Attenuation (α)

Attenuation (α)
Reflection of
waves
 Reflection of
waves

Reflection • Defined as the ratio of the electric

field intensity of the reflected waves
Coefficient (ρ) to that of the incident waves

ρ= Eref / Einc

ρ= 1 for perfect reflector

ρ< 1 for practical conducting surfaces
Refraction of
waves
 Refraction of
waves
Note: If medium A is less dense than B, the refracted wave
move towards the normal; if the medium B is less dense than
A, the refracted wave moves away from the normal

Snell’s Law
Diffraction of
waves
 Diffraction of
waves

Francisco
Grimaldi’s Huygens’ Principle
Discovery
• No matter how • Every point on a
small was made given spherical
in an opaque wavefront may be
plane, light on the regarded as a
side opposite the source of waves
source would from which
spread out in all further waves are
directions radiated outward
 Absorption
--Source of energy of the electromagnetic waves are transferred to
the atoms and molecules of space
--If humidity is increased or if there is for, rain, or snow, then
absorption is greatly increased.
 Interference
--Occurs when two waves combine in such a way that the system
performance was degraded (collision)
--This happens very often in high-frequency sky-wave propagation
and microwave space-wave propagation
Atmospheric
Layer
 Ground Waves/ Surface
Waves Propagation

Travel around the curvature of the earth, sometimes right around

the globe
Utilizes frequencies below HF range, and losses with increasing
frequency
Progress along the surface of the earth and must be vertically
polarized to prevent short circuiting the electric component.
Wave induces current to the ground; some of its energy is lost due
to absorption.
As one moves away from the transmitter, the ground wave
eventually disappear due to tilting
Ground Waves/ Surface
Waves Propagation

Field Strength at a distance

E= 120πIht / λd

Voltage at the Receiving Antenna

V= Ehr= 120πIhrht / λd

Where:
120π = characteristic impedance of free
space
ht = height of the transmitting antenna
hr = height of the receiving antenna
I = antenna current
d = distance from the transmitting antenna
λ = wavelength
 Space Waves/
Tropospheric Propagation

Travel in the troposphere; the portion of the atmosphere closest to

the ground.
Depend mostly on line-of-sight conditions, a space wave is limited
in propagation by the curvature of the earth.
Utilizes frequencies above HF range
Energy travelling directly between the antennas is attenuated to
about the same degrees as in free space.
Caused by the varying density of the atmosphere due to
diffraction around the curvature of the earth
 Space Waves/
Tropospheric Propagation
 Sky Waves/ Ionospheric
Propagation

The wave strikes the ionosphere and is refracted back to the

ground.
Utilizes frequencies in the HF range and sometimes frequencies
just above or below it.
Ionosphere is a region in the earth’s atmosphere where the air
pressure is so low that the free electrons and ions can move about
for some time without getting close enough to recombine into
neutral atoms. It absorbs large qualities of radiant energy from the
sun, becoming heated and ionized. Ionization is the result of the
bombardment of the sun’s rays by a variety of wave from heat and
light to cosmic rays. Most important ionizing agents are ultraviolet,
alpha, beta and gamma rays coming from the sun, cosmic rays and
meteors.
Sky Waves/ Ionospheric
Propagation
Sky Waves/ Ionospheric
Propagation
Ionospheric
Layers
 D-Layer
The lowest, existing at an average height
of 70 km, with an average thickness of 10 km
Least important layer in HF propagation
Reflects some VLF and LF waves and
absorbs MF and HF waves to a certain
extent
 E-Layer
Existing at about 100km in height, with
thickness of 25km
Disappears at night.
Aid MF surface propagation a little and
reflects some HF waves in daytime
This layer is also known as KENELLY-
HEAVISIDE LAYER
 Es Layer/
Sporadic

Thin layer of very high ionization density,

sometimes making an appearance with the E
layer.
When it occurs, it often persists during the
night.
 F-Layer
• Exist at a height of 180km in daytime and

F1 layer
combines with the F2 layer at night. Its
daytime thickness is about 20km
• Main Effect is to provide more absorption
for HF waves

• The most important reflecting medium for HF

radio waves.

F2 layer • Approximate thickness is 200km and its height

ranges from 250 to 400km in daytime.
• At night, it falls to a height of about 300km,
where it combines with the F1 layer
Virtual Height of an
Ionospheric Layer
Critical Frequency
(fc)
Critical Angle (θc)
Maximum Usable
Frequency (MUF)
Optimum Working
Frequency (OWF)
Skip Distance &
Skip Zone
Fading
Fading