CIT - 3

Part A 5 x 2 = 10

1. What are the three modes of radio wave propagation?

Ground wave or Surface wave, tropospheric wave and Ionospheric wave.

2. What is virtual height?

Virtual height is defined as the height that would be reached by a short pulse of
energy showing the same delay as does the actual pulse reflected from the layer but
traveling with the velocity of light. Since, the interchange of energy takes place between
the wave and the electrons of the ionosphere, the velocity of propagation is reduced.
Hence the virtual height is always greater than the true height of reflection. The virtual
height is shown in figure . The virtual height ‘hv’ is always greater than the true height
‘h2’ .

Fig. Virtual height

3. Define is skip distance?

The skip distance represents the minimum distance from the transmitter at which
a sky wave of given frequency will be returned to earth by the ionosphere.

Fig. Ray paths for different angles of incidence Ф 0 at the ionosphere

4. Define Gyro frequency.

At high frequencies the electrons vibrate in paths that are very narrow ellipses
but as the frequency is lowered the amplitude of the vibration increases and the minor
axis of the ellipse becomes larger. This is shown in figure 6.26(b). This continues until
the frequency is lowered to a point where cyclotron resonance occurs and electrons
follow a spiral path as shown in figure and velocity also progressively increases. This
cyclotron resonance occurs at approximately 1400 KHz. (This is termed as gyro-
frequency).

Fig. The paths followed by an electron in the earth’s magnetic field vibrating under the
influence of a radio wave

5. Define LOS distance.

The maximum possible distance at which the direct ray transmission is possible
between transmitting and receiving antenna is known as line of sight distance. This
distance is equl to the sum of the horizon distances calculated for the individual antenna
heights. The path is often referred to as being optical when the distance involved is less
than the line of sight value. Being optical means a ray can pass directly from the
transmitting to the receiving antenna.

Part B 15 x 1 = 15

6. Explain the structure of atmosphere.

The elevated conductors which couples or matches the transmitter or receiver to the free space and
produce radiation from them in which a high frequency current in the antennas produce detachment
of electromagnetic energy in the form of waves. These electromagnetic waves (radio waves)
propagate in free space with the velocity of light. However, a real free space does not exist as such
and the propagation of radio waves will be affected by the terrain, meteorological and
extraterrestrial conditions. The propagation of electromagnetic waves not only depends on their
own properties but also on the environmental properties. This chapter discusses about the various
ways of radio waves propagation such as ground wave propagation, ionosphere wave propagation,
troposphere wave propagation and fading of electromagnetic waves (signals).
 Electric field

Magnetic field

Fig.1. Simple electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic wave or radio wave is composed of moving fields of electric and magnetic force.
Electric and magnetic fields are at right angles and mutually perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Electromagnetic waves can be defined as oscillations that travel through space with the
velocity of light. A simple electromagnetic wave is illustrated in figure (1) Here the electric lines are
perpendicular to the earth and magnetic lines are horizontal. However they can be in any position
with respect to earth as long as they remain perpendicular to each other.

In figure1 the dotted line represents electric lines of force while the continuous line represents
magnetic lines of force. Arrows indicate the direction of fields. The plane Containing the lines of
electric and magnetic force by the mesh in figure1 is called as wave front. In free space, since there
is no interference or obstacles the electromagnetic waves will spread uniformly in all directions from
a point source. The wave front is spherical as illustrated in figure 2. The propagation of
electromagnetic waves in free space is shown in figure 3.

Electric field wave front

Magnetic field ..

source
Fig.2. Spherical wave front representation

Fig.3. EM Waves in free space

The polarization of an electromagnetic wave is the direction of the lines of force in the electric field.
The polarization must also be defined as orientation of electric field vectors with respect to the
ground in the figure1 , the electric field vectors are vertically polarized, the electric lines are
perpendicular to the earth. If thy are parallel to the earth then the wave is said to be horizontally
polarized. When the radio waves are traveling along the ground usually it will maintain the
polarization in the same plane as it was generated at antenna. But the polarization of shorter wave
will get alter during their propagation. The electro magnetic wave travels with the speed of light in
free space. However it travels faster in air. The speed of electromagnetic wave is very much
influenced by the medium.

FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES.

The energy radiated from a transmitting antenna may reach the receiving antenna by a number of
mechanisms. The more important of these mechanisms are designated by the terms ground waves,
sky waves and space or tropospheric waves. These are the possible propagation path over which the
radiated energy from a transmitter may travel to reach the receiver (see figure 6.4)
 Fig.4 Possible propagation paths from transmitting antenna to receiving antenna

Tx - Transmitting antenna, Rx - Receiving antenna,

Path A – Ground wave propagation, Path B – Sky or ionospheric wave propagation

Path C – Space wave propagation

Fig.23 Typical height of ionospheric layer above earth

The part of the upper atmosphere where the ionization is appreciable is called the ionosphere. The
most important ionizing agents are UV, α, β rays and cosmic rays. Because of various kinds of radiations
involved, the ionization in the ionosphere tends to be stratified. The levels at which the electron density
reaches a maximum are termed layers. Figure 6.23 illustrates a typical height of ionospheric layers
above earth and electron density variation during day and night.

The number of layers, their heights and amount of sky wave that can be bent by them will vary
from day to day, month to month, and year to year. For each layer there is a critical frequency above
which if a radio wave is sent vertically upward will not return back to the earth but it will penetrate it.
The three principle day time maxima called the E, F 1, and F2 layers has shown in figure. In addition to
these regular layers there is a region below the E layer which is responsible for much of the day time
attenuation of fight frequency radio waves. The D region which lies between 50 to 90 kilometer is
responsible for much of the day time attenuation. During night, D region vanished, F 1 and F2 layers
combined to form one layer called F layer. The variation of electron density with height above the earth
under typical condition is shown in figure . The regular E layer is governed by the amount of UV light
from the sun and at night it tends to decay uniform ally with time.

Fig. 24 Electronics density variation during a) Day b) Night

 Or

7. Explain tropospheric propagation.

SPACE WAVE (ABOVE 30 MHZ)

At radio frequencies above 30Mhz, the ionosphere is not able to refract the energy to earth.
Hence at these frequencies the propagation can be achieved but means of the space wave traveling
between elevated transmitting and receiving antenna. In this mode of propagation electromagnetic
wave from the transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna either directly or after reflections from
the ground in the earth’s troposphere region. Figure10. illustrates the paths by which energy may travel
from a transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna

Fig. 10 Diagram showing the direct and indirect paths by which energy may travel from a transmitting
antenna to a receiving antenna. For the sake of clarity, the antenna heights have been greatly
exaggerated in comparison with the distance.

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

Space wave propagation takes place by two ways.

1) By a ray traveling directly from transmitter to receiver over the path ‘TR’
 2) By a ray traveling a path TOR involves a reflection from the surface of the ground. So the
fields strength at the receiving antenna is the vector sum of the fields due

to these two rays. Through space the individual rays undergo negligible attenuation

other than that caused by spreading. As a result each wave has a strength that is inversely proportional
to the distance from the transmitter.

Perfectly reflecting earth

Actual earth Perfectly reflecting earth

Fee space Fee space

30
Relative field strength

20

10

-10

-20
d’

-30

0.5 -1 2 5 10 20 50 0.5 -1 2 5 10 20 50

Distance in miles (a) Distance in(b)miles

Fig. 11 Variation of the field strength as a function of distance a) for flat earth b) flat earth with
( 2πhthr) / λ is doubled

The angle of incidence of the ray TO at the surface of the earth will be small, if the distance
between the transmitting and receiving antenna is greater than the antenna heights. There is no change
in magnitude due to reflection at ‘O’ but phase reversal takes place irrespective of polarization.

Field strength at receiver = 2E0 sin ( 2πhthr)

d λd

where

ht, hr – height of transmitting and receiving and receiving antennas

d- Distance from the transmitter to receiver

λ- Wavelength

E0 – Field intensity produced at unit distance by the transmitting antenna in the desired
direction.

When the transmitter is a half wave antenna remote from the ground then

E0 = 137.6 √Pkw mV/mile

FIELD STRENGTH VAIATION

The curves in figure 1 show the variation of the field strength with distance as calculated from
equation (16) For d’ ( d’ makes angle ( 2πh thr/ λ d) > π/6) the field strength oscillates about the value
E0/d which corresponds to the strength of the direct ray ‘TR’ (free space wave).

1. FOR PERFECTLY CONDUCTIONG EARTH

The amplitude of oscillations is twice the free space value and it occurs at distances
related to antenna heights. Here the phase of direct and reflected wave will get added

2. FOR A PERFECTLY REFLECTING EARTH

The magnitude oscillations is minima (null) at distance where direct and

reflected waves cancel each other.

3. FOR d>d`
The path difference between direct and reflected ray is λ/6 and the angle of incidence is so small,
so that ground reflection takes place with reversal of polarity where the amplitude remains same
 and both rays are largely out of phase. At the receiving antenna the field strength is less than the
free space value.(see figure 11a)

4. FOR IDEAL FLAT EARTH (d>>d’)

Field strength becomes inversely proportional to the square of the distance and so it

drops of rapidly.

Effect of curvature of an ideal earth

Fig. 12 Curved-earth geometry involving direct and ground reflected rays.

Figure 12 illustrates the curved earth geometry involving direct and ground reflected rays. When
the receiving antenna is above the radio horizon of the curved earth then the number maxima and
minima and their locations are changed in the flat earth field strength curve of figure 11a. and the
distance ‘d’ beyond which two rays tend to be out of phase. This is because of the earth curvature. The
antenna heights hs’ and hr’ above the tangent line ‘t’ as shown in figure 12 are effective heights. These
effective heights are less than the actual height.

The curvature of the earth also causes the ground reflected ray to be diverging rather than plan
wave. So at the receiving antenna field strength of reflected ray is weaker than from the flat surface.
This is known as a divergent effect. This effect is negligible if the angle of incidence is moderate to large.
The divergent effect is directly proportional to the angle of incidence. Thus, near the glancing incidence
the strength of the reflected wave is reduced significantly at the receiving point by the divergence
effect.

If the receiving antenna of moderate height is at a great distance from the transmitting
antenna, due to earth curvature neither the direct ray nor ground reflected ray can reach the receiving
antenna. This is illustrated in fig.13 where the shaded area is termed as diffraction area or shadow zone.
The region outside the shadow region is known as interference region. In this region, the total field
strength or resultant field is the combination or interference of indirect and reflected rays.
Fig. 13 Diagram indicating location of interference and shadow zones

8.