Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TITLE
Managing
Cross-Functional Teams
CREDITS
This statement was approved for issuance as a Special thanks go to Randolf Holst, SMAC Manager,
Statement on Management Accounting by the Management Accounting Guidelines, for his continuing
Management Accounting Practices Committee and its oversight during the development of the Statement,
Subcommittee on SMA Promulgation. The Institute of and to the members of the focus group that provided
Management Accountants extends appreciation to the advice and counsel, including MAP Subcommittee
Society of Management Accountants of Canada (SMAC) members Dennis Daly and Richard Berk.
for its collaboration, and to Victor M. Rocine, CMC of
ChangeMASTERS, who drafted the manuscript.
Published by
Institute of Management Accountants Copyright © 1994 in the United States
10 Paragon Drive of America by Institute of Management
Montvale, NJ 07645-1760 Accountants
www.imanet.org All rights reserved
IMA Publication Number 94295 ISBN 0-86641-232-8
Statements on Management Accounting
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Exhibits
II. Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Exhibit 1: Task-Oriented Tools and Group
III. Defining Cross-Functional Teams . . . . . . .2 Process Techniques . . . . . . . . . .12
IV. Objectives of Cross-Functional Teams . . . .3 Exhibit 2: Stages of Team Development . . . .18
V. The Role of the Management Accountant .3
VI. Implementing Cross-Functional Team
Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Providing Top Management Championship
and Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Choosing and Defining the Right Project .4
Selecting the Appropriate Team Members .5
Supporting Development of a
Team Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Ensuring an Effective Team Start-Up . . . .8
VII. Task-Oriented Tools and Group Process
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Task-Oriented Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Group Process Techniques . . . . . . . . . .14
VIII. Dynamics of Cross-Functional Teams . . .16
Barriers to Effective Team Performance .16
Stages of Team Development . . . . . . . . .17
IX. Individual and Organizational Implications 21
The Individual Perspective . . . . . . . . . .21
The Organizational Perspective . . . . . . .22
Evaluating Team Performance . . . . . . . .24
X. Why Cross-Functional Teams Can Fail . . .25
XI. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Appendix: Cross-Functional Team Rating Form 27
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
“unfriendly” to the team concept or that have clear performance objectives. Teams are a
traditional bureaucratic cultures, systems, peo- powerful mechanism for making better use of
ple management processes, and practices. the organization’s employees.
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
● choosing and defining the right project; The following list suggests several criteria for
● selecting the appropriate team members; selecting projects for cross-functional teams.
● supporting development of a team charter; The more criteria a product, service, or process
● ensuring an effective team startup; and fits, the more it qualifies as a project with strong
● connecting organizational and team goals. potential for significant results. Good candidates
are products, services or processes that:
Providing Top Management Championship ● require more than one department’s functions,
and Support or organization’s participation to create
People are truly the organization’s most valuable improvements or change;
resource. Unless top management displays this ● are highly influential in the capture, retention,
fundamental belief, teams can expect no more or loss of customers;
than lip service. Any success will then be solely ● are central to the mission of the enterprise;
attributable to the team members’ perception of ● are vital to work done by others;
the value of the project, their own dedication, ● are the greatest time consumers (e.g., loan
and their self-empowerment to improve their applications, tax forms, financial reports); and
company. ● are sources of error, complexity, cost, or dissat-
isfaction (e.g., invoices, physical inventory).
Top management has to understand the commit-
ment required for developing a successful team Once the focus of the potential undertaking is
and a team system capability within the organi- identified, organizations should test the pro-
zation. They must be willing to allocate the nec- posed project against the following critical suc-
essary resources—personnel, money, autonomy cess factors for cross-functional teams:
and authority, training, process facilitation, legal, ● Are the proposed undertaking and its objective
computer, and information services, etc. They challenging, yet possible?
must also allocate adequate attention to the ● Is it compelling and is there a sense of
team process and allow for the time to solve urgency?
problems and try solutions. ● Is success clear, specific (discrete), and meas-
urable?
Choosing and Defining the Right Project ● Does it have broader organizational signifi-
It is management’s challenge to choose a project cance, such as helping to develop a new prod-
and an objective of substance, which directly uct, process, or organizational capability?
addresses a critical business issue. ● Is it based on existing organizational readi-
Fundamental questions for senior management ness and a willingness to change?
to address are: what is the strategic importance ● Is it achievable with available resources and
or driver for an initiative? Is a cross-functional authority?
team the best approach? What is the link ● Is it sufficiently compelling, important, chal-
between team and organizational objectives? To lenging, and exciting that top management is
what extent is top management prepared to del- prepared to accept some mistakes? (This will
egate authority and allocate resources for the infuse the team with sufficient commitment to
team to truly succeed? What is their commit- try new things, to go for a breakthrough, to try
ment to carrying out the team’s findings and rec- anything that might work.)
ommendations?
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
If the project cannot satisfy these critical suc- more likely than larger groups to successfully
cess factors, the organization should consider work through their individual, functional, and hier-
more conventional means of dealing with the archical differences toward a common plan and
issue. hold themselves jointly accountable for the
results. When teamwork values break down and
Selecting the Appropriate Team Members pressures to produce increase, larger groups
Members of cross-functional teams should be invariably come to rely on formal hierarchy, struc-
selected to provide diversity, balance, and com- ture, policies, and procedures. Beyond more chal-
plementary skills. A team embodying those qual- lenging social and group dynamics, large groups
ities will be more creative and productive. also face logistical issues, such as finding mutu-
Selecting the right mix of people involves weigh- ally agreeable meeting times and facilities.
ing at least three factors:
● technical or functional expertise, i.e., educa- Large teams (over ten) are advised to segment
tion, training, knowledge, experience, and per- their undertaking and break into several project
spectives; teams. Progress meetings with the larger group or
● problem-solving and decision-making skills, i.e., team can be held for coordination, briefings, major
the abilities to identify problems, develop decision points, and other common concerns.
opportunities, evaluate options, and decide
how to proceed; and Smaller groups or teams (i.e., four or fewer mem-
● interpersonal skills and compatibility, i.e., per- bers) also may have some disadvantages. These
sonal styles, temperament, communications, include limited input, too narrow a perspective,
process support and intervention skills, and insufficient creativity, and too few people to carry
facilitation. out assigned tasks in an optimal time.
Generally, the size of cross-functional teams Ideally, prospective team members should volun-
varies according to the scale and complexity of teer for team membership. Team commitment is
the undertaking. A large project team may greatest when employees seek out assignments
include several teams, in either a hierarchical or or are recruited to join teams. Autonomy to
open-systems structure.1 Effective teams may choose team assignments increases the likeli-
be as small as three individuals or as large as hood of members taking responsibility for work-
twenty. For teams that actually work together, five ing through conflicts, making confrontations pro-
to eight members is generally considered opti- ductive, and taking the necessary risks to make
mal, all other factors being equal. the team work.
Larger numbers of people have trouble interact- If teams deal with matters affecting front-line or
ing constructively as a group, much less agreeing field operations, representation from these
on specific actions that should be taken. areas, whether blue-collar or white-collar, is
Smaller groups (ten or fewer people) are far mandatory. Terms of labor union agreements and
personnel policies may present challenges of
1 For example, a single car model may have up to thirty to their own in the selection process; however,
forty cross-functional teams. A team responsible for a partic-
ularly complex item often has specialized lower-level support experienced front-line personnel bring valuable
groups. The thirty or forty teams and their support groups insights, and their involvement will break down
are integrated or coordinated by a total systems team or
product management team.
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management do not also believe that they are duct; (iii) review of the team charter; (iv) team
compelling. They are compelling when they must mission and vision statements; (v) project plan;
be accomplished within a limited timeframe. (vi) project notebook; (vii) training; (viii) good
meeting management; and (ix) effective commu-
Most organizations have many goals. To realize nications.
the benefits afforded by teams as an integrative
device capable of balancing and reconciling mul- Social bonding
tiple subgoals, organizations need to communi- Organizations often make a serious mistake early
cate the priority of strategic goals to teams and in a project’s life by devoting insufficient time to
give teams the authority and autonomy to building a cohesive team. Teams commonly
resolve conflicts and manage their progress engage in a task-oriented approach too quickly,
towards these goals over time. before team members have a chance to develop
a sufficiently high comfort level that encourages
To this end, the first task of the team should be trust and cooperation. It is reasonable to expect
to thoroughly review, discuss, refine, and adopt that if trust is not developed early in the project,
the charter, including amendments as may be teams will be less willing to engage in informal
necessary. For large undertakings, this task may communication (the key to high cooperation).
take several meetings, preliminary diagnostics, Team socialization and team building are required
and additional team members and resources. early in the project’s development to set the
The team should be encouraged to name itself stage for future project success.
and its project. This process allows the team to
distill its essence and promotes team owner- Rules of conduct
ship, signalling the transfer of the undertaking All groups develop rules of conduct. Effective
from executive management to the team. teams make them explicit early in the process.
The ground rules required relate to:
The team must be granted authority commensu- ● attendance—When and how often meetings
rate with its assigned task. The authority may lie will be held?
with the team or the team leader specifically. ● meeting protocol—How will meetings be run?
Even if senior management asks the team only (e.g., be prompt, no interruptions to take mes-
to do fact finding and make recommendations, it sages)
must clearly delineate the team’s decision- ● team protocol—How will members interact?
making authority. The success of a single team (e.g., everyone contributes)
undertaking and, even more so, the long-term ● team behavior—What type of behavior is
organizational potential of the team concept is acceptable? (e.g., comment on anything, no
dependent upon clearly defined authority. silent disbelief)
● analytical orientation and approach—How will
Ensuring an Effective Team Start-Up we carry out our task? (Teams should keep the
If the team charter plants the seeds of success, discussion at the “values” level to start. The
it is the team’s launch that will often decide first meeting is too soon to decide
whether the seeds will take root. The factors par- methodology.)
ticularly important in executing an effective team ● accountabilities—Who is accountable for what
start-up are: (i) social bonding; (ii) rules of con- and when? A sense of mutual responsibility is
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
required. All members must feel responsible Team mission and vision statements
for team outcomes. Thus, members will need The review of the team charter leads appropri-
to be clear on the outcomes for which they are ately to developing a team mission statement—
individually and jointly responsible. a clear, concise, statement of the team’s reason
● ethics—How will the team deal with confiden- for existing. The mission statement is the team’s
tiality or other ethical concerns? interpretation of its purpose, stated in the
● conflict (constructive confrontation)—How will team’s own language. It should help the team to
members deal with differences of view? continually focus on the issue it has undertaken
● decision procedures—How will decisions be and the intended outcome. The team’s mission
made? (e.g., “What does consensus mean?”) should obviously complement and be compatible
with the organization’s mission statement.
Review of the team charter
An important first task for the team is to review The team should also prepare a team vision and
and discuss the “draft” team charter as initially a set of project goals. The vision statement and
provided by senior management. All the basic ele- project goals answer the fundamental questions:
ments will be there, if management has planted What do we want to become? What do we stand
the seeds appropriately. Reviewing the charter, for? What do we want to achieve? How will we
getting comfortable with its implications, develop- measure our success? The team should not for-
ing a common understanding of the assigned mally try to prepare a team vision too early in the
task, exploring ambiguities and contradictions, process. The team vision belongs to the team,
and anticipating the time and work commitments not executive management; it represents genuine
implied by the charter are all important. “team ownership” of the assigned challenge.
Right at the start it is important to get it right. The function of the mission statement and team
The initial meeting will lay the team’s foundation vision is threefold: (i) they help the group devel-
and will set the tone and style for all that will fol- op as a team; (ii) they provide a basis for further
low. Reviewing the charter offers a constructive clarification or redefinition of the team’s goal
way to quickly develop team cohesion and under- with senior management; and (iii) they are a
standing. If management has provided less than basis for ongoing direction and control during
a complete charter or none at all, then the team team activities.
should complete it.
Project plan
The team should share the revised charter with The team should develop its own project plan,
senior management for its concurrence. Any which provides a disciplined framework for plan-
changes must be signed off by both parties. ning, deploying resources, and controlling the
Acceptance of the charter by the team and sen- team assignment. Its purpose is to help the
ior management represents the agreement and team achieve its mission. A project plan answers
commitment of both parties to undertake and the fundamental questions: How will we fulfill our
support the project. mission? How will we achieve our goals and
vision? Like the mission statement, the plan is a
tool to provide ongoing direction, assess
progress, and control team activities. The plan
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
includes key assumptions, critical events, or either because of fear of others’ reactions or
inputs that may affect the team’s success. The because of group dynamics. Assertiveness
plan also specifies resource requirements, mile- implies stating ideas clearly, without unneces-
stones (events or measures of progress), interre- sary jargon and without the intent of “winning”
lated tasks, and a method for periodically review- a point;
ing progress. The plan is the keystone of sound ● conflict management—Conflict is not always
team project management. an obstacle to team performance; it may fuel
the creativity necessary to complete the task.
Project notebook The value of cross-functional teams is embod-
Effective teams usually organize and maintain a ied in the differences members contribute to
project notebook. A notebook helps the team the team’s collective effort. These same differ-
stay organized, aids the team in reporting to ences also provide a platform for conflict.
executive management, and provides a corpo- Successful teams effectively integrate differ-
rate resource for other teams, work groups, and ences. Conflict resolution is accomplished by
individuals. Small projects may require only a few a combination of listening and assertiveness
pages of documentation. Large projects may skills in a collaborative atmosphere; and
require several binders. Notebooks usually ● advocacy and inquiry—Effective communica-
include project documentation such as: tion, particularly in groups, requires a balance
● team charter; of advocacy and inquiry. Advocacy involves
● team mission statement; telling and persuading others. Lack of advoca-
● project plan; cy is manifested by withholding (not saying
● schedules; much) or withdrawing (stepping back and
● instruments to gather data; watching) behavior. Positive inquiry includes
● meeting minutes or notes; asking questions, exploring others’ views, and
● correspondence; making reasoning explicit. In a less positive
● team outputs; and form, inquiry involves leading questions and
● working papers. making few direct statements.
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
are too infrequent, the team and project may ● Ending the meeting
lose momentum and direction. If too frequent, ✓ Establish and review the action list with
team morale and productivity may falter. responsibilities and deadlines.
✓ Set the date, place, and objectives for the
The following checklist offers suggestions for next meeting.
good meeting management. ✓ End on a positive note and on the agreed
● Before the meeting time.
✓ Determine meeting objectives.
✓ Decide if other than regular team members ● After the meeting
should be there. ✓ Prepare and distribute meeting minutes or
✓ Decide where and when meetings should notes.
be held. ✓ Follow up on action items.
✓ Send out an agenda or meeting objectives ✓ Check with members on progress and
ahead of time. issues before next meeting.
✓ Arrange for equipment. ✓ Plan carefully for the next meeting.
✓ Arrive early to set up the room and greet
team members. A technique used in some organizations to focus
group effort is to sum and post the total hourly
● Starting the meeting personnel costs of the team members before
✓ Begin on time. each meeting. This represents most of the direct
✓ Review and confirm meeting objectives. costs of the team getting together.
✓ Review action items from the previous
meeting. Effective communications
Effective communication is critical to teams,
● During the meeting both within the team and with the rest of the
✓ Structure the content and discussion in organization. Poor communication is a major bar-
stages (e.g., proposition, evidence, discus- rier to teamwork and innovative performance.
sion, conclusions, action). The team leader and executive management
✓ Keep the group focused. have the preeminent roles, but all team mem-
✓ Facilitate discussion and participation of all bers have a responsibility.
team members.
✓ Summarize major conclusions and all One example of poor communication is the fail-
decisions. ure to integrate effectively the lateral processes
✓ Use a flip chart as the team’s collective (teams) and vertical processes (functional activ-
note and think pad. ities). One does not replace the other. Functional
managers must be kept abreast of what is hap-
pening. Major breakdowns occur when the feed-
back loop is not operating. Team members
should keep their functional managers apprised
of the relevant team progress and particularly of
issues affecting the functional department.
Publicizing the team’s work to the rest of the
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
organization (e.g., through newsletters, staff VII. TASK-ORIENTED TOOLS AND GROUP
meetings, correspondence) allows others in the PROCESS TECHNIQUES
organization to contribute information, insights, Effective teams need to develop group competen-
and ideas to the team. It also provides a cies. Group competencies may be categorized into
periodic “reality check” for the team, promoting two clusters: (i) task-oriented tools, such as group
consistency with team and organization objec- data gathering, analysis, and problem solving, and
tives and minimizing the risk of groupthink. (ii) group process techniques, such as group deci-
sion making, team building, and team mainte-
Ensuring effective communications is an ongoing nance. The task-oriented tools focus on the tech-
process that affects all functional areas through- nical aspects of the team assignment. The group
out the project. Executive management should process techniques focus on the human aspects
encourage the communication of team success- and help the group work smoothly as a team.
es to the rest of the organization. Such commu-
nications serve to recognize team contributions Training in both task-oriented tools and process-
and create a positive and supportive team oriented techniques helps teams reach their full
environment. potential. Organizationally, a common training
approach and the development of group compe-
tencies create a degree of uniformity within and
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
between cross-functional teams. The most effec- Cause and effect (or “flshbone”) charts2
tive training is done in team sessions while work- Cause and effect charts allow teams
ing together on the team project. This to map out a list of factors that they
“just-in-time” approach trains teams when they think will affect a problem or desired
are ready to use the specific techniques and outcome. It is an effective tool for
tools. It is more relevant than mass training and studying processes and situations,
is geared to achieving measurable results. It guar- for deciding on an approach to data collection,
antees a return on the investment of training dol- for identifying root causes, and for planning. It
lars. Unless training is immediately put into prac- can also help a diverse team better see the big
tice, retention and use are practically nonexistent. picture.
As well, the training can evolve as the team and
project develop. Exhibit I lists some basic, more Pareto charts
advanced, and specialized task-oriented tools and Pareto charts identify and display the
group process techniques. 80-20 rule; that is, whenever several
factors contribute to some overall
Task-Oriented Tools effect, a few of those items account
The following is a preliminary introduction to some for the bulk of the effect. Pareto charts are use-
basic, task-oriented tools that teams use to ful throughout a project: early, to identify which
increase their performance: problem should be studied; later, to narrow down
● Checksheets; which causes of the problem to address first.
● Cause and effect charts; Since Pareto charts draw everyone’s attention to
● Pareto charts; the important factors where the payback is likely
● Run charts; to be greatest, they can be used to focus team
● Control charts; and effort and build consensus.
● Scatter diagrams.
Run charts (or time plots)
For further problem solving tools and explana- Run charts help teams to examine
tions, see Scholtes, 1988. data for trends or other patterns that
occur over time. A time plot shows
Data collection forms (checksheets) the data points plotted in time order with a line
A frequent barrier for cross-functional teams is connecting the points. The frequency of time can
formed by a lack of data. Indeed, the absence of be hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly—any peri-
data is a major reason problems go unsolved for od that is relevant to the subject under review.
so long. The need for data can occur at almost
any stage in the team process—selecting and Control charts
defining a problem, testing a hypothesis about U Teams use control charts to monitor
causes, or checking the effectiveness of a pro- a process and display its relative
posed solution. Data collection need not be L
stability to help in identifying spe-
expensive nor elaborate. For example, a simple, cial causes, and to assess the
well-designed form that can be filled with X’s or
tally marks (i.e., a checksheet) is often all that is 2 Also referred to as an Ishikawa diagram, after Kaoru
required. Ishikawa, who developed the technique as an effective means
of encouraging and focusing employee involvement in improv-
ing business processes.
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
effects of process control and improvement. Reaching consensus requires time, active partic-
They are similar to frequency charts, but they ipation of all members, skills in communication
also show the range of variation built into the (listening, conflict resolution, and discussion
system, the boundaries of which are marked by facilitation), open-mindedness, and creative think-
upper and lower statistical formulas from data ing. The chief advantage of reaching consensus
collected on the process.3 Control charts help to is that group commitment to the decision should
distinguish between variation inherent in a produce an increased likelihood of action.
process (variation from a “common cause”) and
variation arising from sources that come and go An optimal solution considers the needs of all
unpredictably (“special causes”). parties involved, of the organization, and the
problem and solution itself. Not every decision
Scatter diagrams needs the support of everyone. Every effort
A scatter diagram visually plots the should be made to reach consensus on primary
relationship between two variables, issues, such as the team’s mission, primary
such as two process characteris- goals, and major milestones (i.e., progress
tics. Whereas a dot plot allows a points, accomplishments, deliverables).
team to look at only one process
characteristic at a time, a scatter diagram allows Many disagreements are really about wording
teams to look at the relationship between two rather than substance. Agreeing as a group on
characteristics. the meaning of words can go a long way toward
helping achieve consensus. Some structured
Group Process Techniques group process techniques that are used by teams
Group effectiveness studies show that group to aid in reaching consensus are:
success is highly influenced by two group ● Brainstorming;
process factors—the generation of ideas and ● Multivoting;
the quality of decisions. For critical decisions, ● Nominal group techniques; and
team consensus is both the most effective and ● Decision grids.
most difficult form of decision making.
Other less structured, more relaxed methods are
Consensus is not necessarily unanimity, nor just as effective. Teams should be encouraged to
everyone being totally satisfied, nor a majority experiment and find their own styles.4
vote. Consensus is finding a proposal acceptable
enough that all members can support it. That is, Brainstorming
no member opposes it. Reaching consensus Brainstorming is a method to help a team create
involves exploring the needs and interests of all many ideas quickly. Brainstorming can be used
parties until a creative and unified team solution at various stages of team problem-solving to
emerges from the consideration of all positions. decide possible causes, to generate solutions,
or for other purposes. A successful brainstorm
lets people be as creative as possible and does
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
not restrict their ideas in any way. This freeform (at least one-third of the total number of
approach can generate excitement in the group, items);
equalize involvement, and often result in original ● have members silently record their preferred
solutions to problems. numbers (items) on separate sheets of paper;
● have the facilitator collect the ballots and
The general sequence of events in a brainstorm record and consolidate the results;
session is to: ● reduce the list by dropping those items with
● Review the topic, defining the subject of the the fewest votes. There are no fixed rules on
brainstorm. Often this is done best as a “why,” how many votes an item should have. Making
“how,” or “what” question: For example, What this decision is generally self-evident to the
are the possible ways to inform and train team; and
supervisors and hourly workers on all three ● repeat the procedure until the desired number
shifts? How can we get all the information we of items remains.
need regularly to complete these forms on
time?
● Give everyone a minute or two of silence to Nominal group technique (NGT)
think about the question. The nominal group technique is a more struc-
● Invite everyone to call out their ideas. The tured approach to generating a list of options
meeting facilitator should enforce the ground and narrowing it down than either brainstorming
rules (“No discussion! Next idea...”). or multivoting. It is called “nominal” because
● One team member should write down all ideas during the session the group does not engage in
on the flip-chart, pausing only to check the usual amount of interaction typical of a real
accuracy. team. Because of its relatively low level of inter-
action, NGT is an effective tool when all or some
Multivoting group members are new to each other. NGT is
Multivoting is a way to select the most important also good for highly controversial issues or when
or popular items from a list with limited discus- a team is stuck in disagreement.
sion and difficulty. This objective is accom-
plished through a series of votes, each cutting NGT has two parts—formalized brainstorming
the list in half; even a list of thirty to fifty items and making a preferred selection.
can be reduced to a workable number in four or ● formalized brainstorming:
five votes. Multivoting often follows a brainstorm- ✓ define the task as a question;
ing session to identify the few items worthy of ✓ write it down for all to see; discuss and clar-
immediate attention. ify until everyone understands;
✓ team members silently generate ideas by
The general sequence of events in multivoting is writing them down on a paper;
to: ✓ in plenary, prepare a list of ideas using brain-
● start with a list of items and number each storming;
item; ✓ clarify and discuss the ideas as required;
● combine similar items, but only if the group and
agrees. Renumber all items if necessary; ✓ consolidate the list (this becomes the ballot
● allow each member to vote for several items for part two of NGT).
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tension for team members. Organizations need and executive champions to create and support
to be sensitive to such discontinuities for team an environment for creative thinking.
participants.
Lack of commitment
Power struggles Team leaders should deal with lack of commit-
While role conflict often occurs horizontally (i.e., ment from members early in the life of the proj-
across units), conflict can also occur vertically, ect and attempt to change negative views imme-
because different authority levels are represent- diately. Insecurity is often a major reason for lack
ed on the team. Individuals who occupy powerful of commitment. Team leaders should try to
positions elsewhere may try to recreate that determine why insecurity exists and work on
influence in the group. Often such attempts to reducing team members’ fears.
impose ideas or to exert leadership over the
group are resisted, especially by others who hold Stages of Team Development
similar positions. There can be subtle attempts A team develops in stages, over time, before it
to undermine potentially productive ideas with becomes really productive. Some groups never
the implicit goal of winning the point rather than get past a certain stage. The most common
looking for what is best for the team. In addition, model of team development involves four
lower status individuals may be ignored, thus stages:
eliminating a potentially valuable resource. While ● Form—Initially people are concerned with what
some struggle for power is inevitable in a diverse other people are like, what the group will do
group, it should be managed in a way that mini- and what will be required and expected of
mizes potentially destructive consequences. them.
● Storm—After people settle in, their lack of
Groupthink experience with each others’ different styles
Groupthink refers to the tendency for a highly affects productivity and commitment. Needs
cohesive group, especially one working on spe- for recognition and influence create conflict.
cial projects, to develop a sense of detachment ● Norm—Because of the conflict, people evolve
and elitism. To maintain cohesion, the group cre- better ways to both deal with each other and
ates shared illusions of indispensability and una- achieve group goals. They develop mutually
nimity. There is a reluctance to examine different acceptable patterns of work and rules.
points of view, because these are seen as ● Perform—With the energy released from inter-
threats to the group’s existence. As a result, personal tensions and having identified ways
group members may censor their opinions, and to help each other, people address the work
the group proceeds to compromise the inherent issues at hand.
quality and morality of its decisions. Making
teams aware of the groupthink phenomenon may The role of the team leader and facilitator is to
help avoid this trap. help the team members get through the forming
and storming stages as quickly as possible so
Groupthink may also exist on a wider scale they can get down to work.
through entrenched organization philosophies,
further underlining the need for team leaders Providing an understanding of the stages a team
passes through can alleviate team members’-
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
General People are concerned with what other After people settle in their different ways
Description of people are like, what the group will do, of doing things. Productivity and commit-
Team Stage their role, what will be required and expect- ments are affected by their lack of experi-
ed of them. People see themselves as indi- ence in dealing with each others’ different
viduals. They begin to understand the styles. Needs for recognition and influence
group’s assigned task. The group is not a create conflict. Members disagree on the
team but a gathering of individuals brought team’s approach and resist collaborations.
together for a common purpose.
Team Members ● Moderately eager with high expectations ● Resistant to attempting different
Feelings ● Tentative and a bit shy toward team approaches
members ● Increased tension and disunity
● Some anxiety and skepticism about the ● Defensive and competitive
task ahead. ● Feeling incompetent and confused
● Testing situation & central figures ● Experiencing polarities of dependency
● Dependency on authority & hierarchy and counter dependence
● Need to find a place & establish oneself. ● Experiencing discrepancy between hopes
and reality
● Dissatisfied with dependency on authority
Team Concerns ● What is the group’s purpose? ● How will we resolve conflict around pur-
and Questions ● What methods and procedures will we pose and methods?
use? ● How will we deal with group problems?
● What will be acceptable behavior? ● How will we make decisions?
● Does group have the right members? ● How will leadership be decided?
● What will be expected of us?
● How will we be judged?
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
General Because of the conflict, people evolve Because of the conflict, people evolve bet-
Description of better ways to both deal with each other ter ways to both deal with each other and
Team Stage and achieve group goals. They develop achieve group goals. They develop mutual-
mutually acceptable patterns of work, ly acceptable patterns of work and rules.
roles and rules. Members accept individ- The team is now an effective, cohesive
uality of members. The job is getting unit where much productive work is being
done positively and effectively. done.
Team Concerns ● Will we be able to meet our mission? ● How will senior management respond to
and Questions ● Are we proceeding satisfactorily? our recommendations?
● How can we improve our team ● What will happen to the team upon com-
effectiveness? pletion?
● How can we continue to do good things
together?
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
Directive
● Redefine goals and expectations
● Provide vision
● Redefine roles & responsibilities
● Continue skill development (technical,
interpersonal & group)
● Attribute meaning
● Facilitate interdependence
concerns about progress. Exhibit 2 provides a ● trust, mutual respect, and open communica-
summary of the types of feelings and concerns tion decreases; and
common to each stage, suggested team learning ● the team, despite changes, is unable to break
activities, and team leader style and behavior for from its current frame of reference.
each stage of team development.
The transform stage is the other alternative avail-
There are two additional stages of development able to teams. It is the next higher level of learn-
that may follow the perform stage—conform and ing and performance. It is characterized by the
transform. Teams at the perform stage may func- following qualities:
tion well, producing outstanding results, but they ● a renewed sense of purpose is created;
will not do so on an ongoing basis unless they ● new goals are stated and group process skills
can make it to the transform stage. Team perfor- are increased;
mance lags during the conform stage, which ● team leadership is shared among all
takes place when: members;
● team members are less inspired by their vision ● the group develops enhanced appreciation and
and sense of purpose; respect for individual differences;
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
● team collaboration is the preferred approach to tional bureaucratic systems to adopt new work
achieving high performance; and forms, such as cross-functional teams.
● the team thrives on continuous learning.
The Individual Perspective
IX. INDIVIDUAL AND Individual employees want work that offers
O R G A N I Z AT I O N A L I M P L I C AT I O N S achievement and fulfillment. Achievement
Teams both reflect and affect the organizations means working and performing well. Fulfillment
of which they are a part. The language and inter- comes from work that provides a sense of mean-
action patterns of the organization’s structures, ing and authenticity. Individuals seek recognition
systems, and cultures shape its teams and for excellence and quality, but with freedom from
affect their effectiveness. The tension caused by constraints on initiative and creativity.
the contradictions of teamwork explains much of
the gap between ideal and actual team perfor- In teams, individuals want not only to be part of
mance. These contradictions exist: a winning team, they want more pleasure, free-
● within individuals, as members adjust to dom, and opportunity to participate. They expect
becoming team members, to be both individu- opportunities and support for the development
als and parts of a team, to having a functional of new competencies. They seek a sense of com-
and a team identity, and to being independent munity and an atmosphere of tolerance and
and dependent; openness, working cooperatively with different
● within teams, as members grapple with the kinds of people to achieve something larger than
paradoxical demands of the team task, includ- themselves.
ing the challenge of integrating different func-
tions, skills, and perspectives; and To provide individuals with the essential organi-
● within organizations, as firms shift from tradi- zational support for high performing teams, exec-
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
utive management must address five concerns the individual’s functional manager, by the
of a typical team member: (i) Will I receive orga- team leader, by peers on the team, or by the
nizational credit for my team contribution? (ii) whole team. Individuals deserve to receive
What will I learn or gain in terms of personal feedback on their performance. They
development from my team involvement? (iii) Will deserve to know in advance how their perfor-
my team involvement advance or hinder my mance will be assessed, by whom, and using
career? (iv) How will my team contribution be what criteria or expectations.
assessed and by whom? and (v) Will I have the v) Resources and support—The organization
required resources and support to fulfill my team must also provide the necessary and appro-
commitment? priate resources for the individual to con-
i) Organizational credit—The answer to this tribute to the team effort. This may mean
concern may evolve over time with the orga- reallocating responsibilities to enable the
nization’s experience with cross-functional individual to devote the necessary time and
teams. There are firms who do not evaluate attention to team tasks and meetings. It
an individual’s contribution to the team may mean training the individual in prepara-
effort or factor this element into the organi- tion for a team assignment (e.g., in interper-
zation’s merit system. If they want cross- sonal skills). It may require the functional
functional teams to work, firms are advised manager granting to the individual the
to provide a mechanism to do these things. authority to commit appropriate functional
ii) Personal development—Team involvement department or work unit resources to the
must meet individual needs, preferences, team effort.
and aspirations. Opportunity for personal
development and growth motivates employ- The Organizational Perspective
ees. Organizations should ensure that the For cross-functional teams to flourish, they must
selection of team members and their prelim- find a breathable organizational atmosphere. It
inary roles complements the individual’s is executive management’s role to address this
needs as well as those of the team and broader organizational and cultural requirement.
organization. The performance management This assumes that the executive management
system should recognize and reward individ- has an interest in cross-functional teams that
uals’ learning and accomplishments in extends beyond a one-time or occasional use
teams. and wants to build a long-term organizational
iii) Career advancement—The organization capability to manage and benefit from cross-
needs to show, through its promotion poli- functional teams. The concept of teamwork runs
cies and, more importantly, its promotion counter to the prevailing social and organization-
practices that team assignments lead to al culture of North America. North American cul-
advancement; that team involvement is part ture is deeply rooted in values of individuality,
of new, flexible, nonbureaucratic behavior independence, competition, and individual
essential to the organization’s future suc- accomplishment. Business culture, in particular,
cess; and that there is a hierarchy of more is premised on the beliefs and values that:
challenging and exciting team assignments. ● competition produces better effort and
iv) Individual assessment—Individual team outcomes;
member performance can be evaluated by
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
● resources need tight control to be efficiently team project and through negotiation with the
utilized; team on its team charter.
● individual accountability is essential to perfor- ● change functional managers from controllers to
mance; and suppliers—Too frequently the functional man-
● selection, evaluation, and reward are best ager acts as the controller of resources.
done on an individual basis. Today’s business challenges require the inte-
gration of diverse knowledge and expertise
These fundamental beliefs find organizational and the cooperation of everyone with the req-
expression in bureaucratic structures and prac- uisite elements of knowledge. Cross-functional
tices; systems of functional responsibility, indi- team success requires that the functional
vidual accountability, appraisals and rewards; manager surrender authority for resource allo-
and policies of quality and cost control. All these cation to the team. The functional manager’s
values, beliefs, systems, practices, and the orga- role requires clarification and a shift to that of
nizational imperatives of bureaucratic structures enabler and supplier of services.
and power relationships are at odds with the new ● provide appropriate external resources and sup-
demands of cooperation, information-sharing, port for the team—Cross-functional team proj-
and joint decision-making inherent in ects usually require external resources, such
high-performing cross-functional teams. as training, process facilitation, and legal,
computer, and information services. It is criti-
For a typical functional manager, the very exis- cally important that senior management pro-
tence of cross-functional teams implies compro- vide the organizational resources and support
mises with existing organizational arrangements. required for an innovative team to function
Personal and organizational imperatives associ- effectively. The team leader needs to tell man-
ated with the status quo naturally conflict with agement at the onset of the development pro-
cross-functional teams. Compounding this is the gram what resources, help, and support are
stress experienced by the team and the individu- needed. The leader’s relationship with senior
als within it. management should be carefully cultivated via
involvement, planning, and regular communica-
The following serves as a summary of strategies tions as it critically affects the project leader’s
and tactics that organizations can use to support credibility, visibility, and priority.
high-performing cross-functional teams. ● allow time away from regular duties—Assuring
Organizations should: time away from regular duties for team meet-
● encourage executives to be champions of the ings and assignments is a key resource issue.
team concept—Executives are models of orga- Depending on the scope of the projects, total
nizational values in their own behavior and in teamwork may require 100 to 200 hours of
how they recognize and reward employee prac- work over a three-to-twelve month period.
tices. How well executives consistently Given the hectic pace of most work environ-
express team-friendly values through their ments, this time must be built into the sched-
behavior can greatly influence team success. ules of team members and their functional
● ensure management-team alignment of pur- departments. These adjustments must be
pose and expectations—This objective can be supported and encouraged by management.
achieved by the appropriate selection of the
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
24
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
informal agenda of every meeting by simply ask- ● Failure to deal with intense pressures and
ing, “How are we doing?” The team leader can conflicts:
periodically place the issue on the formal agen- ✓ underestimating task difficulty;
da. The review should consider both the task ✓ not allowing for a learning curve to develop
side and process side of team effectiveness. The within the team; and
“Cross-Functional Team Rating Form,” in ✓ pressure for immediate results;
Appendix A, provides a possible structure for rat-
ing team performance on the process side. ● Failure to deal with problems and issues:
✓ not knowing that serious problems exist;
X. WHY CROSS-FUNCTIONAL ✓ not admitting that problems exist; and
T E A M S C A N FA I L ✓ not seeking expert help in solving major
Cross-functional teams can fail for many rea- problems;
sons. Among them are:
● Failure to establish clear project objectives: ● Failure to develop a feedback system:
✓ poor goal or issue definition at project kick- ✓ not providing feedback to team members;
off; ✓ lack of senior management feedback and
✓ not defining goals and roles of functional control; and
departments; and ✓ not using the experience of other teams that
✓ underestimating project complexity; have faced similar experiences;
● Failure to control costs, schedules, and ● Inadequately trained team leaders and team
resources: members:
✓ not anticipating issues that can derail proj- ✓ lack of training in team development skills;
ects; and and
✓ not monitoring project process; ✓ inadequate team leadership and team mem-
bership skills;
● Ineffective communication networks between
the team and the external world: ● Other issues:
✓ not establishing, using, and updating com- ✓ underestimating project completion time;
munication networks; ✓ not providing adequate resources;
✓ not maintaining the interest and commit- ✓ senior management’s failure to support and
ment of senior management; and empower the team;
✓ failure to share important “earnings”; ✓ not assessing the team’s strengths and
weaknesses;
● Lack of coordination within the team: ✓ lack of planning and control; and
✓ not clearly defining team member roles and ✓ not investing enough time in high-payoff
responsibilities; activities, such as status review meetings.
✓ not integrating the efforts of individual con-
tributors; and
✓ not anticipating team problems and develop-
ing contingency plans;
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
26
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
A P P E N D I X A : C R O S S - F U N C T I O N A L T E A M R AT I N G F O R M 5
Empowerment
5. Members feel a personal and collective sense of power. ______
6. Members have access to necessary skills and resources. ______
7. Organizational policies and practices support team objectives. ______
8. Mutual respect and willingness to help each other is evident. ______
Sub-total (out of potential of 20) ______
Flexibility
13. Members perform different roles and functions as needed. ______
14. Members share responsibility for team leadership and team development. ______
15. Members are adaptable to changing demands and requirements. ______
16. Various ideas and approaches are explored. ______
Sub-total (out of potential of 20) ______
5 Source: Adapted from Kenneth Blanchard. Donald Carew, and Eunice Parisi-Carew, 1990, 22-23.
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
Criteria Rating
Optimal Productivity and Accountability
17. There is individual and mutual accountability. ______
18. There are collective work-products. ______
19. Team measures performance by assessing its collective work-products. ______
20. Team discusses, decides, and does real work together. ______
21. Team output is high. ______
22. Quality is excellent. ______
23. Decision-making is effective. ______
24. Clear problem-solving process is apparent. ______
Sub-total (out of potential of 40) ______
Morale
29. Individuals feel good about their membership on the team. ______
30. Individuals are confident and motivated. ______
31. Members have a sense of pride and satisfaction about their work. ______
32. There is a strong sense of cohesion and team spirit. ______
Sub-total (out of potential of 20) ______
General Assessment
Grand Total (out of potential of 160) ______
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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES & ETHICS
29