Radiation and

Propagation of Waves

ASTILLO, GLAIZA GLENN T.

CADOTDOT, JEVER DAVE L.
TANDOG, MARY LOUIS O.
Wave
 Wave is a mode of transfer of energy

 Transverse waves
 Longitudinal waves
Transverse Waves
 Transverse waves are those whose direction
of propagation is perpendicular to both the
electrical field and the magnetic field The
electrical field and the magnetic fields lie in
planes that are perpendicular to each other.
(x and y planes)
 Thus the direction of propagation will be in
the z plane or third dimension
Electromagnetic Waves
 Consist of
 Magnetic wave
 Electrical wave
 Most of the energy is returned to the circuit.
 If it isn’t, then some it must be “set free” or
radiated. Radiated energy is not desirable.
 But if such power is “escaped on purpose”
then it is said to be radiated
Wave Propagation Example
electric
field
propagation direction

magnetic
field
Radio-frequency Interference
 If the radiated energy comes from another
radio transmitter, then it is considered radio-
frequency interference (RFI)
 The transmitting antenna should be
specifically designed to prevent the energy
from being returned to the circuit.
 It is desirable that the antenna “free” the
energy in order that it might radiate into
space
Electromagnetic Interference
 If the energy comes from else where,
then it is electromagnetic interference
(EMI)
Wavefronts
 A wavefront is a plane joining all points
of equal phase in a wave
 Take a point in space. Imagine waves
radiating outward in all directions from
this point. The result would resemble a
sphere. The point of radiation is called
the isotropic point source
Reflection
 Reflection is the abrupt reversal in
direction
 Caused by any conductive medium such
as
 Metal surfaces or
 Earth’s surface

 There will normally be a shift in phase

 Coefficient of reflection is less than 1
Complete Reflection
 Complete reflection will occur only in
perfect conductors and when the
electric field is perpendicular to the
reflecting element or medium
 Coefficient of Reflection will be 1
 Coefficient of Reflection is the ratio of
the reflected wave intensity to the
incident wave intensity
Refraction
 Occurs when the waves pass from one
medium to another whose densities are
different
 Coefficient of reflection is less than 1
 The angle of incidence and the angle of
refraction is related by Snell’s Law
Refraction Sub-Refraction

Refraction (straight line)

Normal
Refraction

Earth

 Refraction (or bending) of signals is due to temperature, pressure,

and water vapor content in the atmosphere.
 Amount of refractivity depends on the height above ground.
 Refractivity is usually largest at low elevations.
 The refractivity gradient (k-factor) usually causes microwave signals
to curve slightly downward toward the earth, making the radio
horizon father away than the visual horizon.
 This can increase the microwave path by about 15%,
Diffraction
 Waves traveling in straight lines bend around
obstacles
 Based on Huygen’s principle (1690)
 Each point on a wavefront can be thought of as an
isotropic point or a source of secondary spherical
energy
 Concepts explains why radio waves can be
heard behind tall mountains or buildings that
are normally considered to block line of sight
transmissions
Attenuation and Obstructions
• Shorter the wavelength (higher frequency) of the wireless
signal, the more the signal it is attenuated.

Same wavelength
(frequency), less
amplitude.

 Longer the wavelength (lower frequency) of the

wireless signal, the less the signal is attenuated.
Propagation…..
Ground-Wave Propagation

The curved surface of the Earth horizon can diffract long-wavelength

(low frequency) radio waves. The waves can follow the curvature of the
Earth for as much as several hundred miles.

T3-16
Ground-Wave Propagation
 Results from a radio wave diffraction along the
Earth’s surface.
 Primarily affects longer wavelength radio waves that
have vertical polarization (electric field is oriented
vertically).
 Most noticeable on AM broadcast band and the 160
meter and 80 meter amateur bands.
 Communication distances often extend to 120 miles
or more.
 Most useful during the day at 1.8 MHz and 3.5 MHz
when the D-Region absorption makes sky-wave
propagation impossible.
T3-17
Sky-wave Propagation
 Ionization levels in the Earth’s
ionosphere can refract (bend) radio
waves to return to the surface.
 Ions in the Earth’s upper atmosphere are
formed when ultraviolet (UV) radiation and
other radiation from the sun knocks
electrons from gas atoms.
 The ionization regions in the Earth’s
ionosphere is affected the sunspots on the
sun’s surface T3-18
FIGURE 12-9 Sky-wave propagation.

Gary M. Miller, Jeffrey S. Beasley Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Modern Electronic Communication, 7e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Sky Wave Propagation

T3-20
 Radio waves radiated from the transmitting
antenna in a direction toward the ionosphere
 Long distance transmissions
 Sky wave strike the ionosphere, is refracted
back to ground, strike the ground, reflected
back toward the ionosphere, etc until it
reaches the receiving antenna
 Skipping is the refraction and reflection of sky
waves
Ionosphere
 The layers that form the ionosphere vary
greatly in altitude, density, and thickness with
the varying degrees of solar activity.
 The upper portion of the F layer is most
affected by sunspots or solar disturbances
 There is a greater concentration of solar
radiation during peak sunspot activity.
 The greater radiation activity the more dense
the F layer and the higher the F layer
becomes and the greater the skip distance
FIGURE 12-11 Relationship of frequency to refraction by the ionosphere.

Gary M. Miller, Jeffrey S. Beasley Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Modern Electronic Communication, 7e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
FIGURE 12-12 Relationship of frequency to critical angle.

Gary M. Miller, Jeffrey S. Beasley Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Modern Electronic Communication, 7e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Space Wave
 Two types
 Direct
 Ground reflected
Direct
 Limited to “line-of sight” transmission
distances
 Antenna height and curvature of earth
are limiting factors
 Radio horizon is about 80% greater
than line of sight because of diffraction
effects
FIGURE 12-7 Radio horizon for direct space waves.

Gary M. Miller, Jeffrey S. Beasley Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Modern Electronic Communication, 7e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Reflected
 Part of the signal from the transmitter is
bounced off the ground and reflected
back to the receiving antenna
 Can cause problems if the phase
between the direct wave and the
reflected wave are not in phase
 Detuning the antenna so that the
reflected wave is too weak to receive
Tropospheric scattering
 Tropospheric Scattering
 Signals are aimed at the troposphere
rather than the ionosphere
 350 Mhz to 10GHz for paths up to 400 mi

 Received signal = 10-6 th of the

transmitted power
 Fading a problem
Line-Of-Sight Propagation
 Radio signals travel in a straight line
from a transmitting antenna to the
receiving antenna.
 Provides VHF/UHF communications
within a 100 miles or so.
 Signals can be reflected by buildings,
hills, airplanes, etc.

T3-30
Radio Path Horizon

The distance D to the radio horizon is greater from a higher

antenna. The maximum distance over which two stations may
communicate by space wave is equal to the sum of their
distances to the horizon. T3-31
VHF/UHF Signals Through
Ionosphere
 Sporadic E
 A type of sky-wave propagation that allows
long distance communication on the VHF
bands (6 meters, 2 meters and 220 Mhz)
through the E region of the atmosphere.
 Occurs only sporadically during certain
times of the year.

T3-32
Radio Spectrum
Symb Frequency Wavelength Comments
ol range ,
ELF < 300 Hz > 1000 km Earth-ionosphere waveguide
ULF 300 Hz – 3 kHz 1000 – 100 propagation
km
VLF 3 kHz – 30 kHz 100 – 10 km
LF 30 – 300 kHz 10 – 1 km Ground wave propagation
MF 300 kHz – 3 1 km – 100
MHz m
HF 3 – 30 MHz 100 – 10 m Ionospheric sky-wave propagation
VHF 30 – 300 MHz 10 – 1 m Space waves, scattering by objects
UHF 300 MHz – 3 1 m – 100 similarly sized to, or bigger than, a
GHz mm free-space wavelength, increasingly
affected by tropospheric phenomena
SHF 3 – 30 GHz 100 – 10 mm
c  f  ; c  3 108 ms1
EHF 30 – 300 GHz 10 – 1 mm