perhaps the most balanced response to
written material is some agreement and some disagreement. If possible, agree first and
then disagree.

 Ratio of summary to analysis in summary responses

The percentage of summary and analysis depends on the assignment, the audience and
the material.

 An assignment that asks for a brief summary and a thorough analysis is different
from an assignment that calls for a complete summary with a brief overall opinion
in the conclusion. The general form for a summary response assumes that the
audience has read the original source text and expects a detailed response.

 An audience that has read the original carefully needs only a brief summary; an
audience that has never read the source text needs a more complete summary. In
fact, such a composition may be a lengthy, objective summary of the article.

 Unless the original version is already severely condensed, a summary of about one
third of the original length can usually preserve the essential points. The shorter
the summary, however, the greater the danger of oversimplification or
misrepresentation. Be careful to preserve essential conditions and distinctions: if-
and unless- clauses, differences between is, will, might; words like only, almost and
on the whole.

SUMMARY RESPONSE
General Form (audience has
read the original and expects 20-30% 70-80%
a brief summary)
Alternate form A (audience
30-40% 60-70%
has not read the original)
Alternate form B (audience is
not familiar with the original;
60-70% 30-40%
writer has limited supporting
material)

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 PART II
Genre-based Materials

The Teaching-Learning Cycle in Practice

1. Activities aimed at building the social context of the target text: building
students‟ understanding of the purpose of the text, audience, roles and
relationships of those who read and write it, and register.

Task 1.1: Read the text below and answer the questions that follow in pairs.

“The Dangers of Television” an essay by Harriet B. Fidler (1980), discusses

the role that television has played in changing American values. In the 1940s,
television was predicted to bring families closer together. Its influence, however,
has splintered family relations. The author indicates that children watch TV for
hours, so it has become a pacifier and a baby-sitter. As a result, parents’ roles as
educators have been replaced by the TV, which prevents necessary interactions
between family members. Fidler also argues that, whereas television was thought
to have a good effect on family life, it now dominates the family. Traditionally,
dinner has been the single time when the family can finally come together. Sadly,
however, TV has taken priority. I agree with Harriet Fidler’s idea that television
weakens a family’s ability to survive by taking away from the time they would
otherwise spend relating to one another. In fact, I have seen the effects of
television on my own family. As a child, I can remember watching very little
television. The majority of my time was spent outdoors with my parents gardening
and playing. However, I have a younger brother who preferred watching television
to joining our family activities. At first, we all wondered what was wrong with
him. However, as the years went by, we began to join him in front of the TV.
Although in my family we are all required to sit at the dinner table together, there
are times when the screen holds more interest than any other thing and table
discussion is discarded for a TV programme. In summary, the philosophy stated
in Harriet Fidler’s essay and my personal experiences are alike. The senseless
watching of TV is truly weakening family ties and leaving many families void of
love and companionship.

Taken from Reid, Joy (1982). The Process of Composition. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

44
a) What is the text about?

b) Who can write such a text? To whom? What is the intended audience of this text?

c) Why was this text written? What is its social purpose or role?

d) What is the relationship between the writer and the intended reader?

e) What is the style / register of the text (formal, semi formal, informal)?

f) What is the possible social context or location of the text?

g) Have you read or written a text like this before?

 Audience: To be successful in a writing task, you need to have an understanding of

your audience‟s expectations and prior knowledge. For most university students,
the audience will be the teacher and classmates, who are quite knowledgeable
about the assigned topic.

 Purpose: Audience and purpose are typically interconnected. If the audience knows
less than the writer, the writer‟s purpose is often instructional. If the audience
knows more than the writer, the writer‟s purpose is to display familiarity,
intelligence and expertise. Summary responses can be particularly challenging to
write because they require you to take an unfamiliar persona, that of a kind of
authority.

 Style: the style or register of a text must be consistent and appropriate both for the
audience and purpose of the text. One difficulty in using the appropriate style at
university is knowing what is academic and what is not. One characteristic of
academic writing is its objective or neutral tone. This means that the writer will try
to sound calm and uninvolved even when he or she actually feels very strongly
about the issue discussed. In the case of a summary response, if you attack another
piece of writing too viciously, you will discredit your own writing and lose support.
A convincing summary response usually displays the ability to understand the other
side of an argument and to concede any opposing points that are valid.

45
 2. Activities aimed at modelling: deconstructing a genre to analyse generic
structure (i.e. prototypical rhetorical patterns or organisational structure) and
language (i.e. lexico-grammatical features) of genre examples through
language scaffolding tasks, i.e. familiarisation, model manipulation, controlled
and guided composition.

 FAMILIARISATION TASKS

A) Text-level tasks: Analysis of generic structure (rhetorical patterns)

Task 2.1: Writers seem to be fairly consistent in the way they organise their texts in a
particular genre, that is, information is presented to readers in a structured format.
Even short pieces of writing have regular, predictable patterns of organisation, and
analysis of the rhetorical patterns of a genre reveals preferred ways of communicating
intention. You can take advantage of these patterns to read and write texts. The
communicative purpose of a summary response is accomplished through two sections,
which give this genre its typical generic or organisational structure. Read the summary
response in task 1.1 again and answer the questions below:

a) What is the visual layout of the text? Is it divided into paragraphs?

b) Are there headings or a title?

c) What are the necessary sections that form the generic structure of a summary
response and what are the boundaries between them? What are the stages or moves
within each section?

d) What function is served by each section and what language features help express
these functions?

Task 2.2: Read the text below focusing on its similarities and differences in format /
layout, with the summary response in task 1.1 and decide how likely it is to be an
example of the same genre. What criteria would you use for the inclusion or exclusion?

46
 “The Dangers of Television, ” an essay by Harriet Fidler (1980), discusses
the role that television has played in changing American values. In the 1940s,
television was predicted to bring families closer together. Its influence, however,
has splintered family relations. The author indicates that children watch TV for
hours, so it has become a pacifier and a baby-sitter. As a result, parents’ roles as
educators have been replaced by the TV, which prevents interactions between
family members. I agree with Fidler’s idea that television weakens a family’s
ability to survive by taking away from the time they would otherwise spend
relating to one another.
Ms. Fidler states that, while television was initially supposed to bring
members of the family together, it now separates them. In fact, I have seen the
effects of television on my own family and agree with the author of this article. As
a child, I can remember watching very little television. The majority of my time
was spent outdoors with my parents gardening, playing and caring for livestock.
Once a week, my grandparents would come to visit and we would all ride horses.
However, I have a younger brother who preferred watching television to joining
our family activities. At first, we all wondered what was wrong with him.
However, as the years went by, we began to join him in front of the TV; no longer
were “Wild Kingdom” or “The World of Disney” the only programmes I watched.
Soon I was watching situation comedies, game shows, sports events and,
eventually, anything that was on the tube.
The author also thinks that, whereas television was thought to have a good
effect on family life, it now dominates it. Traditionally, dinner has been the single
time when the family can finally come together. The opportunity is there for
discussion, exchanging ideas, solving problems and expressing concern and love.
Sadly, however, TV has taken priority. Even in my family, although we are all
required to sit at the dinner table together, there are times when the screen holds
more interest than how Dad was run off the road on his moped. The point is that,
no matter how boring table discussion is, it should be a time cherished and not
discarded for a TV programme.
In summary, the philosophy stated in Harriet Fidler’s “The Dangers of
Television” and my personal beliefs about television viewing are alike. The
senseless watching of countless hours of TV is truly weakening family ties and
leaving many families void of love and companionship. If Harriet Fidler’s
predictions are right, there will probably be a day when a family that does
nothing besides watching TV will be looked upon as strange.

Taken from Reid, Joy (1982). The Process of Composition. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

47
 Flexibility in move structure: The organisational structure of the text above
indicates that the sections of a summary response do not necessarily coincide with
paragraphs. We may have two or more paragraphs in one section and vice versa.
Similarly, it is not always obligatory to use the sections in the same order. There is a
certain degree of freedom in the sequencing of the sections. In this course,
however, because of the length of the source texts, we will follow the single-
paragraph summary response pattern (i.e. summary followed by response).

Task 2.3: Sometimes, failure to adhere to the writing conventions of the academic
community may render a text unacceptable. Read the instructions, the source text and
the summary response below, which has an untidy organisational structure and layout,
and does not follow the conventions of the genre and comment on it. What changes
would you make?

As part of your classwork, your teacher has asked you to summarise and evaluate the information
in the article below. Read the following extract and write a summary response of about 400 words
summarising, analysing and evaluating the information in it critically. Your summary response
will be scored on content, organisation, language use, contextual appropriateness (purpose,
audience, register) and mechanics. You will have 60 minutes to write your summary response.

Mass Media by Jennifer Akin1 (2005)

Mass communicated media saturate the industrialised world. The television in the living
room, the newspaper on the doorstep, the radio in the car, the computer at work, and the fliers in
the mailbox are just a few of the media channels daily delivering advertisements, news, opinion,
music, and other forms of mass communication.
Because the media are so prevalent in industrialised countries, they have a powerful
impact on how those populations view the world. Nearly all of the news in the United States
comes from a major network or newspaper. It is only the most local and personal events that are
experienced first-hand. Events in the larger community, the state, the country, and the rest of the
world are experienced through the eyes of a journalist.
Not only do the media report the news, they create the news by deciding what to report.
The "top story" of the day has to be picked from the millions of things that happened that
particular day. After something is deemed newsworthy, there are decisions on how much time or
space to give it, whom to interview, what pictures to use, and how to frame it. Often considered by
editors, but seldom discussed, is how the biases and interests of management will impact these
determinations. All of these decisions add up to the audience's view of the world, and those who
influence the decisions influence the audience.
The media, therefore, have enormous importance to conflict resolution because they are
the primary -- and frequently only -- source of information regarding conflicts. If a situation does
not make the news, it simply does not exist for most people. When peaceful options such as
negotiation and other collaborative problem-solving techniques are not covered, or their successes
are not reported, they become invisible and are not likely to be considered or even understood as
possible options in the management of a conflict.
______________
1 Graduate from the University of Colorado, USA.

Source: http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/mass_communication/

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 The Impact of Mass Media

I agree with the author’s idea that the mass media saturate the industrialised
world. In her essay, Mass Media, 2005, Akin first states that the media have a
powerful effect on how people see the world. I concur with Jennifer that local
events are experienced directly whereas what happens in the rest of the world
becomes known from the perspective of a journalist. Second, she points out that
the media create as well as reporting the news. I coincide with this graduate from
the University of Colorado that journalists decide how much time or space a piece
of news deserves, who is interviewed and what pictures are included. The
interests of management sometimes have an impact on these decisions, too.
Finally, the media influence the resolution of conflicts as they are often people’s
main source of information. In fact, when solutions to problems are not given
coverage, they are not visible.

Task 2.4: Read the Guidelines for reacting to texts and writing a summary response
(Part I). Then read the source text below and the two drafts of a summary response,
and answer the questions that follow.

The Mass Media: Their Adverse Effect on Moral Standards

By Virginia Evans (2000)
Newspapers have been in existence for centuries, their purpose being to spread the news.
Public radio and television services, on the other hand, have only been available in the UK since
1922 and 1932 respectively, and were introduced with the intention of informing, educating and
entertaining. While radio seems to have largely maintained its standards, newspapers and TV
have, in my opinion, abused their position of power, resulting in a serious decline in moral
standards. As Richard Hoggart (1995, p. 20) said, ―They are full of corrupt brightness, of
improper appeals and moral evasions…‖
Perhaps the most serious offender is television, as today’s broadcasters seem to have
completely abandoned the issue of ethics. This is more than apparent in the films and programmes
which are intended to entertain, as they bombard the viewer with explicit language, sex and
violence. Similarly, the news informs us using devastating images of grief, desperation and death.
It is often felt that by exposing the public to such graphic depictions, television producers have
contributed to our becoming immune to shocking behaviour and events which, in the past, we
would have been upset or offended by.
Furthermore, newspapers, especially the tabloids, have come to depend on overtly-explicit
articles and pictures in order to guarantee sales. It is commonplace nowadays to see, for instance,
photographs of celebrities’ most private moments or horrific scenes of death occupying the front
pages of daily publications. The facts that these images are intended – and generally manage – to
sell newspapers displays the craving for sensationalism which exists within society today.
In contrast, it must be admitted that the mass media have a lot to offer in the way of
information and entertainment. The news and documentaries can be very informative and
educational as long as the material is handled in a responsible manner. The problem is that,
because people are willing victims of the media’s irresponsibility, the media continue to produce
material which is unacceptable by all moral standards.
To conclude, it is clear that the public have a right to know and that producers should be
allowed a certain degree of artistic licence, but should we not draw the line somewhere before we
lose sight of our principles altogether?
Taken from Evans, Virginia. (2000). Successful Writing Proficiency. Express Publishing: Newbury.

49
First draft

In the article “The Mass Media: Their Adverse Effect on Moral Standards”,
Virginia Evans, a British methodologist and published author, holds that
newspapers have existed for a long time whereas radio and television have been
introduced more recently. While their purposes were originally similar, nowadays
the intentions of newspapers and TV have changed, so I consider that it is high
time parents, teachers and authorities tried to counteract the influence of the mass
media. Evans explains that, among the means of communication, perhaps the
most serious offender is television since the news makes use of cruel images of
grief and desperation to draw people’s attention. This shows the hunger for
sensationalism which exists in society today. I agree with the author’s idea that
the power of the mass media has resulted in a decline in moral standards since
fewer people go to church nowadays. Moreover, children are allowed to go to the
cinema and watch films in which sex and violence are shown and this makes the
situation worse.

Second draft

In the article “The Mass Media: Their Adverse Effect on Moral Standards”,
Virginia Evans (2000), a British methodologist and published author, takes
readers on an exploration of the effects of the media and holds that unlike radio,
newspapers and television have made an abusive use of their power and this
situation has resulted in the deterioration of moral standards. First, Evans
explains that, among the means of communication, television is the most seriously
offensive one since in programmes whose intention is to entertain, images of
explicit sex and violence are shown, and even the news makes use of cruel
images of people dying and in despair to draw our attention. Secondly, Evans
points out that, to be sold, newspapers, mainly tabloids, also depend on articles
and pictures of celebrities’ private lives which are unnecessarily explicit. I agree
with the issue raised in this article: that the abuse of power performed by most of
the mass media, especially the TV, has resulted in the degeneration of moral
values. Indeed, the bombarding of explicit images showing sex and violence, for
instance, has made individuals become accustomed to this kind of content, accept
it and reproduce what they see on TV. Statistics show that, as the number of
explicit sexual images on TV increases, so does the age at which adolescents
become sexually active. Furthermore, the rate of violence at schools has doubled
in less than ten years since it has become natural for children to use guns, knives
and even harm other children because they watch violence every day on TV. As
violence and sex are explicitly shown on TV, it is high time parents, teachers and
authorities paid more attention to educating children in moral standards to
counteract the power of the mass media in general and television in particular.

50
a) How closely do these drafts follow the guidelines?
b) Does the first draft present the main idea of the original text. Is there adequate
support? Does it demonstrate understanding of the text?
c) Is the summary in the first draft objective? Is it long enough?
d) Has the writer used his/her own words? Which items were not paraphrased?
e) Is the response section in the first draft relevant? Does the evaluative comment
present the writer‟s analysis clearly and justify his/her position convincingly by
means of evidence, anecdotes, facts, statistics, examples or other readings?
f) What changes were made from the first draft to the second?

B) Language-level tasks: Analysis of lexico-grammatical features

Task 2.5: Having considered the generic structure and sections that make up a
summary response, let us now consider the linguistic (lexico-grammatical) features that
realise such sections. Read the source text and the summary response below, and then
answer the questions that follow.

Constructing Public Opinion: How Politicians and the Media Misrepresent the Public
by Justin Lewis1 (2001)

One of the most important beliefs that people have about politicians is that politicians do
whatever polls tell them to do. We hear a lot of complaint about the lack of strong leadership, that
politicians find out what the public wants, and then they pander to it, or at least they say they will
pander to it. Now what this idea of the poll-driven politician creates is the impression that the
political system may have all kinds of problems but, on the whole, it is responsive and
accountable to the public. However, once you actually start to look at public opinion in a more
detailed way, what you discover is that the idea of the pollpandering politician is really a myth.
For example, there is broad support in the US for a whole range of policies. Polls show that most
people support increased spending on inner cities, more spending and regulation on the
environment, more spending on education, more spending on health care. We also find the
majority support increases in the minimum wage, stricter gun control, and campaign finance
reform. In other words, if politicians were poll driven, then they would be in favor of a range of
liberal or left wing policies when, in fact, they are not. Now the question that this raises in a
democracy is how is this mismatch between what the people want, and the policies pursued by
their representatives possible?
So, how do we explain this contradiction between the myth that politicians reflect the
public and the reality that on most economic issues, they actually ignore public opinion? Well,
let’s look at how the news media cover public opinion. When the media report on polls, what they
are actually doing is telling a story about what public opinion is, rather than just reflecting it.
They are constructing how we understand public opinion. Besides, the news media have a lot of
power here because they choose what questions to ask and what questions not to ask. Ordinary
people’s opinions usually only count in as much as they respond to that conversation.
_______________
1 Prof. of Communication and Head of the Cardiff School of Journalism, Media and Cultural Studies at Univ. of
Wales. Source: http://www.mediaed.org/assets/products/106/transcript_106.pdf

51
 In the article “Constructing Public Opinion: How Politicians and the Media
Misrepresent the Public”, Justin Lewis (2001), Professor of Communication and
Head of the Cardiff School of Journalism, Media and Cultural Studies at Cardiff
University, Wales, U.K., focuses on public opinion and claims that, in today’s
democratic societies, people’s needs are mismatched with the policies
implemented by politicians. Professor Lewis unravels that, although people believe
that politicians pay attention to polls and respond to the public, this does not
really happen. The author further argues that this contradiction is due to the
media coverage of public opinion, which constructs it instead of reflecting it. For
instance, he understands that, if they were poll driven, politicians should
advocate policies such as spending more money on education, the environment
and health services, which they actually do not do. I agree with the author on the
idea that the news media create public opinion since they play a powerful role in
choosing what questions are asked in polls. In so doing, they set aside certain
issues that may be important for citizens thus limiting the scope of public opinion.
The polls reported by the media may be useful as, in the same way as other
messages the media send, they are sometimes our only means of grasping certain
aspects of reality that are beyond personal experience. Nevertheless, people
should be aware of the fact that there may be some aspects of reality which are
constructed. In conclusion, I believe that the author succeeds in making us become
aware of the subjectivity of media messages.

a) What expressions does the writer use to open and close this summary response?

b) This text establishes a contrast between people‟s belief that the political system is
responsive to the public and the reality that politicians ignore public opinion.
Which words signal that contrast? Which linking word introduces the reason for
this?

c) How are examples introduced?

d) Apart from transition words and phrases, the writer uses other cohesion devices to
show that sentences are tied together. Two other cohesion devices are repetition of
key words and phrases and the use of pronouns. Find examples.

e) The response section provides an evaluative comment on the information in the

summary section. How is the writer‟s opinion introduced?

f) Are there any words that qualify the strength of the claims made in the text? What
function do they serve?

52
 Academic language: As stated above, one difficulty with academic writing is
knowing what is academic and what is not. Becoming familiar with the lexico-
grammatical features of the genre you are producing, i.e. the summary response,
will enable you to establish yourself as a member of your academic community.

Task 2.6: Read the guidelines to help you maintain an academic style in your use of
lexico-grammatical features when writing a summary response (Appendix A:
Language-level tasks: Analysis of lexico-grammatical features) and then do the tasks
that follow.

a) Taking into account the lexico-grammatical features conventionally used to realise

the sections of a summary response, read the source text and complete the summary
response below supplying linking words and phrases, and other missing lexico-
grammatical items that give this summary response cohesion (i.e. pronouns and key
words).

TV Violence
By Virginia Evans1 (2000)

Television has become an important part of everyday life and children today spend hours
watching a variety of programmes. These facts have led people to question whether television
viewing adversely influences children, and if so, to wonder what may be done to prevent such
negative influence.
Supporters of television, such as representatives of TV channels, claim that there is no
need for concern. To support their opinion, they cite studies by psychologists which indicate that
children are not indiscriminate viewers. They maintain that they tend to choose programmes that
pass positive messages and are able to distinguish between reality and fiction, and therefore are
not negatively affected by what they watch.
Other investigations have been conducted that contradict the above findings. This second
body of research indicates that the increased depiction of gratuitous violence and immorality in
television programmes has indeed affected today’s youth and is directly related to the increase in
juvenile crime and the breakdown of moral values in society. The experts responsible for this
research have suggested steps that might be taken to solve this problem.
One way to prevent television’s negative influence would be for the government to censor
the content of certain violent or immoral programmes. Types of broadcasts that exert negative
influences could be shown only late at night when children are not likely to be watching. In this
way, the degree to which children might be exposed to negative influences would be limited.
Furthermore, parents could monitor what their children watch and take on the
responsibility of changing channels or switching off the TV set when they feel the programme
being viewed may be harmful, thus ensuring their children are not exposed to negative influences.
In conclusion, it may be said that it is not yet possible to ascertain if, or to what extent TV
negatively influences children. However, as the possibility does exist, it might be wise to take
measures such as those mentioned above. After all, as it is often said, ―an ounce of prevention is
worth a pound of cure.‖
_______________
1 British methodologist and published author
Taken from Evans, V. (2000). Successful Writing Proficiency. Newbury: Express Publishing.

53
 in addition – programmes – but – they – in fact – in conclusion –
TV (x 2) – not only – parents’ – this – as a result – she (x2) – on
the other hand – children (x 2) – government – on the one hand –
for instance

In her article “TV Violence”, Virginia Evans (2000), who is a British

methodologist and published author, renders a balanced account of arguments
in favour and against television and wonders whether watching TV has
negative effects on children and, if so, what actions can be taken to avoid
________. ________________, she states that those in favour of _______________
presume that there is nothing to worry about since children do not watch TV
indiscriminately. _______________, _________ both opt for programmes that
transmit good messages and can tell the difference between real life and
fiction. _______________, the author warns that contradictory research results
demonstrate that _______________ violence has actually had a pernicious
influence on young people and led to higher rates of crime and a decline in
morality. The author further explains that, _______________, experts have
proposed ways to tackle this problem. _______________, the government should
censor _______________ which are immoral. _______________, parents should
check what their _______________ watch. I agree with the author since TV
violence obviously has negative effects on children. Indeed, an article in the
New York Times points out that, according to the findings of research studies,
too much TV viewing has damaging effects on children. Besides undermining
their health, which results in obesity and poor eating habits, it leads to
behavioural problems at home and at school. I believe that the author presents
compelling ways of preventing the negative influence of TV on _______________.
_______________ does ______________ present useful steps to take
_______________ also does so with a lot of clarity. _______________, _________ is
successful in stressing the importance of _______________ and _______________
responsibility for taking precautionary measures.

b) Underline the reporting verbs in the summary response above and decide if they are
objective or have the potential to be evaluative.

c) Rate the adjectives that can be used in the response section of a summary response to
provide an evaluative comment as follows:

++ = very positive - = negative

54
+ = positive - - = very negative

0 = neutral, ambiguous

In his __________ article, Jones attempts to show that…

unusual limited ambitious modest innovative interesting

academic restricted important flawed impressive elegant
useful simple significant traditional complex small-scale
careful exploratory competent remarkable preliminary unsatisfactory
scholarly original sound perceptive rigorous accurate

d) Read the source text and the summary response that follows and substitute the
lexico-grammatical features (strength of claims, connectors, verbs, that clauses, etc.)
that do not belong to the academic register.

Television’s Value
By Virginia Evans1 (2007)

Without doubt, the question of television’s value stirs up disagreement. Some believe
it is a boon to humankind while others maintain that it is the cause of a number of serious
problems. Could there be an element of truth in both arguments?
First of all, it cannot be denied that television provides us with a wealth of
entertainment. The huge variety of programmes available has made television the single most
popular activity in millions of homes around the world. To take just two examples, the mass
appeal of quizzes and reality shows means that many traditional forms of entertainment have
been almost entirely replaced.
In addition, there can be no doubt that television is a rich source of information.
Thanks to the fact that so much money has been invested in the medium, television is able to
broadcast a huge range of well-researched and educational programmes. Thousands of
dedicated professionals help to ensure that documentaries and current affairs programmes are
as factually accurate as possible, as well as guaranteeing a fast and reliable news service.
On the other hand, certain aspects of television are damaging for the individual. For
instance, spending long periods of time in front of a television screen could have adverse
effects on the eyesight, or on the person’s general level of health and fitness. Even more
worryingly, television is influential enough to affect the mind. It is not difficult to imagine
how this influence could lead to viewers gaining a distorted vision of the world.
What is more, it seems clear that television is responsible for a number of society’s
ills. Examples of this include a marked increase in violence and bad language, both of which
are frequently attributed to the widespread influence of television. Genuine fears have also
been expressed that it is a medium which lends itself to abuse in the form of political
propaganda.
On balance, there are a number of convincing arguments both in favour of and against
television. Since it is obviously here to stay, perhaps it is not the medium itself which should
come under closer scrutiny but rather the way we use it.
________________
1 British methodologist and published author
Taken from Evans, Virginia. (2007). Upstream Proficiency. Newbury: Express Publishing.

55
 In her essay “Television’s Value”, Virginia Evans (2007), a British
methodologist, presents an important discussion of the worth of television. She
maintains this issue gets a mixed response as some think it´s a marvellous
invention whereas others believe it causes trouble. At the beginning of the article,
Evans asserts TV provides you with a wealth of entertainment like reality shows,
quizzes, etc. Who can deny this? And she conveys the idea that TV’s very
informative. For example, it offers educational programmes such as
documentaries. But she presents the equally plausible case that TV can actually
harm the viewer both physically and psychologically. According to the author,
especially noteworthy is the fact that TV has harmful influences on society like an
increase in violence, bad language and abusive political propaganda. I agree with
the author’s idea that television’s a two-edged sword and the use we make of it
must be closely scrutinised cos failure to do so will bring on serious consequences.
In fact, research reveals that there’s a strong correlation between TV violence and
the high rate of juvenile offenders. In our country, statistics show all kids spend,
on average, six hours a day watching TV even at times of day when immoral
programmes are not censored. On the whole, this insightful article helps stress the
fact that the value of television can’t be underestimated.

Task 2.7: After having identified some of the structural and linguistic devices that
encode the purpose of a summary response, prepare a generic description of its essential
features. Organise it under these headings:

 Communicative purpose:

 Expected audience:

 Social context and register:

 Key organisational features or sections:

 Key lexico-grammatical features:

Task 2.8: Taking into account the features identified above, read the text below and
choose the best summary response. Justify your choice.

56
 Why TV Won’t Let Up on Violence
By Sally Bedell Smith1 (1986)

"Violence is alive and well on television," Steven Bochco, executive producer of "Hill
Street Blues," said in a recent interview. Mr. Bochco, whose award-winning dramatic series has
been praised for its sensitive, albeit gritty depiction of the world of urban police, was speaking
partly in jest. However, his words are as true as they have ever been.
Yet, there appears to be a difference in the quality, variety and pervasiveness of today's
televised violence. Some observers believe that, as a result of more than three decades of
television, viewers have developed a kind of immunity to the horror of violence. By the age of
16, for example, the average young person will have seen some 18,000 murders on television.
One extension of this phenomenon may be an appetite for more varied kinds of violence on
television. "On the basis of the amount of exposure, certain things that initially would have been
beyond the pale become more readily accepted," says David Pearl, director of the National
Institute of Mental Health's project on television violence.
In this television season, violence has been more prevalent than in recent years, in large
measure because there are fewer situation comedies and more action series—with the addition of
such shows as "Hunter" and "Miami Vice" on NBC, "Cover Up" on CBS and "Street Hawk" on
ABC but also because 25 millions of the nation's 84.9 million homes with television now receive
at least one of the four principal pay cable services—Home Box Office, Cinemax, Showtime and
The Movie Channel—which routinely show uncut feature films containing graphic violence as
early as 8 in the evening.
However, observers have also noted changes in the way violence is depicted on network
television programs. On the one hand, more violent acts in television programs today occur with
machine guns and other sophisticated weaponry than they once did, and even on critically
acclaimed shows such as "Hill Street Blues" violence now occurs with a greater intensity and
realism than in shows of a decade ago. In addition, more action series these days are laced with
jokes or gags that occasionally crop up in juxtaposition with violent acts. There is also less
distinction between heroes and villains, and more violent acts are committed by people with
psychological problems. Besides, on cable television, an increasing number of feature films
intertwining sex and violence are finding their way into the home.
Moreover, a new form of television, the music video—rock music illustrated by video
images—is also being examined by social scientists who say they detect a new form of violence
without even the tenuous dramatic context of many standard television series. According to
researchers, many such videos—largely seen on MTV Music Television, the 24-hour cable
channel, but available on broadcast programs as well—are saturated with images of menace,
cruelty and implied brutality as well as detached and often cold portrayals of violence against
people and property.
Documentation of some shifts in the character of violence on the three broadcast networks
is emerging from a new study of 500 television programs over the past 30 years by the Center
for Media and Public Affairs, a non-profit research center in Washington, D.C., which is
underwritten by a number of educational institutions, including Columbia University and Smith
College. "The data are preliminary, but we are finding that in the past three decades the nature of
violence on television has changed," says Linda Lichter, co-director of the center.
These trends are coming to the fore two years after the National Institute of Mental Health
issued its report stating that a connection exists between the viewing of media violence and
aggressive and violent behavior in children. Only last September, the Attorney General's Task
Force on Family Violence concluded that "the evidence is becoming overwhelming that just as
witnessing violence in the home may contribute to normal adults and children learning and
acting out violent behavior, violence on TV and movies may lead to the same result."

57
 In October, Senator Arlen Specter, Republican of Pennsylvania and chairman of the
Subcommittee on Juvenile Justice, held hearings on the effect of television violence on
children. Once again, new studies were presented that pointed to a link between televised
violence and real-life violence.
Even Hollywood producers acknowledge that a problem exists. In a survey of 100 top
television writers and producers conducted by the Center for Media and Public Affairs, 60
percent of the respondents said they thought there was too much violence on television.
Yet, ABC, CBS and NBC continue to counter that, while some aggressive behavior has
been linked to television viewing, violent behavior has not and that television cannot be singled
out in an environment that includes films, books and other influences. The networks' position is
backed by some in the research community who contend that only young boys with certain
predispositions could be made aggressive by televised violence; other social scientists support
the networks by saying that watching violence can be cathartic in its providing a vicarious
outlet for hostile impulses.
_______________
1 Journalist who works for The New York Times

Taken from Frank, M. (1990). Writing as Thinking. A Guided Process Approach. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

A-
According to Sally Bedell Smith (1986), a journalist of The New York Times,
in her article “Why TV Won’t Let Up on Violence”, there is plenty of violence on
television. She contends that TV’s violence is of a different quality, more varied
and pervasive nowadays. As a consequence, viewers have become immune to it
and thus ready to accept it. Bedell Smith reveals that there have also been
changes in the manner in which violence is portrayed; to illuminate this, she refers
to the fact that machine guns are used and violent acts have become more intense
and real than in the past. It is also difficult to tell the difference between heroes
and villains and films mix sex and violence. The author further expounds that
violence has found its way into rock music videos seen on television, too. To
clarify this, she cites various sources and authorities, among them, a report
issued by the National Institute of Mental Health that links media violence with
children’s aggressive behaviour. Despite some scientists’ and networks’
reluctance to accept this, I agree with the author’s idea that TV violence is
connected with violent behaviour in children. In fact, as Gander and Gardiner
(1981) explain, ninety-six per cent of homes have at least one television set turned
on for an average six hours a day. Over the last decades, television has become a
major agent of socialisation competing with parents, siblings, peers and teachers.
As a consequence, many teachers report incidences of aggressive behaviour in the
classroom. To counteract this, a local school has restricted children’s TV viewing
and observed a marked improvement in their behaviour. In my view, success in
minimising the negative effects of TV on children depends almost entirely on
whether teachers and parents share this goal.

58
 B-
Why TV Won’t Let Up on Violence, an article written by a journalist of The New
York Times, unfolds the reasons why TV violence is here to stay. First, the author
comments on the fact that, as a consequence of watching TV, people have become
immune to violence. Take, for example, the case of all youngsters who, at the age
of 16, will have watched thousands of murders on TV. And millions of homes
receive pay cable services such a Box Office, Cinemax and so forth, which show
graphic violence early in the evening. In fact, most families in my neighbourhood
receive such services. Second, the journalist states sophisticated weapons are
used to perform violent acts in television programmes today, and many of these
acts are performed by guys with mental problems. This could lead you to believe
that violence can be accepted in those cases. Third, she illustrates TV violence
with rock music videos like those seen on MTV, which are saturated with
threatening, cruel and brutal images. Indeed, I know from experience that such
videos are full of violence. Finally, Hollywood producers recognise there is a
problem. In fact, in a survey of television writers and producers, 60 percent of
those who answered expressed there’s a lot of violence on TV. I agree with the
author cos, while some aggressive behaviour is connected to TV, violent behaviour
mustn’t be linked to TV violence. On the contrary, watching TV violence can have
a cathartic effect. As Steven Bochco said, “Violence is alive and well on
television.”

 MANIPULATION OF MODELS

Task 2.9: Using your knowledge of the generic structure and linguistic features of the
genre, read the source text below and reorder the scrambled strips of paper containing
the sections of a summary response into a coherent whole so that they follow a logical
order.

59
 A Medium of No Importance
by lan McEwan1 (1995)

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appears the nation's child spend
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stare at a brick wall would waste time in
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and your time. from total
has passed
Whatever the TV/video industry might now say, television will
infatuation revived temporarily by the advent of colour to the present casual obsessionnever have the impact on civilisation
whichthat
is
the invention of the written word has had. The book - this little hinged thing - is cheap, portable, virtually
not unlike that of the well-adjusted alcoholic. Now the important and pleasant truth is breaking,
unbreakable, endlessly reusable, has instant replay facilities and in slow motion if you want it, needs no power lines,
to the horror of programme makers and their detractors alike, that television really does not
batteries or aerials, works in planes and train tunnels, can be stored indefinitely without much deterioration, is less
affect much at all. This is tough on those diligent professionals who produce excellent work, but
amenable to censorship and centralised control, can be written and manufactured by relatively unprivileged
since - as everyone agrees - awful programmes far outnumber the good, it is a relief to know the
individuals or groups, and most sophisticated of all - dozens of different ones can be going at the same time, in the
former cannot do much harm. Television cannot even make impressionable children less
same room without a sound.
pleasant.
Television turns out to be no great transformer of minds or society. We are not, en
_______________
masse, as it was once predicted we would be, fantastically well-informed about other cultures or
1 about
Journalist of The of
the origins Observer
life on ,Earth.
London People do not remember much from television documentary
beyond how good it was. Only those who knew something about the subject in the first place
retain the information.
Documentaries are not what most people want to watch anyway. Television is at its
most popular when it celebrates its own present. Its ideal subjects are those that need not be
remembered and can be instantly replaced, where what matters most is what is happening now
and what is going to happen next. Sport, news, panel games, cop shows, long-running soap
operas, situation comedies - these occupy us only for as long as they are on. However good or
bad it is, a night's viewing is wonderfully forgettable. It's a little sleep, it's entertainment; our
morals, and for that matter, our brutality, remain intact.
The box is further neutralised by the sheer quantity people watch. The more of it you
see, the less any single bit of it matters. Of course, some programmes are infinitely better than
others. There are gifted people working on television. But seen from a remoter perspective - say,
four hours a night viewing for three months - the quality of individual programmes means as
much as the quality of each car in the rush-hour traffic. For the heavy viewer, TV has only two
meaningful states - on and off. What are the kids doing? Watching TV. No need to ask what, the
answer is sufficient. Soon, I'll go up there and turn it off. Like a lightbulb it will go out and the
children will do something else.
It appears the nation's children spend more time in front of their TVs than in the
classroom. Their heads are full of TV - but that's all, just TV. The violence they witness is TV
violence, sufficient to itself. It does not brutalise them to the point where they cannot grieve the
loss of a pet, or be shocked at some minor playground violence. Children, like everyone else,
know the difference between TV and life. TV knows its place. It imparts nothing but itself; it
has its own rules, its own language, its own priorities. It is because this little glowing, chattering
screen barely resembles life at all that it remains so usefully ineffectual. To stare at a brick wall
would waste time in a similar way. The difference is that the brick wall would let you know you
were wasting your time.

60
 Whatever the TV/video industry might now say, television will never have the impact
on civilisation that the invention of the written word has had. The book - this little hinged
thing - is cheap, portable, virtually unbreakable, endlessly reusable, has instant replay
facilities and in slow motion, if you want it, needs no power lines, batteries or aerials, works
in planes and train tunnels, can be stored indefinitely without much deterioration, is less
amenable to censorship and centralised control, can be written and manufactured by relatively
unprivileged individuals or groups, and most sophisticated of all - dozens of different ones can
be going at the same time, in the same room without a sound.
______________

1 Journalist of The Observer, London

Taken from O’Connell, Sue (1995). Focus on Proficiency. London: Nelson.

A- While Mc Ewan’s position that TV is not as effective as the written word, for
example, is attractive, I disagree with this author since his article exhibits a
number of weaknesses. First and foremost, it can be criticised on the grounds
that no research evidence proving his position is presented. Second, although
the author assumes that TV viewing is harmless, he fails to acknowledge
several studies that report on the increased fatigue, tension, aggressive
behaviour and lessened imagination among schoolchildren who watch TV
indiscriminately. Therefore, the contents of the article are restricted and
misleading.

B- This article would have been much more convincing if the author had related
his opinion to research findings. However, in no case does he provide any
statistical information to support his contention. Hence, I entirely disagree with
him.

C- In the ambitious but flawed article “A Medium of no Importance”, which is

devoted to the influence of television, Ian McEwan (1995), a journalist of The
Observer, assumes that there is no clear proof that television has negative
effects on children. He interprets this as a preoccupation that stems from adults
who are aware of their own addiction to TV viewing.

D- The author emphasises that, despite people’s obsession with watching TV,
they are not affected by it either positively (e.g. by documentaries) or negatively
(i.e. by bad programmes). In fact, he makes clear that whether what we watch
is good or bad does not really matter because it is easily forgotten. The effect of
what we watch is also neutralised, McEwan goes on to remark, by the great
number of programmes we watch. Even though children spend a lot of time
watching TV, the violence they see does not desensitise them as they can tell
the difference between TV and real life.

61
Task 2.10: Read the source text and the summary response below it, which has an
unfinished response section and combine the first part of the response section with
an appropriate second part choosing from the options given. What position do the
other two responses justify?

The Purpose of Education

by Martin Luther King, Jr. (1948)

As I engage in the so-called "bull sessions" around and about the school, I too
often find that most college men have a misconception of the purpose of education.
Most of the "brethren"1 think that education should equip them with the proper
instruments of exploitation so that they can forever trample over the masses. Still others
think that education should furnish them with noble ends rather than means to an end.
It seems to me that education has a two-fold function to perform in the life of man and
in society: the one is utility and the other is culture. Education must enable a man to
become more efficient, to achieve with increasing facility the legitimate goals of his life.
Education must also train one for quick, resolute and effective thinking. To think
incisively and to think for one's self is very difficult. We are prone to let our mental life
become invaded by legions of half truths, prejudices, and propaganda. At this point, I
often wonder whether or not education is fulfilling its purpose. A great majority of the
so-called educated people do not think logically and scientifically. Even the press, the
classroom, the platform, and the pulpit in many instances do not give us objective and
unbiased truths. To save man from the morass of propaganda, in my opinion, is one of
the chief aims of education. Education must enable one to sift and weigh evidence, to
discern the true from the false, the real from the unreal, and the facts from the fiction.
The function of education, therefore, is to teach one to think intensively and to
think critically. But education which stops with efficiency may prove the greatest
menace to society. The most dangerous criminal may be the man gifted with reason, but
with no morals.
The late Eugene Talmadge, in my opinion, possessed one of the better minds of
Georgia, or even America. Moreover, he wore the Phi Beta Kappa key. By all
measuring rods, Mr. Talmadge could think critically and intensively; yet he contends
that I am an inferior being. Are those the types of men we call educated?
We must remember that intelligence is not enough. Intelligence plus character--
that is the goal of true education. The complete education gives one not only power of
concentration, but worthy objectives upon which to concentrate. The broad education
will, therefore, transmit to one not only the accumulated knowledge of the race but also
the accumulated experience of social living.
If we are not careful, our colleges will produce a group of close-minded,
unscientific, illogical propagandists, consumed with immoral acts. Be careful,
"brethren!" Be careful, teachers!

Source: http://www.drmartinlutherkingjr.com/thepurposeofeducation.htm

62
 In the essay “The Purpose of Education”, Martin Luther King Jr. (1948)
throws light on the goal of education stating that it has been misunderstood.
According to the author, education has two main aims which he calls “utility” and
“culture”. King further argues that education has to prepare students to think
critically, namely, in a logical and scientific way. However, he warns against the
development of reason without morals. In fact, “intelligence plus character” is, in
his view, the ultimate function of education. I completely agree with the author’s
idea that one of the purposes of education should be to develop critical thinking
skills together with moral values.

A- As regards critical thinking, I agree that, if students are only overwhelmed

by facts, they may get used to accepting them without questioning their
significance. When students are taught how to think effectively, they are given
the tools to discern whether the knowledge they have acquired makes sense or
not. Robert Hutchins (year, p.) said: “the purpose of education is not to fill the
minds of students with facts; it is to teach them to think.” As to the
development of moral values, I do not think this is one of the roles education
should play as some of these values may vary from culture to culture and
instilling them in the classroom may offend students who belong to certain
communities. In my view, only the development of critical thinking skills is the
primary building block of a broad education.

B- Nowadays, neither developing critical thinking skills nor instilling values are
the functions performed by education. In today’s fast-changing world, when
students start their formal education, they are usually able to think critically
and have the moral values instilled at home. Therefore, the function that
education needs to perform is enabling them to put the knowledge they acquire
into practice. As Yeats (year, p.) states, teaching should not be “the filling of a
bucket but the lighting of a fire”, which means that learning facts is not enough;
what students need is the motivation and strategies to apply them. Therefore,
education should provide students with the tools they need to succeed in their
future professional lives.

C- First of all, students need to be able to think effectively in order to avoid

being influenced by the stereotypes, prejudices and propaganda that pervade
the world nowadays and thus become responsible citizens capable of making
informed decisions. According to Peter Facione (year, p.), critical thinking is “a
powerful and liberating force”. That is to say, it enables individuals to free
themselves from all kinds of manipulation. However, without moral education,
members of society lack an important dimension that allows them to channel
their critical abilities in the right direction. In fact, an intelligent person who
does not have standards of morality could become a smart criminal. Therefore,
people need to be taught moral values so that they are able to put the
knowledge they have acquired into practice wisely. Only by so doing can we
get a complete education.

63
Task 2.11: Read the source text and edit the summary response below it deleting and
changing text segments to achieve succinctness and academic style.

Teaching with a Multicultural Perspective

by Rey A. Gomez1 (1991)

Teaching with a multicultural perspective encourages appreciation and understanding of

other cultures as well as one's own. Teaching with this perspective promotes the child's sense of
the uniqueness of his own culture as a positive characteristic and enables the child to accept the
uniqueness of the cultures of others.
Children's attitudes toward their race and ethnic group and other cultural groups begin to
form early in the preschool years. Infants can recognise differences in those around them, and
young children can easily absorb negative stereotypes. Children are easily influenced by the
culture, opinions, and attitudes of their caregivers. Caregivers' perceptions of ethnic and racial
groups can affect the child's attitudes toward those minority groups. Early childhood educators
can influence the development of positive attitudes in young children by learning about and
promoting the various cultures represented among the children they teach.
Young children can develop stereotypic viewpoints of cultures different from their own
when similarities among all individuals are not emphasised. Teachers can help eliminate
stereotypes by presenting material and activities that enable children to learn the similarities of
all individuals. Circle time is particularly helpful in this respect, as it provides children with a
feeling of group identity and introduces them to the variety of cultures represented in the class
(Dixon & Fraser, 1986).
A multicultural program should not focus on other cultures to the exclusion of the
cultures represented in the class. Children from different cultures often have to make major
behavioral adjustments to meet the expectations of the school. Teachers should take whatever
measures are necessary to see that children do not interpret these adjustments as evidence of
cultural stereotypes.
_______________
1 University of Illinois

Source: http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1991/gomez91.html

64
 In the article “Teaching with a Multicultural Perspective”, Rey A. Gomez
(1991), who lectures at the University of Illinois, nurtures the belief that teaching
with this perspective promotes in students the ability to understand their own
culture and the cultures of other students. This approach encourages them to
appreciate that each culture is unique. He grapples with the issue of the formation
of attitudes towards race, ethnicity and culture, and contends this begins at an
early age, and the people who look after children exert a strong influence on them.
In fact, children internalise negative stereotypes with great ease and this has an
effect on the way they act towards minority students. But this scholar suggests
teachers foster the development of positive attitudes to other cultures in children.
This can be done by means of raising their awareness of the similarities among
the different cultures present in the class instead of focusing on some cultures and
excluding others. So they come to see adjusting to the new school culture in a
positive light. For example, by means of circle time, teachers assign tasks that
encourage students to focus on what they all share. I agree with the author’s idea
that a multicultural perspective is necessary when teaching students of different
ethnic backgrounds especially nowadays cos it’s common for people to move to
another country looking for a better job. As a result, there are children from
different cultures who share the same classroom. In these cases, various
classroom activities like role-plays, drama, etc. can help teachers eliminate the
negative stereotypes students have about other cultures. Such a perspective
enables kids from different cultures to realise being bilingual, for example, is a
social and economic advantage and thus become proud of their origins instead of
feeling different. I believe this prevents problems in the future when students
become active members of multicultural communities in today’s globalised world.
And not only this is an important step towards fostering respect but also tolerance
of diversity.

Task 2.12: Both of the texts below were written by EFL university students at an
advanced level of language proficiency. Most readers would consider one to be more
acceptable than the other (not in terms of point of view but logical development of
ideas). Read the source text and then say which summary response you prefer and
why. Rewrite the unacceptable one to improve it and justify the changes you make.

65
 Teaching and the Moral Life of Classrooms

by David T. Hansen1 (2010)

Morals are caught, not taught. They take shape not through precept, but rather through
the uncountable ordinary and informal contacts we have with other people. No single event or
deed "causes" us to become patient or impatient, or attentive or inattentive to others. We
cannot say, "John became a patient person last Tuesday morning," although that may have
been the first occasion when we recognised that virtue in him. Rather, these dispositions
emerge unevenly -- if they do so at all -- through fits and starts, as we act in environments
such as the home, the school, and the community. Moreover, the process can work both ways.
Over time, a patient person can lose that virtue and become impatient. Regardless of which
way the process goes, however, the point is that it cannot be forced. It cannot be preset
according to a timetable or schedule. Character and personal disposition materialise over time.
They take form through potentially any contacts an individual has with other people.

This familiar viewpoint serves as my point of departure in the present article. My

central premise will be that everyday classroom life is saturated with moral meaning. In
particular, I will show how even the most routine aspects of teaching convey moral messages
to students. I will suggest that those messages may have as important an impact on them as the
formal curriculum itself. The latter includes moral education curricula centered upon values
clarification, moral reasoning, democratic deliberation, and the like. These curricular
endeavors can benefit students, and, by extension, the larger society. However, I will suggest
that it is crucial to heed from a moral point of view what takes place in the routine affairs of
the school and classroom. Those affairs can strongly influence students' character and
personal disposition. I will focus in particular on how teachers, through their everyday
conduct and practice, can create environments in which students can "catch" positive ways of
regarding and treating other people and their efforts. (…)

_______________

1 Associate Professor of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Illinois at Chicago, USA

Source: http://tigger.uic.edu/~lnucci/MoralEd/articles/hansen.html

66
A In the article “Teaching and the Moral Life of Classrooms”, American
Professor David T. Hansen (2010) examines the question of morals and claims
that these cannot be taught or forced. Rather, “morals are caught”. He accounts
for this stressing that they only arise from the informal contact between people.
Hansen is also convinced that the morality students “catch” in everyday
classroom life is as important as the formal curriculum. I personally agree with the
author’s assumption that morals cannot be taught or established in the school
curricula because values change from person to person and because our
perception of what is right or wrong may vary according to the situation. Values
are the result of our background and culture. That is why they may change from
person to person. If teachers have different values, then it would be difficult for
schools to agree on the values to be taught. Besides, students bring to school the
values they have acquired outside it, that is to say, at home, in the street and in
the neighbourhood. Values and morals can also change according to the situation
since they are relative and context-bound. Behaving in a particular way may be
considered right or wrong depending on the place we are in and the people we are
with. Thus, morals cannot be established in the school curricula.

B In the article “Teaching and the Moral Life of Classrooms”, Associate

Professor at the University of Illinois, Chicago, David Hansen (2010) takes on the
difficult task of exploring how values are acquired. The author contends that
values are “caught” through everyday contact with other individuals in home,
school and community settings and, therefore, people cannot be coerced into
behaving morally as this is the result of an informal, long-term process. His main
argument is that the classroom is full of morals that have a great impact on
students’ character and personality. While acknowledging that formal moral
instruction is important, he proposes that, through everyday classroom routines,
teachers should set examples and create an atmosphere that instills positive
values. I agree with Professor Hansen that classrooms are suitable places for
children to acquire values and that educators, by means of their actions, can
influence students. Because students spend a lot of time at school, teachers
become prominent figures in their lives. In fact, together with parents, they are
role models that students admire. In the classroom, students not only learn
content but they also learn from whatever behavioural choices teachers make. As
Russell (year) claims, schools should teach students the necessary knowledge for
the world of work, but they should also teach them to be wise. Some values such
as tolerance, respect and generosity, which are core values according to the State
Board of Education, can only be fostered by being in contact with others, which is
exactly what happens in the classroom. If teachers cherish such values, it is very
likely that students will follow their examples. To conclude, the school
environment, if exploited properly, is the perfect one for children to acquire values.

67
 CONTROLLED AND GUIDED COMPOSITION

Task 2.13: Read the source text and complete the summary response below it, for
which some sentences are given.

We Need a Revolution
by Nicholas Maxwell1 (1984)

We need a revolution in the aims and methods of academic inquiry. Instead of giving priority
to the search for knowledge, the academia needs to devote itself to seeking and promoting
wisdom by rational means, wisdom being the capacity to realise what is of value in life, for
oneself and others, wisdom thus including knowledge but much else besides. Acquiring
scientific knowledge dissociated from a more basic concern for wisdom, as we do at present,
is dangerously and damagingly irrational.

Natural science has been extraordinarily successful in increasing knowledge. This has been of
great benefit to humanity. However, new knowledge and technological know-how increase
our power to act which, without wisdom, may cause human suffering and death as well as
human benefit. All our modern global problems have arisen in this way: global warming, the
lethal character of modern war and terrorism, vast inequalities of wealth and power round the
globe, rapid increase in population, rapid extinction of other species, even the Aids epidemic
(Aids being spread by modern travel). All these have been made possible by modern science
dissociated from the rational pursuit of wisdom. If we are to avoid in this century the horrors
of the last one - wars, death camps, dictatorships, poverty, environmental damage - we
urgently need to learn how to acquire more wisdom, which in turn means that our institutions
of learning become devoted to that end.

The revolution we need would change every branch and aspect of academic inquiry. A basic
intellectual task of academic inquiry would be to articulate our problems of living (personal,
social and global) and propose and critically assess possible solutions, possible actions. This
would be the task of social inquiry and the humanities. Tackling problems of knowledge
would be secondary. Social inquiry would be at the heart of the academic enterprise,
intellectually more fundamental than natural science. On a rather more long-term basis, social
inquiry would be concerned to help humanity build cooperatively rational methods of
problem-solving into the fabric of social and political life, so that we may gradually acquire
the capacity to resolve our conflicts and problems of living in more cooperatively rational
ways than at present. Natural science would change to include three domains of discussion:
evidence, theory, and aims - the latter including discussion of metaphysics, values and
politics. Academic inquiry as a whole would become a kind of people's civil service, doing
openly for the public what actual civil services are supposed to do in secret for governments.
The academia would actively seek to educate the public by means of discussion and debate,
and would not just study the public.

These changes are not arbitrary. They all come from demanding that the academia cure its
current structural irrationality, so that reason may be devoted to promoting human welfare.
__________________
1 Professor of Philosophy of Science at University College London, UK.

Source: http://www.nick-maxwell.demon.co.uk/

68
 In the article “We Need a Revolution” (1984), British Professor Nicholas
Maxwell entertains the idea that there is a need for a radical change in the
approaches and objectives of scholarly research. He accounts for this stating that
seeking knowledge without wisdom is unsafe.

I agree with the author’s notion that the acquisition of scientific knowledge
without the concomitant development of wisdom can have a harmful effect on
civilization.

Task 2.14: Read the source text and the summary response below it, write a parallel
text which has a shorter summary section, and rewrite the response section from
your own viewpoint.

69
 The Crisis of Science without Wisdom
by Nicholas Maxwell1 (2008)

It may seem surprising that I should suggest that changing the aims and methods of
academic inquiry would help us tackle (…) global problems. It is, however, of decisive
importance to appreciate that (…) global problems have arisen because of a massive increase in
scientific knowledge and technology without a concomitant increase in global wisdom.
Degradation of the environment due to industrialisation and modern agriculture, global warming,
the horrific number of people killed in war, the arms trade and the stockpiling of modern
armaments, the immense differences in the wealth of populations across the globe, rapid
population growth: all these have been made possible by the rapid growth of science and
technology since the birth of modern science in the 17th century. Modern science and technology
are even implicated in the rapid spread of AIDS in the last few decades. It is possible that, in
Africa, AIDS has been spread in part by contaminated needles used in inoculation programmes;
and globally, AIDS has spread so rapidly because of travel made possible by modern technology.
Besides, the more intangible global problems indicated above may also have come about, in part,
as a result of the rapid growth of modern science and technology.
That the rapid growth of scientific knowledge and technological know-how should have
these kinds of consequence is all but inevitable. Scientific and technological progress massively
increase our power to act: in the absence of wisdom, this will have beneficial consequences, but
will also have harmful ones, whether intended, as in war, or unforeseen and unintended (initially
at least), as in environmental degradation. As long as we lacked modern science, lack of wisdom
did not matter too much: our power to wreak havoc on the planet and each other was limited. Now
that our power to act has been so massively enhanced by modern science and technology, global
wisdom has become, not a luxury, but a necessity.
The crisis of our times, in short – the crisis behind all the others – is the crisis of science
without wisdom. Having a kind of academic inquiry that is, by and large, restricted to acquiring
knowledge can only serve to intensify this crisis. Changing the nature of science, and of academic
inquiry more generally, is the key intellectual and institutional change that we need to make in
order to come to grips with our global problems – above all, the global problem behind all the
others, the crisis of ever-increasing technological power in the absence of wisdom. We urgently
need a new kind of academic inquiry that gives intellectual priority to promoting the growth of
global wisdom.

_______________
1 Professor of Philosophy at University College London.

Source: http://www.nick-maxwell.demon.co.uk/Essays.htm

70
 English Professor of Philosophy of Science at University College London,
Nicholas Maxwell (2008), in his article “The Crisis of Science Without Wisdom”,
states that the problems affecting the world today are the result of an increase
in scientific and technological knowledge devoid of wisdom. In our age, science
and technology have become massive and have greatly empowered human
beings to act, but they have also led to worldwide predicaments. He illustrates
this referring to environmental problems such as global warming, the victims of
war, arms trade and weapons of mass destruction, the chasm that separates
the rich and poor, the population explosion and the pandemic spread of
diseases such as Aids. To counteract all these problems, we need to promote
wisdom as a necessary component of science. This will enable us to overcome
the crises of our time. I agree with the author’s contention that wisdom should
accompany the development of scientific knowledge in order to help humanity
to solve its problems. I believe that wisdom should not be separated from
academic knowledge as knowledge without wisdom can be very harmful to
our world. In fact, knowledge is a tool that can serve to do as much good as
harm. For instance, Adolf Hitler was a very knowledgeable leader who
efficiently applied his abilities to commit one of the most terrible genocides of
modern history. Wisdom should prevent atrocities such as this one from
happening again. Consequently, it should be a necessary component of
academic knowledge in order to promote scientific and technological advances
that serve human wellbeing.

Task 2.15: Read the source text below and write a summary response using the
skeletal outline of the text and the genre template given to prompt your writing.

Liberal Arts for the Twenty-First Century

By M. Garrett Bauman1 (1994)

Tortured by vocationalism. charges of irrelevance, erosion of standards, declining

enrollments, calcified faculty and lack of coordination, the current liberal arts paradigm seems
to be disintegrating. Truly, our students, who will be asked to manage the most complex
century in history, are not well served by what we now offer.
Our current degree was predicated on a specialised social state, an expanding industrial
base, and the belief that plentiful resources existed to create a materialist state. Technologists
and scientists would create the material means, social scientists would manage society, and
humanists would handle the community's spiritual matters. We still organise liberal arts pro-
grams as though this specialised world existed or could exist. It does not and it cannot.
Tomorrow's graduates enter the post-industrial trial age; they face global energy and
resource depletion, a cancer scourge induced by various types of pollution, and a world in
which one billion people live in absolute poverty. The technological dream recedes each year.

71
 Ecologists predict almost unanimously that, by the end of the century, humans will
exterminate 20 percent of all fellow species alive on the planet in 1973. Computers and robotics
will replace more human labor than have all of history's tools combined. One-fourth of all
nations on the planet are currently at war and have been for a decade. Are our specialised social
managers faring any better than the technologists?
Individuals clamor ever louder for human rights, empowerment, and creative expression
while the arts and humanities are largely viewed as irrelevant. Are we becoming either more
human or humane? These are the salient facts, the problems and parameters of the world our
graduates must manage.
The present liberal arts degree does not provide the thinking skills and necessary
knowledge to make wise decisions for this emerging world because it suffers from three flaws.
1. As this century races to its end, we must realise liberal arts is the stuff of time, not
stasis. Liberal arts is changing faster than ever, but not fast enough to accommodate the
increasing pace of history. We cannot make ideas run the gauntlet of centuries before admitting
them to academia. This is not a call to teach trendy, contemporary- writers instead of
Shakespeare, or Capra instead of Plato. It is a call to account for major changes in the human
condition—our relationship to nature, technology; and ourselves—that have occurred during the
last twenty years, changes backlogged in the liberal arts' waiting room. This law results in the
"unemployability" of many graduates: Their education is largely irrelevant to the concerns of
contemporary society. The other practical justification of the liberal arts—that it creates well-
informed citizens—is also suspect. The second and third flaws relate directly to what has been
the proudest, most long-standing claim of the liberal arts: that it provides a broad education that
prepares one to focus on a variety of specific problems. We claim—more loudly as enrollments
decline—that we train students to be educationally self-sufficient by providing the ability to
grasp the overall nature of problems and a variety of tools to solve them and that liberal arts
provides the essential knowledge an educated person must have of his or her age. Yet in practice
we edge grudgingly toward this integrative vision and lag in offering the necessary knowledge
for wise decision making.
2. Liberal arts has neither accepted technology as an extension of the human brain nor
has it done its traditional job of synthesising the expanding world of knowledge. Many humanists
still treat technology as though it were an alien invader and proceed by fits and starts. For
instance, we encourage computer literacy and train technologists before we have figured out
how to train them to be ethically literate.
3. Liberal arts today resembles a farm or scattered fields. After students nibble dozens of
disconnected courses, we tell them: "Now use your critical abilities to synthesise all that." We
do not directly teach the integrative skills we say are a graduate's prime attribute.
The liberal arts are neither bankrupt nor lazy. It was easy to debate, clarify, standardise
and integrate learning when universities spend two hundred years debating the angel-on-a-pin
issue or fifty years debating evolution. In the last twenty years, by contrast, we have explored
space, created life artificially, whisked from heavy industry to the silicon chip, and seen more
lives appear on Earth than during the entire medieval age. More writers, artists, and theorists
with more variety of ideas walk the planet than ever before (the United States alone publishes
enough new books to fill the great Library of Alexandria- every seventeen years). In short, we
are creating the past faster than ever and the sum of what humankind has learned—both
technologically and in the realm of ideas—is becoming ever more lopsided in favor of the recent
past. Liberal arts education needs to catch up.
________________
1 A philosopher and physicist

Taken from Numrich, Carol. (1994). Raise the Issues. London: Longman.

______________

1 A philosopher and physicist.

Taken from Numrich, Carol (1994). Raise the Issues. London: Longman

72
I. Thesis statement: The current liberal arts paradigm providing a broad education
seems to be disintegrating since the present liberal arts degree suffers from three
flaws.

II. Body paragraphs:

1. Liberal arts has not changed to accommodate the pace of history and this results
in the unemployability of graduates and the irrelevance of their education.

a) Changes in our relationship to nature

b) Changes in technology
c) Changes in ourselves

2. Liberal arts has neither accepted technology nor synthesised the expanding world
of knowledge.

a) We encourage computer literacy before training technologists to be ethically

literate.

3. Liberal arts offers disconnected courses without the integrative skills and critical
abilities to synthesise all that.

a) Liberal arts resembles a farm of scattered fields.

III. Conclusion: Liberal arts education needs to catch up with new knowledge and
developments.

In the article “Liberal Arts for the Twenty-First Century”, M. Garrett

Bauman (1994), a philosopher and physicist, argues that today’s liberal arts
model is no longer useful as it exhibits three main weaknesses. The first one is
...The second one is…The third one is…

I agree/disagree with the author because...

In conclusion,

73
 3. Activities aimed at joint construction: creating a target text in collaboration
with the teacher and peers.

Task 3.1: Read the text below and participate in the whole-class construction of a
summary response led by the teacher.

Censorship is necessary in modern society

Censorship is an issue which frequently generates a great deal of heated debate, with
supporters maintaining that it is vital in order to protect society, whilst opponents claim
that it is an unjustifiable restriction of public access to information.
Firstly, all countries have secrets which must be safeguarded for reasons of national
security. For instance, if an enemy country were to acquire such highly sensitive
information, the effects could be catastrophic. Consequently, governments have the power
to restrict access to information concerning areas such as the armed forces or particular
aspects of foreign policy.
Secondly, it is often argued that censorship is necessary to prevent the broadcast and
publication of obscene material which is considered offensive or harmful to public morals.
Many people feel that, without censorship the public would be constantly subjected to
material that the majority would find offensive. For this reason, the government has a duty
to impose certain restrictions on the mass media by censoring films and texts which contain
certain explicit scenes of sex, violence or foul language.
In contrast, opponents of censorship point out that when it is abused by
governments, censorship becomes an instrument used to misinform society and maintain
power. In order to control the flow of information which reaches the public, repressive
regimes try to put constraints on the media, thus denying citizens the right to inform owing
to the fact that governments believe it may lead them to seek greater freedom.
Furthermore, it is generally felt that mature adults are able to make informed
choices about what they watch, read and listen to and should, therefore, be permitted to
make their own decisions. For example, some comedians make use of offensive language and
taboo subjects in their performances. Critics of censorship argue that the only people who
will watch or listen to such material are adults who have made a conscious decision to do so.
Thus, it is claimed, it is unjust to censor material like this since it is not forced upon people
who may subsequently be offended by it.
All things considered, it can be concluded that a certain degree of censorship is
always necessary. The best course of action would be to attempt to achieve a balance
between the requirements of the country and the public on the one hand, and individuals'
rights on the other.

Taken from Evans, V. (1998). Successful Writing Proficiency. Newbury: Express Publishing.

Task 3.2: In pairs read the text below and write a summary response. Compare your
summary response with that of another pair.

74
 Should the Press be Human?

Taken from Greenall, S. and M. Swan. (1993). Effective Reading. Reading Skills for Advanced Students.
Cambridge: CUP.

75
 4. Activities aimed at independent construction: removing scaffolding and
allowing students to create texts by themselves.

Task 4.1: Watch a video about the press and their dilemma between the need to
inform and humanitarian concerns, and write a summary response to the
audiovisual stimulus. Use the self-assessment checklist, peer feedback and revision
planning teacher-student conference forms (Appendix B) to assess your performance
and obtain feedback.

Task 4.2: Watch a video about teenagers discussing whether they learn to be violent
from television or from their own parents, and write a summary response to it. Use
the self-assessment checklist, peer feedback and revision planning teacher-student
conference forms employed in activity 4.1 above to assess your performance and
obtain feedback.

Task 4.3: Read the text below and write your first draft of a summary response. After
you have finished, use the self-assessment checklist to assess your performance, then
give the peer feedback form to one of your classmates so as to receive feedback from
them. Finally, complete the revision planning teacher-student conference form to
receive feedback from the teacher. After receiving feedback, revise, edit and
proofread your summary response before handing it in to be corrected.

Public Enemy Number One?

By Mike Males (2004)

Forget about poverty, racism, child abuse, domestic violence, rape. America has
discovered the real cause of our country's rising violence: television mayhem, Guns N'
Roses, Ice-T and Freddy Krueger.
No need for family support policies, justice system reforms or grappling with such
distressing issues as poverty and sexual violence against the young. Just when earnest
national soul-searching over the epidemic violence of contemporary America seemed
unavoidable, that traditional scapegoat—media depravity—is topping the ratings again.
"The average American child," columnist Ellen Goodman writes, "sees 8,000
murders and 10,000 acts of violence on television before he or she is out of grammar
school." Goodman, like most pundits, expends far more outrage on the sins of TV and rock
'n' roll than on the rapes and violent abuses millions of American children experience before
they are out of grammar school.
Popular perceptions aside, the most convincing research, found in massive, multi-
national correlational studies of thousands of people, suggests that, at most, media violence
accounts for 1 to 5 percent of all violence in society. For example, a study led by media-
violence expert Rowell Huesmann of 1,500 youth in the U.S., Finland, Poland and Australia
found that the amount of media violence watched is associated with about 5 percent of the
violence in children, as rated by peers. Other correlational studies have found similarly
small effects.

76
 However, the biggest question media-violence critics cannot answer is the most
fundamental one: is it the cause, or simply one of the many symptoms, of this unquestionably
brutal age? The best evidence does not exonerate celluloid savagery but shows that it is a small,
derivative influence compared to the real-life violence, both domestic and official, that our
children face growing up in America.
When it comes to the genuine causes of youth violence, it is hard to dismiss the 51
percent increase in youth poverty since 1973, 1 million rapes and a like number of violently
injurious offences inflicted upon the young every year, a juvenile justice system bent on
retribution against poor and minority youth, and the abysmal neglect of the needs of young
families. The Carter- Reagan-Bush eras added 4 million youths to the poverty rolls. The last 20
years have brought a record decline in youth well- being.
Despite claims that media violence is the best-researched social phenomenon in history,
social science indexes show many times more studies of the effects of rape, violence and
poverty on the young. Unlike the indirect methods of most media studies (questionnaires,
interviews, peer ratings and laboratory vignettes), child abuse research includes the records of
real-life criminals and their backgrounds. Unlike the media studies, the findings of this
avalanche of research are consistent: child poverty, abuse and neglect underlie every major
social problem the nation faces.
Besides, unlike the small correlations or temporary laboratory effects found in media
research, abuse-violence studies produce powerful results: "Eighty-four percent of prison
inmates were abused as children," the research agency Childhelp USA reports in a summary of
major findings. Separate studies by the Minnesota State Prison, the Massachusetts Correctional
Institute and the Massachusetts Treatment Center for Sexually Dangerous Persons (to cite a few)
find histories of childhood abuse and neglect in 60 to 90 percent of the violent inmates
studied—including virtually all death row prisoners. The most conservative study, that by the
National Institute of Justice, indicates that some half-million criminally violent offences each
year are the result of offenders being abused as children.
Two million American children are violently injured, sexually abused or neglected
every year by adults whose age averages 32 years, according to the Denver-based American
Humane Association. One million children and teenagers are raped every year, according to the
federally funded Rape in America study of 4,000 women, which has been roundly ignored by
the same media outlets that never seem short of space to berate violent rap lyrics. Sensational
articles devoted pages to blaming music and media for violence—yet ignored this study of the
rape of millions of America's children.
If as media critics claim, media violence is the, or even just a, prime cause of youth
violence, we might expect to see similar rates of violence among all those exposed to similar
amounts of violence in the media, regardless of race, gender, region, economic status, or other
demographic differences. Yet this is far from the case.
Consider the issue of race. Surveys show that while black and white families have
access to similar commercial television coverage, white families are much more likely to
subscribe to violent cable channels. Yet murder arrests among black youth are now 12 times
higher than among white, non-Hispanic youth, and increasing rapidly. Are blacks genetically
more susceptible to television violence than whites? Or could there be other reasons for this
pattern—-perhaps the 45 percent poverty rates and 60 percent unemployment rates among black
teenagers?
Moreover, consider also the issue of gender. Girls watch as much violent TV as boys.
Yet female adolescents show remarkably low and stable rates of violence. Over the last decade
or so, murders by female teens stayed roughly the same, while murders by boys skyrocketed.
How do the media-blamers explain that?

77
 Finally, consider the issue of locale. Children see the same amount of violent TV all
over, but many rural states show no increases in violence, while in Los Angeles, to take one
example, homicide rates have skyrocketed.
The more media research claims are subjected to close scrutiny, the more their
contradictions emerge. It can be shown that violent people do indeed patronise more violent
media, just as it can be shown that urban gang members wear baggy clothes. Nevertheless,
no one argues that baggy clothes cause violence. The coexistence of media and real-life
violence suffers from a confusion of cause and effect: is an affinity for [that is, an interest
in] violent media the result of abuse, poverty and anger, or is it a prime cause of the more
violent behaviors that just happen to accompany those social conditions? In a study of
teenage boys who listen to violent music, Jeffrey Arnett argues that "rather than being the
cause of recklessness and despair among adolescents, heavy metal music is a reflection of
these behaviors."
The clamor over TV violence might be harmless were it not for the fact that media
and legislative attention are rare, irreplaceable resources. Every minute devoted to thrashing
over issues such as violence in the media is one lost to addressing the accumulating, critical
social problems that are much more crucial contributors to violence in the real world.
Virtually alone among progressives, columnist Carl T. Rowan has expressed
outrage over the misplaced energies of those who have embraced the media crusade and its
"escapism from the truth about what makes children (and their parents and grandparents) so
violent." Writes Rowan: "I'm appalled that liberal Democrats are spreading the nonsensical
notion that Americans will, to some meaningful degree, stop beating, raping and murdering
each other if we just censor what is on the tube or big screen. The politicians won't, or can't,
deal with the real-life social problems that promote violence in America so they try to
make TV programs and movies the scapegoats! How pathetic!"
Without question, media-violence critics are genuinely concerned about today's
pandemic violence. As such, it should alarm them greatly to see policy-makers and the
public so preoccupied with an easy-to-castigate media culprit linked by their research to, at
most, a small part of the nation's violence—while the urgent social problems devastating a
generation continue to lack even a semblance of redress.

Taken from Leki, Ilona. (2004). Academic Writing. Exploring Processes and Strategies. Cambridge: CUP.

78
 5. Activities aimed at linking related texts: relating work to other texts in
similar contexts.

Task 5.1: Compare the use of the summary response in this course to its use in other
contexts and disciplines.

Task 5.2: Investigate how the summary response is related to other genres that occur
in the same or a similar educational institution (i.e. essays from sources, book
reviews, annotated bibliography, literature reviews).

Task 5.3: Much of what we have said about summary responses so far would apply to
the writing of a book review. Read the film review below and say what features it
shares with a summary response.

Dangerous Minds, directed by John N. Smith, is set in a poor inner city area high
school. The main character is a trainee teacher, played by Michelle Pfeiffer, who also
happens to be an ex-Marine. The hit song "Gangsta's Paradise" from the film's soundtrack
gives the impression that the film is a powerful drama. However, it actually turns out to be a
story of hope and optimism.
The film centres on Miss Johnson (Michelle Pfeiffer) who is put in charge of a class
made up of the city's toughest and most troubled adolescents. She soon realises that by
treating the youths with the respect and understanding that human beings deserve, she can
maintain order; moreover, she wins the trust of her class while actually helping them to enjoy
learning and to realise that they control their own lives.
Dangerous Minds covers many of the problems young people face in society today,
something made possible by the fact that it is not just a film about a teacher but also about the
disturbing problems faced by members of the class. This is all done in a realistic way with
which most of us can identify. Pfeiffer is brilliant in her role, and convincing in the
emotions she portrays throughout.
If you like to see good triumph over evil and are fond of happy endings, then you
should definitely see this film. Although it is probably not the most fascinating film you will
ever watch, Pfeiffer's performance is outstanding.

Taken from Evans, V. (1998). Successful Writing Proficiency. Newbury: Express Publishing.

79
Task 5.4: Reflect on the relevance of summary-response writing to your future
academic and professional lives.

Task 5.5: If possible, interview an expert text user (i.e. a researcher that has to
summarise and evaluate previous research in his/her own work) and share the
information with the rest of the class.

80
APPENDIX A

Language-level tasks: Analysis of lexico-grammatical features

 In order to maintain an academic style in the use of lexico-grammatical features

when writing a summary response, you should pay attention to the following:

Vocabulary: One distinctive feature of academic style is choosing the more

formal alternative when selecting a verb, noun or other parts of speech.

 Verbs: English often has the choice between a phrasal or prepositional verb and a
single verb of Latin origin. For written, academic style, there is a tendency to use
a single verb whenever possible to reduce informality, e.g. offer instead of come
up with.

 Nouns: Choose words that are less informal in nature and more precise, e.g.
children instead of kids.

 Linking words: Choose linking words that are less informal, e.g. because instead
of cos, and such as instead of like.

Grammar: the following are some recommendations for maintaining a formal

academic writing style:

 Avoid contractions: e.g. it‟s

 Use the more appropriate negative forms, e.g. not…any instead of no
not…much instead of little
not…many instead of few

 Limit the use of run-on expressions such as so forth and etc. and use among
others instead.
 Avoid addressing the reader as you (use passive instead).
 Be careful about using direct questions and use indirect questions instead.
 Place adverbs within the verb (in midposition) rather than in initial or final
position.
 Consider whether you should split infinitives (placing an adverbial modifier
between to and the infinitive, e.g. to sharply rise).

81
Linking words and phrases: These can help a writer maintain the flow of a text
and establish relationships between ideas to help the reader follow them. The
table below lists some of the most common linking words and phrases used in
academic writing.

Linking words and phrases

Meaning/Function Subordinators Sentence Phrase linkers
connectors
Addition furthermore in addition to
in addition
moreover
also
Adversativity although however despite
even though nevertheless in spite of

Cause and effect because therefore because of

since as a result due to
as consequently as a result of
hence
thus

Clarification in other words

that is

Contrast while in contrast

whereas however
nevertheless
on the other hand
conversely

Illustration for example

for instance
i.e., e.g.

Intensification on the contrary

as a matter of fact
in fact
indeed

Conclusion all in all

in conclusion
in summary
finally

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Another way to maintain flow is to use This/These + a summary word (noun) to join
ideas together. Consider the following sentences:

ESL lecturers know that students need to understand the differences between formal
and informal language. However, this understanding cannot usually be acquired
quickly.

The phrase this understanding contains a summary word or noun that refers back to
the idea in the previous sentence. It summarises what has already been said and
picks up where the previous sentence left off.

 Non-Restrictive relative clauses and appositives: You will often give brief
summaries of the credentials and background of the author of the text you are
summarising. Non-restrictive relative clauses and appositives can be used to
identify the author and show why he/she is a reliable source of information.
Examples:

According to James G. Garrick (2000), who is the Director of the Center for Sports
Medicine at Saint Francis Memorial Hospital, excessive exercisers are people who
work out three hours a day.

According to James G. Garrick (2000), Director of the Center for Sports Medicine at
Saint Francis Memorial Hospital, excessive exercisers are people who work out three
hours a day.

 Reporting verbs to identify the source: Since many of the summaries you write
will be woven into your text, it is very important to identify at least the source
author, if not the title as well. Most summaries will have a sentence near the
beginning that contains two elements: the source and the main idea. Notice the
use of the present tense in the examples:

According to Young (2004), + MAIN IDEA

Young‟s article, “......” , discusses / states / claims / argues / maintains / suggests /
asserts / hypothesises / concludes that + MAIN IDEA

There is a range of reporting verbs you may use when referring to source material.
The most frequently used reporting verbs in Applied Linguistics are: suggest, argue,
show, explain, find, and point out.

Although summaries are supposed to be objective, reporting verbs can be used to

reveal your personal stance towards the source material. Notice how the reporting
verbs in the following example allow the writer to convey his or her attitude:

83
Campbell (1990) presumes that all parents are equally capable of helping their
children with schoolwork.

The addition of an adverb can more clearly reveal your stance:

The author wrongly assumes that…

Some reporting verbs are less objective than others. In the list below, identify which
verbs seem to be objective and which have the potential to be evaluative.

describe propose

recommend theorise

claim support

assume examine

contend

Notice that, if you use the verb mention, you would change the importance of the
information because it is used for information given without detail or support, so it
should be avoided.

Note: make sure that your verb tenses are appropriate and consistent when you use
reported speech.

Nominal that clauses: In formal academic English, many reporting verbs are
followed by a that clause containing both a subject and a verb. Identify the
verbs in the table above that are followed by that.

That clauses have a variety of functions. In the following sentence, the that clause is
the direct object of the verb:

Benfield (2008) states that …

In spoken English, that is often omitted in that clauses which function as the direct
object but not in academic English.

84
Summary reminder phrases: In a summary, you may want to remind your
reader that you are summarising and mention the source author‟s name at
different points in your summary:

The author goes on to say that…

The article further states that…
(Author‟s name) also maintains that…

Beginning the response: The skeletal sentences below can be used as opening
sentences for the response section:

(Author‟s name) presents a plausible case that…Less adequate is his discussion of…
(Author‟s name) takes on the difficult task of…Unfortunately…
(Author‟s name) presents an important discussion of…Although we may not agree
on all the issues raised in the article, we praise the author for…
The article by (Author‟s name) is an ambitious feat. This effort, however, is not fully
successful.
(Author‟s name) has written an important article on…Despite its many strengths,
there are a number of small but important weaknesses.
(Author‟s name) presents a compelling argument for…; however, …
While the author‟s position that…is attractive, there are a number of weaknesses in
this concept.

Evaluative language: writing a good response requires an awareness of

evaluative language. Some content words that can be used for evaluation are:

 Nouns: success, failure

 Verbs: succeed, fail
 Adjectives: successful, unsuccessful
 Adverbs: successfully, unsuccessfully

According to Hyland (2000 in Swales and Feak, 2009), some evaluative terms cut
across several disciplines while others are preferred in one or two disciplines:

 Frequently used evaluative adjectives for all disciplines: useful, important,

interesting, difficult

 Frequently used evaluative nouns in soft fields: clarity, accessibility, detailed,

insightful, significant, inconsistent, restricted, misleading

 Frequently used evaluative adjectives in the hard sciences: detailed, up-to-date,

comprehensive, practical, difficult

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When writing a summary response, only thinking negatively is probably ill-advised.
You do not want to give the impression that you are only criticising. It is possible to
soften the criticism by pairing a positive and a negative adjective:

In this ambitious but flawed article, Jones…

In this flawed but ambitious article, Jones…

Notice how the emphasis changes depending on the information you place first. In
addition, you can make other pairings using linking words and phrases, especially
those that express adversativity:

Although the author suggests that…, he fails to see the advantages of…
The author suggests that…; however, he fails to…

Baldry provides an interesting view of…However, his article suffers from a number
of limitations / exhibits several weaknesses / can be criticised on several counts /
raises as many questions as it answers.

 Unreal conditionals: in the response section, you may want to express criticism
by saying what the author should have done but did not do. This can be done
using unreal conditionals. Here is an example:

This article would have been more persuasive if the author had related the findings
to previous work on the topic.

Notice the structure of these conditionals: would / might / should have + past
participle + if + noun phrase + had + past participle. These conditionals are common
in the response section because the text being critiqued has already been put into
final form and there is no opportunity to revise it in the light of the criticism.
(Remember that should expresses a strongly negative comment and is a criticism
while could is a less strong suggestion and might is a weak suggestion). It is
important to make your points with the appropriate amount of strength. Criticisms
that are too strong will not help you position yourself, nor will evaluative comments
that are too weak.

 Inversions: English usually requires an inverted word order if a negative or

restrictive word is used to open a sentence. In this case, the auxiliary verb
precedes the subject as in a question.

Not only has the author presented some valuable new information, he has also
presented it in a very clear and coherent manner.

86
In no case do the authors provide any statistical information about their results.

Now look at this statement, first in normal word order and then inverted:

The concept of…was particularly prominent.

Particularly prominent was the concept of…

This kind of inversion is common in poetry. In academic English, it only occurs with
expressions that are emphatic or comparative (e.g. even more). This inversion is a
strong highlighting device and should only be used for special emphasis, as when we
want to single out a result, fault, problem or virtue from many others. Six typical
expressions follow:

Particularly important is …
Especially interesting is…
Much less expected is …
Rather more significant is…
Especially noteworthy is …
Of greater concern is…

 Qualifications and strength of claim: your response needs good judgement and
presentation. On the one hand, you need to be cautious and critical about the
information in the text you are responding to and, on the other hand, you need
the linguistic resources to express this caution. There are ways of qualifying
and moderating your claims or criticism:

 Probability: There are many ways of expressing probability. One simple way is to
use a modal auxiliary. Notice how the claim progressively weakens in these
sentences:

Sleeping 7-9 hours each day will result in better academic performance.
Sleeping 7-9 hours each day may result in better academic performance.
Sleeping 7-9 hours each day might / could result in better academic performance.

87
Stronger claim
It is certain that… Sleeping 7-9 hours each
It is almost certain that… day will result in better
It is very probable / highly academic performance.
likely that…

Weaker claim It is probable / likely Sleeping 7-9 hours each

that… day will result in better
It is possible that… academic performance.
It is unlikely that…
It is very / highly unlikely
that…

Stronger claim There is a definite Sleeping 7-9 hours each

possibility that… day will result in better
There is a strong academic performance.
possibility that…
There is a good possibility
that…

Weaker claim There is a slight possibility Sleeping 7-9 hours each

that… day will result in better
There is little possibility academic performance.
that…

 Distance: Distance is another way of removing yourself from a strong and

possibly unjustified claim. Compare the following.

Strong claim: The school has benefited from the recent technology upgrade.

Weaker claims: The school seems to have benefited from the recent technology
upgrade.

88
 The school appears to have benefited from the recent technology
upgrade.

It seems that the school has benefited from the recent technology
upgrade.

It has been said that the school seems to have benefited from the
recent technology upgrade.

An alternative strategy is to distance yourself from the data by showing in some way
that it is soft. Here are a few examples:

Based on the limited data available, …

In view of some experts, …
According to a preliminary study, …
Based on an informal survey, …

 Generalisation: One classic verb for qualifying or defending a generalisation is

the verb tend.

Children living in poverty have a history of learning problems.

Children living in poverty tend to have a history of learning problems.

Another way of defending a generalisation is to qualify the subject.

Many / A majority of / In most parts of the world children living in poverty have a
history of learning problems.

A third alternative is to add exceptions.

With the exception of / Apart from / Except for a small number of countries such as
Japan, Sweden and Thailand, student loan schemes are almost exclusively reserved
for higher education.

 Weaker verbs: Finally, claims can be reduced in strength by choosing a weaker

verb. Compare the following:

Unsound policies led to crisis in the education system.

Unsound policies contributed to crisis in the education system.

 Adverbs of frequency: Academic writers often use adverbs of frequency to limit

the strength of a claim. For example:

Children who watch TV at night behave aggressively at school.

89
Children who watch TV at night sometimes behave aggressively at school.

 Combined qualifications: Often, several types of qualifications are combined to

construct a defensible statement. Here is an example:

The use of computers prevents boredom in primary school children.

Now see what happens when the following qualifications are added:

Prevents → reduces (weaker verb)

Reduces → may reduce (adding probability)
+ in some circumstances (weakening the generalisation)
+ certain uses of computers (weakening the generalisation)
+ according to simulation studies (adding distance)

So now we have:

According to simulation studies, in some circumstances, certain uses of computers

may reduce boredom in primary school children.

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APPENDIX B

Guidelines for self-assessment, peer feedback and

teacher-student conferences

 Self-assessment, revision and editing checklist

Content and organisation: Summary section

 I stated main ideas clearly and accurately.

 I included relevant details.
 I did not add my own ideas or opinions.
 I organised this section logically.
 I incorporated the source text accurately into my own words.

Content and organisation: Response section

 I wrote a good evaluative comment agreeing or disagreeing with the author.

 I demonstrated full understanding of the text.
 I identified hidden assumptions.
 I assessed the evidence provided.
 I presented my own analysis clearly and justified my position convincingly.
 I organised this section logically.

Language use: Lexico-grammatical features

I demonstrated control of lexico-grammatical features using:

 A wide range of content-specific vocabulary.
 Appropriate connectors.
 Accurate grammatical structures.

Context: Purpose, audience and register

I wrote a text with contextual appropriateness demonstrating control of:

 Purpose
 Sense of audience
 Correct register

Mechanics

I checked errors in:

 Spelling, punctuation and capitalisation
 Format (paragraphing, word count)

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 Peer feedback form

Writer‟s questions:

1. What part of my summary response did you like best? What part did you dislike?
2. What did you learn from my summary response?
3. What do you want to know more about?
4. What does not make sense?
5. Can you tell what the main idea in the summary section is? Did I add my own
ideas to the summary section?
6. Are the details relevant? Is there any irrelevant part I should do away with?
7. Is there any relevant information I should add?
8. Did I incorporate the source text into my own words or did I use words from the
original?
9. Can you tell what my point of view is in the response section? Is the analysis
clear and justified?
10. Is my summary response logically organised?
11. Do I show control of lexico-grammatical features (vocabulary, connectors,
grammatical structures?
12. Do I show control of contextual features (purpose, sense of audience and
register)?
13. Are there errors in spelling, punctuation, capitalisation or format?
14. What suggestions would you make to improve this summary response?

Reader‟s answers:

1. I like/dislike the part where…

2. Your summary response taught me that…
3. I‟d like to know more about…
4. I think the part that doesn‟t make sense is…
5. The main idea is…
6. You should do away with…
7. You should add…
8. Some words you should change are…
9. Your point of view in the response section is that…
10. The organisation of your summary response is…
11. Some lexico-grammatical features you should pay attention to are…
12. Some contextual features you should pay attention to are…
13. Some aspects of mechanics you should pay attention to are…
14. To improve this summary response I‟d suggest…

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 Teacher-student conference form

1. The questions I would like to ask the instructor are:

a) ……………………………………………………….

b) ………………………………………………………

c) ………………………………………………………

2. I think the best part of my summary response is….

3. I think the weakest part of my summary response is…

4. According to the instructor‟s comments, the strengths and problems in this

summary response draft are as follows:

STRENGTHS PROBLEMS

a) ……………………………………………………….

b) ………………………………………………………

c) ………………………………………………………

5. Based on this feedback, here is my plan for revising this summary response (list
the specific steps you intend to take)

a) ……………………………………………………….

b) ………………………………………………………

c) ………………………………………………………

(Adapted from Reid, 1993 in Grabe and Kaplan, 1996)

93
Bibliography

Bailey, S. (2003) Academic writing: A practical guide for students. London: Nelson
Thornes.
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