Writing Arguments: Key Learning Objective

Teacher
Notes
Writing Arguments

Key Learning Objective
The student will be able to write an effective argument with a claim supported by strong reasons and
evidence.

English Language Arts Standards
W 1. Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts, using valid
reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.
a. Introduce precise, knowledgeable claim(s), establish the significance of the claim(s), distinguish
the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and create an organization that logically sequences
claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence.
b. Develop claim(s) and counterclaims fairly and thoroughly, supplying the most relevant evidence
for each while pointing out the strengths and limitations of both in a manner that anticipates the
audience’s knowledge level, concerns, values, and possible biases.
c. Use words, phrases, and clauses as well as varied syntax to link the major sections of the text,
create cohesion, and clarify the relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and
evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims.
d. Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone while attending to the norms and
conventions of the discipline in which they are writing.
e. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the argument
presented.

W 10. Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and
shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of tasks, purposes, and audiences.

Collection Menu
• Introduction: Argument
• What Is a Claim?
• Support: Reasons and Evidence
• Building Effective Support
• Creating a Coherent Argument
• Persuasive Techniques
• Formal Style
• Concluding Your Argument

How to Use This Collection
This collection is meant to be completed individually by students. However, you may want to introduce
or practice certain concepts in a whole-‐class setting—particularly those concepts that may be
challenging for emerging writers and English language learners. To adapt the collection for whole-‐class
learning, project it onto a screen or whiteboard and guide students through the lessons. See the notes
associated with each lesson for differentiation strategies and additional instruction.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. 1

Students viewing these lessons on a tablet should be aware that the lessons are meant to be viewed in
landscape rather than portrait mode. When viewed in portrait mode, some of the content will be cut
off, which may not always be apparent at first glance.

Note that student work in these digital lessons will be saved when students exit the session; they will
find their completed work when they return to any given lesson. However, it is also possible to print the
contents of any browser window. There may be cases where you find it worthwhile to ask students to
print out their work, especially for screens where they have had the opportunity to practice writing their
own sentences or paragraphs.

Introduction: Argument

Learning Objective:
• identify the characteristics of a strong argument

W 1

Before students begin working individually on the Writing Arguments collection, work as a class through
the first two screens. Doing so will allow you to engage students’ interest and provide any needed
background information or clarification of ideas or concepts. It will also help you identify students who
might need extra help as they work through the lessons.

Have students complete this lesson on their own, reading the model argument, considering the
annotations, and answering the questions. Tell them to come to class prepared to talk about the
qualities of the argument they have read. Then, with the whole class, reread the model and review the
annotations and questions alongside it. Have students discuss the answers they chose as they worked
alone and talk about why they chose the answers they did.

Explain that as students work through the rest of the Writing Arguments collection individually, they will
learn more about each of these concepts and will be given multiple opportunities to practice the
techniques they will need to write a strong argument. If students in your class already know some of the
content in this course, you can assign only the specific lessons they need.

Differentiation
English Language Support Before students begin this lesson, explain that argument is a multiple-‐
meaning word. English learners will likely be familiar with the term argument as it is most commonly
used: to describe a verbal disagreement. It can also refer to a formal piece of speaking or writing that
expresses a position on a problem and supports it with reasons and evidence. A written or spoken
argument often takes into account other points of view, anticipating and answering objections that
opponents might raise.


What Is a Claim?

Learning Objective:
• identify the characteristics of an effective claim

W 1a

Differentiation
English Language Support Clarify the distinction between the terms opposing claim and counterclaim.
Explain that counterclaim is a compound word formed with the prefix counter-‐, which means “contrary”
or “opposite.” Opposing claim and counterclaim essentially have the same meaning, but in analysis of
arguments, opposing claim usually refers to an objection that the writer anticipates from opponents,
and counterclaim refers to the writer’s refutation of that objection. In a strong argument, an opposing
claim should always be accompanied by a counterclaim that explains why the writer’s claim is more
valid.

Suggestion for Whole-‐Class Instruction
Although students are instructed to state their claim in the introduction, they are probably familiar with
good arguments that do not follow this rule. You might wish to point out that writers sometimes find it
more effective to state the claim later in an argument. For example, in arguments organized by
deductive reasoning, a conclusion is reached by applying a general principle or premise to a specific
situation. A writer might start an argument with the general principle that schools have a responsibility
to help maintain the health of their students. The writer might apply this principle to the problem of
whether to permit soda machines in schools, and then conclude that the health impact of those soda
machines outweighs the money a school might earn from them. Ask students why in such an argument
it might be more effective to state the claim after the general principle has been applied to the specific
situation. (Because readers won’t know the author’s position at the beginning of the argument, this
approach could encourage them to carefully follow how the writer deduces it from the general principle.)

Lesson Wrap-‐up
Have students exchange the claims they wrote in screen 3 with a partner. Each partner should review
the other’s claim to make sure that the language is precise and that the claim is focused on a single
assertion.

SEE ALSO GIVING A PRESENTATION: THE CONTENT OF YOUR PRESENTATION

Support: Reasons and Evidence

Learning Objectives:
• identify logical reasons and relevant evidence
• generate reasons and evidence to support a claim

W 1b


Differentiation
English Language Support Before assigning this lesson, point out to English learners that definitions
have been provided for many of the unfamiliar terms they will encounter. As they work through the
lesson, encourage students to use a thesaurus to look up synonyms for each of the following terms.
Then have students write each term, the meaning given for it in the lesson, and its synonym on a
notecard to use as a reference. You may extend the activity by having students also write a sentence
using each term.
support statistics logical
reasons examples relevant
evidence quotations sufficient
facts anecdotes

Verify that students understand the different types of evidence by providing these additional examples.
Have students identify each type of evidence:
CLAIM: All communities should have dedicated bicycle lanes.
REASON: Dedicated bicycle lanes will make biking safer for cyclists and bring benefits to the
community.
EVIDENCE:
• "The thing we really like about protected bike lanes is they really get the people who are
interested in cycling but are concerned about their safety," says Rebecca Serna, executive director
of the Atlanta Bicycle Coalition (quotation)
• Recent studies show that dedicated bike lanes reduce the risk of injury by 50% relative to similar
streets without bike lanes. (statistic)
• Cities are increasingly adding bike lanes to their existing roads. (fact)
• A lack of bike lanes here means I often take the bus instead of riding my bike to school; it doesn’t
feel safe to ride in heavy traffic. (anecdote)
• The city of Chicago, for instance, has made protected bike lanes into an integral part of a larger
economic development plan. (example)

Lesson Wrap-‐up
Have students identify two reasons to support the claim they wrote in the What Is a Claim? lesson and
one piece of evidence for each reason. Have them share their work with a partner before handing it in
to you for formative assessment. Based on their work, you may wish to review the lesson with students
who need help, targeting key screens.


Building Effective Support

• identify logical reasons to support claim
• evaluate evidence used to support reasons

W 1b

Differentiation
When Students Struggle If students have difficulty identifying the flawed logic in the examples on
screens 4 and 5, project the lesson onto a whiteboard and underline or highlight the parts of the
statements where the logical errors appear. For example, in this example, the underlined part of the
sentence contains the reason that restates the claim: “Students in U.S. schools should be required to
study a foreign language starting in kindergarten because everyone should learn a foreign language.

Discuss with students why writers should take their audience into account when choosing evidence to
support a claim. Ask why an argument in a medical journal might rely mostly on statistics to support a
claim about the spread of a disease. (Scientists and doctors usually value statistics more than other types
of evidence.) Ask why it would probably be more effective to include other types of evidence, such as
anecdotes and quotations from experts, in a news article about the disease. (Such evidence would make
the argument more engaging and accessible for the general public.)

Lesson Wrap-‐up
Have each student bring to class an example of a logical fallacy from an argument, such as a newspaper
editorial or a political speech. Students should identify the type of fallacy and discuss how it undermines
the argument in which it appears.


Creating a Coherent Argument

• choose an effective organization for an argument
• use word choice and syntax to improve coherence

W 1a, W 1c

Differentiation
English Language Support Transitional words and phrases are important for enhancing the coherence
of an argument. Review the following categories of transitions with English language learners. Compare-‐
and-‐contrast words and phrases show similarities and differences (similarly, likewise, also, however, by
contrast, yet, instead, while). Cause-‐and-‐effect words and phrases show how one action or event
directly results in another (since, because, thus, therefore, so, due to, for this reason, as a result).

Remind students that when they organize arguments, they need to consider where they will address
opposing claims. Writers often wait until near the end of an argument, just before the conclusion, to
refute opposing claims. This approach treats the counterclaim as a final step in the effort to convince
readers. Ask students why it might be more effective to address opposing claims earlier in some

arguments. (Addressing them earlier would be more effective when the opposing claims are closely tied
to specific reasons that the writer uses for support.)

Lesson Wrap-‐up
Have students write a three-‐paragraph argument using the claims, reasons, and evidence they
developed in the previous two lessons. Tell them to hold off on writing a conclusion at this time. Before
writing the argument, students should create an outline indicating how the argument will be organized.


Persuasive Techniques

Learning Objective:
• use persuasive techniques effectively and appropriately to sway readers

W 1

Differentiation
English Language Support Remind students that a word’s denotation is its meaning; its connotation is
the word’s emotional association. Loaded language has particularly strong connotations. Review the
following word pairs with students and discuss the differences in their connotations:
authority/command; distasteful/repugnant; win/conquest; determined/pigheaded; experienced/veteran;
unclear/muddled.

Point out to students that although persuasive techniques can be misused, they are an important means
of influencing readers’ responses to an argument. It is possible to create an argument without using
persuasive techniques, but such writing may have limited impact. For example, ask students how an
argument encouraging people to buy organic meat might be limited if it contained no emotional or
ethical appeals. (Readers who accepted the claim would be less likely to change their buying habits
without appeals to their emotions and ethics.)

Lesson Wrap-‐up
Have students exchange the arguments they wrote in the Creating a Coherent Argument lesson with a
partner. Students should highlight examples of persuasive techniques in their partner’s writing and
evaluate whether they are used appropriately.

Formal Style

Learning Objective:
• establish and maintain a formal style and an objective tone in an argument


W 1d

Differentiation
To Challenge Students Have students work in small groups to compare and contrast a recently
published example of a formal argument with an example that was written in an earlier period. Students
should discuss which elements of formal writing have changed over time and which elements remain
consistent.

Explain that the rules of formal writing are not always hard and fast. The best way for students to learn
the nuances of formal writing is to pay attention to the word choices of writers they admire. For
example, the occasional use of contractions can help create a conversational tone in persuasive writing,
which may be more effective than a strictly formal tone. In some types of arguments, such as a
persuasive letter, it is appropriate to address the reader as “you.” And although slang should generally
be avoided, some slang words and phrases gradually become accepted into the English language, and it
may be fine to use them in an argument. Ask students for examples of such words. (blog, web surfing,
texting)

Lesson Wrap-‐up
Have students exchange the arguments they wrote in the Creating a Coherent Argument lesson with a
partner. Ask students to identify any informal language in the argument and suggest ways to revise it.

SEE ALSO GIVING A PRESENTATION: STYLE IN PRESENTATION

Concluding Your Argument

Learning Objective:
• create a conclusion that follows from and supports the argument presented

W 1e

Differentiation
English Language Support Provide students with sentence frames such as the following to help them
structure their conclusions:
• My topic is ________.
• To restate my position, _________.
• The issue can be resolved by _________.
• I hope that my readers will __________.

Point out to students that a conclusion should be more than just a summary of an argument. One way to
add interest to a conclusion is to extend the argument in a logical way. For example, in an editorial that
proposes a solution to a problem, the writer might end with a call to action. If the argument is a critical

analysis of a poem, the conclusion might suggest how the claim also applies to other poems written in
the same era. Ask students why it helps to use different language when restating a claim in the
conclusion. (Repeating the exact same language would make the conclusion sound monotonous.)

Lesson Wrap-‐up
Have students write a conclusion to the argument they wrote in the Creating a Coherent Argument
lesson. Students should make sure that their conclusion logically follows up on the main ideas of the
argument, restates the claim and its significance, and ties up any loose ends.


Assessment
To assess what students have learned in the Writing Arguments collection, assign this prompt in
myWriteSmart. A rubric that can be used for self-‐, peer-‐, or teacher assessment can be found on the
eBook menu page and within myWriteSmart.

Prompt:
In many countries, 18-‐year-‐olds do not go directly from high school to college or the
workplace but are instead required to spend a certain amount of time in their
country's military. Write an essay in which you argue for or against such a policy.
Offer specific reasons and examples to support your position and to address the
opposing position.


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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. 1

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. 2

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. 3

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. 4

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. 5

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. 6

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. 7

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. 8

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. 9

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