Chapter 1: Introduction

Dr. Najib Gerges, Ph.D., P.E.

1
 OUTLINE
1.1 Background
1.2 Pavement Types
1.3 Design Philosophy of Pavements
1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
1.5 Pavement Design Methods
1.6 Design Factors
1.7 Summary
2
 1.1 Background
• A highway pavement is a structure consisting of layers of natural and
processed materials above the natural ground (often called Subgrade or Road
Bed).
• A pavement’s primary function is to distribute the vehicle loads from the top of
the pavement to a larger area of the subgrade without causing any damage to
the subgrade.
• The pavement structure should be able to provide an acceptable riding quality,
satisfactory skid resistance, favorable light-reflecting characteristics, and low
noise.
• The aim is to ensure that the transmitted wheel loads are sufficiently reduced,
so that they do not exceed the capacity of all the layers of pavement including
the subgrade. 3
 1.1 Background
A pavement is expected to meet the following requirements:
• Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel-induced stresses to a reduced value on the subgrade soil.
• Structurally adequate to keep the cracking and deformation within tolerable limits.
• Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it.
• Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles.
• Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at the expected speed.
• Produces least noise from moving vehicles.
• Dust and waterproof surface for avoiding reduced visibility.
• Drains water laterally or vertically without washing layer particles.
• Long service life with a desirable level of comfort considering the economy.

4
 1.2 Pavement Types
• Two types of pavements are generally recognized: Flexible Pavements and
Rigid Pavements, as shown in Figure 1.1.
• A combination of these two pavements is also possible, and is termed
Composite Pavement as shown in Figure 1.1.a.

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1.2 Pavement Types

Figure 1.1.a Composite Pavement

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 1.2 Pavement Types
1.2.1 Flexible Pavements

• Flexible pavements are usually surfaced with Asphalt Materials. These pavements are
called flexible because the pavement structures can flex or bend under a traffic
loading.

• A flexible pavement structure requires several layers of materials because these

layers are not stiff enough to distribute the wheel load to a large area (Figure 1.2).

• Beneath the asphalt layer, a crushed aggregate base layer is commonly seen. Below
the base layer, a subbase layer is also used based on the subgrade strength.

• The natural subgrade soil can be improved by compaction or mixing of some improved
soil, asphalt millings, low-quality aggregate based on the availability of these
materials, and degree of improvement required.
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 1.2 Pavement Types
1.2.1 Flexible Pavements

Flexible Pavement: Load transfer in

granular structure
Flexible pavements transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel
by grain-to-grain transfer through the points of contact in the load stresses to a wider area below.
granular structure. 8
 1.2 Pavement Types
1.2.2 Rigid Pavements
• Rigid pavements are composed of reinforced or non-reinforced Portland cement concrete
(PCC) surface course.

• Such pavements are stiffer than flexible pavements due to the high modulus of elasticity
[typically 3000–4000 Ksi (21–28 GPa) for PCC and 500–1000 Ksi (3.4–6.9 GPa) for asphalt
layer] of the PCC material.

• These pavements can have reinforcing steel to reduce thermal cracking or eliminate joints.
Each of these pavement types distributes load over the subgrade in a different fashion.

• Rigid pavement, because of PCC’s high elastic modulus, tends to distribute the load over a
relatively wide area of a subgrade (Figure 1.2).

• The concrete slab itself supplies most of a rigid pavement’s structural capacity. On the other
hand, a flexible pavement having a low modulus distributes loads over a smaller area. It
requires a thicker pavement, which is achieved through a combination of thin layers due to field
compaction difficulty of constructing a thicker layer. 9
 1.2 Pavement Types
1.2.2 Rigid Pavements
• Compared to flexible pavements, rigid pavements are placed either directly over the prepared subgrade or over a single
layer of granular or stabilized material called base course.

• In rigid pavements, the load is distributed by the slab action, in which the pavement behaves like an elastic plate resting
on an elastic medium.

• Rigid pavements should be analyzed by the “plate theory” instead of the “layer theory”, assuming an elastic plate resting
on an elastic foundation.

• The “plate theory” assumes the concrete slab as a medium thick plate that is plane before loading and remains plane
after loading.

• Bending of the slab due to wheel load and temperature variation causes tensile and flexural stresses within the
pavement layers.

• Layered elastic models assume that each pavement structural layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic. In
other words, it is the same everywhere and will rebound to its original form once the load is removed.

• Plate theory is a simplified version of layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium thick plate which is
plane before loading and to remain plane after loading. Bending of the slab due to wheel load and temperature variation
and the resulting tensile and flexural stress. 10
 1.2 Pavement Types
1.2.2 Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:

1. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

2. Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)
3. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)
4. Prestressed Concrete Pavement (PCP)

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 1.2 Pavement Types
1.2.2.1 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
• Jointed plain concrete pavement (Figure 1.3) uses plain concrete slabs without any reinforcement and it
has transverse and longitudinal joints between slabs.

• Dowel bars are typically used at transverse joints to assist in load transfer.

• Epoxy-coated bars with a diameter of 1.0 or 1.5 in. (2.50 or 3.75 cm) and length of 18 in. (45 cm) are
widely used in JPCP. Currently, fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) dowel bars are being used to avoid
Corrosion.

• Dowel bars are placed in male-female fashion so that no tensile stress develops when a slab contracts.
More clearly, dowel bars are tightly bonded to one slab and axially move freely in another slab.

• This action just transfers the load from one slab to another. However, no tensile stress is developed
during the contraction of the slabs.

• Transverse joint spacing is selected such that temperature and moisture stresses do not produce
intermediate cracking between joints.
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 1.2 Pavement Types
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
• JPCP is commonly no longer than about 20 feet (6 m).

• Tie bars are typically used at longitudinal joints or between an edge joint and a curb or
shoulder for holding faces of rigid slabs in contact to maintain aggregate interlock.

• Tie bars are not load transferring device, but they transfer some loads.

• Tie bars are about 0.5 in. (12.5 mm) in diameter and between 24 and 40 in. (0.6 and
1.0 m) long.

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1.2 Pavement Types

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 1.2 Pavement Types
• In JPCP pavements, if no dowel bars are provided or if inadequate amount of dowel bars are
provided, then load transfer across the joint causes substantially higher stresses and deflections
due to joint loading than those due to interior loading (Figure 1.4).

• A dowel bar transfers a portion of the applied wheel load from the loaded slab across the joint to
the adjacent unloaded slab.

• Load transfer through dowel bars significantly reduces stresses and deflections due to joint
loading and minimizes faulting and pumping.

• Faulting is a difference in elevation across the joint of two slabs, while pumping is defined as the
expulsion of subgrade material through joints and along the edges of the pavement.

15
 1.2 Pavement Types
1.2.2.2 Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)

• Jointed reinforced concrete pavement is similar to the JPCP with the exception that
some reinforced is used in the concrete slabs to control cracking with contraction
joints (Figure 1.4a).

• Using reinforced slabs, transverse joint spacing can be provided longer than that for
JPCP and ranges from about 25 feet (7.5 m) to 50 feet (15 m).

• Temperature and moisture stresses are expected to cause cracking between joints.

• Reinforcing steel or a steel mesh is used to avoid these cracks or hold these cracks
tightly together.

• Dowel bars are typically used at transverse joints to assist in load transfer.
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 1.2 Pavement Types

JPCP Figure 1.4.a JPCP vs. JRCP JRCP

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 1.2 Pavement Types
1.2.2.3 Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)

• Continuous reinforced concrete pavement completely eliminates the transverse joints,

except as required at end-of-day construction and at bridge approaches and
transitions to other pavement structures, by providing continuous reinforcement as
shown in Figure 1.5.

• In newly constructed CRCP, volumetric change occurs due to cement hydration,

thermal effects, and external drying. This volumetric change is restrained by the
underneath base layer creating tensile stresses in the CRCP.

• Due to this developed tensile stresses, full-depth transverse cracks form and divide
the pavement into short, individual slabs.

• However, CRCP provides long-term and high load transfer across the transverse
cracks, resulting in a smooth and quiet ride. 18
1.2 Pavement Types

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 1.2 Pavement Types
1.2.2.4 Prestressed Concrete Pavement (PCP)

• Prestressed concrete pavement is built using precast concrete pavement slabs that are
fabricated at manufacturers’ plant and transported to and installed at the project site.

• PCP is very applicable in busy areas where high traffic volume requires stronger
pavement and construction time is very challenging considering traffic controls.

• Panels (Figure 1.6) are manufactured in sizes to match the width of one, two, or three
lanes of the pavement permitting one or multiple lanes of an existing pavement to be
reconstructed at one time.

• Panels are pretensioned in the longer direction during fabrication, and post-tensioned
together in groups longitudinally (in the direction of traffic). Thus, the installed slabs act
as a continuous slab.
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1.2 Pavement Types

21
 1.2 Pavement Types
Conventional
Flexible
(HMA)
Full Depth

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

Rigid
Pavement Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)
(PCC)

Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pvt. (CRCP)

Black Topping
Composite
(HMA + PCC)
White Topping

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1.2 Pavement Types (Flexible AC)

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 1.2 Pavement Types (Flexible AC)
Asphalt Binder
The asphalt binder, sometimes referred to as the asphalt cement binder or the asphalt cement, is an
essential component of asphalt concrete—it is, as the name implies, the cement that holds the aggregate
together. The asphalt binder is a co-product of the petroleum-refining system that produces gasoline,
diesel fuel, lubricating oil, as well as several other petroleum products. The asphalt binder is produced
from the thick, heavy residue (residuum) that remains after distillation of petroleum to remove fuels and
lubricants. The residuum is processed further by methods such as steam treatment (steam distillation) to
remove any vestiges of gas oil or lubricating oil constituents and/or by oxidation until the treated residuum
meets the desired specifications required of an asphalt binder. Once the binder has been produced, for
demanding, high-performance applications, small amounts of additives may be blended into the binder to
produce a modified binder—for example, polymer additives produce a polymer-modified binder.

Asphalt binder is viscoelastic:

Viscous and soft at high temperature/slow loading time (e.g. standing load).
Elastic and stiff at low temperature/fast loading time.
The material is viscoelastic.
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 1.2 Pavement Types (Flexible AC)
Flexible
Conventional Full Depth

Tack Coat
Prime Coat Wearing Course (1”-3”)

Binder Course (2”-4”) Asphalt Wearing Course

Crushed Aggregate Base - CAB
Gravel or Lower Quality of
Crushed Aggregate
Base Course (4”-12”) Asphalt Binder/Base Course
Subbase Course (4”-12”)
Prepared Subgrade
Compacted Subgrade ( 6”)
Natural Subgrade Natural Subgrade

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 1.2 Pavement Types (Flexible AC)
Full-Depth Asphalt

26
 1.2 Pavement Types (Flexible AC)
Asphalt Concrete
– Wearing Course
• Top course of asphalt pavement - usually dense graded HMA.
• The surface layer of a pavement that takes the wear of traffic:
– Resists distortion under traffic.
– Provides smooth & skid-resistant riding surface.
– Waterproof to protect pavement and subgrade (SG).
– Binder Course
• HMA too thick to be compacted in one layer.
• Larger size aggregates, (compact 2-3” at a time).
• The term binder course refers to a European standard description of the second layer of
asphalt pavement, described in the UK as a base course.

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 1.2 Pavement Types (Flexible AC)
Tack Coat
– Asphalt emulsion diluted with water.
– Bond between surface being paved & overlying course.
– Very thin & uniformly cover entire surface.

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 1.2 Pavement Types (Flexible AC)
Prime Coat
– Low-viscosity cutback asphalt applied to an absorbent surface.

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 1.2 Pavement Types (Flexible AC)
NOTE: For Structural Analysis Purposes, Wearing & Binder Courses are combined into
one layer unless they are composed of two different materials.
• For Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) back-calculation, combine all asphalt layers into one. A Falling
Weight Deflectometer (FWD) is a testing device used by civil engineers to evaluate the physical properties
of pavement in highways, local roads, airport pavements, harbor areas, railway tracks and elsewhere. ...
Deflection sensors are used to measure the deformation of the pavement in response to the load pulse.

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 1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
JPCP

• JPCP (most common), JRCP & CRCP

Transverse Joints Spacing:

JPCP: 12 to 20 ft.
JRCP: as long as 50 ft. 31
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
JRCP

32
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
CRCP

33
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
PCP

34
 1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
• Pavement structure deflects very little under loading.
• High PCC Modulus of Elasticity.
• Rigid pavement structure is typically composed of:
– PCC surface course built on top of either:
(1) the subgrade or (2) an underlying base course.
The rigid pavement structure distributes loads over a wide area with only one, or at
most two, structural layers.

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1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
1.2.1 Aggregate Interlock and Dowel Bars
Aggregate interlock is the ability of a
narrow irregular crack to transfer the load
from one side to the other by contact
between the particles of aggregate
exposed when the crack forms.

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1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
Dowel Action of Bars
The dowel action refers to a shear strength
complementary mechanism attributed to reinforced
cracked concrete. This shear-load transfer mechanism
occurs when cracks grow and cut across longitudinal
reinforcements, providing an increase into the
mechanical shear strength.
Load transfer efficiency (LTE) determines the
jointed pavement ability to transfer the applied
load from the loaded slab to the unloaded one
[26]. Various formulas are recommended to
determine LTE.
Each type of joint provides a different ability to
transfer load across slabs. This ability is termed
load transfer efficiency (or effectiveness). ...
Dowel bars provide a mechanical connection
between slabs without restricting horizontal joint
movement.
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1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
1.2.2 Saw Cuts
Saw cuts are a used to create control joints in
concrete, which help control where cracking occurs
due to shrinkage. The cuts should be made at a
predetermined spacing and only after the concrete
has obtained sufficient strength but before internal
cracking begins. Therefore, the timing of saw cuts
is critical.
When concrete is poured, it is very important to cut
expansion joints in the concrete. By cutting control
joints in the concrete you can better control the
random cracking that inevitably occurs in concrete
slabs soon after the concrete is poured and set.
These cuts are called Construction Cuts (also called Construction joints, Expansion
Cuts, or Expansion joints) and must be correctly positioned and done within 24 hours
of the concrete being poured, otherwise there is a significant risk of concrete
cracking (unless other jointing methods are used). 38
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)

39
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)

• 100% Load Transfer Efficiency

• Zero Load Transfer

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1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
Pumping of subgrade material is a leading cause of
damage to and failure of rigid pavements. In the
pumping process, water infiltrates a pavement at
the joints and edges of the slab, and, later in life,
through cracks in the slab. This water accumulates
in voids between the pavement slab and the
subgrade material.
The air voids provide empty spaces within the
concrete that act as reservoirs for the freezing
water, relieving pressure and pre- venting
damage to the concrete. Entrained air is
produced during mechanical mixing of
concrete that contains an air-entraining
admixture.
41
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
1.2.3 Dowel Bar Retrofit
A dowel bar retrofit (DBR) is a method of
reinforcing cracks in highway pavement by
inserting steel dowel bars in slots cut across the
cracks. It is a technique which several U.S. states'
departments of transportation have successfully
used in repairs to address faulting in older jointed
plain concrete pavements.

The primary advantage of dowel bars is to transfer

load without restricting horizontal joint movements
due to temperature and moisture expansion and
contraction in the concrete slabs. Also, dowel bars
play a role to maintain the vertical and horizontal
alignment of slabs.

42
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
1.2.4 Plate Dowels
Plate dowels allow contraction of the slab in two lateral
directions. Traditional dowel bars have to be inserted
through timber formwork making the removal of the
formwork difficult. Plate dowels use a plastic sleeve that
is nailed to the timber formwork making the formwork
removal very simple.
Steel plate dowels carry loads across a
construction joint, maintain vertical alignment
between adjacent slabs and allow concrete
shrinkage both perpendicular and parallel to the
joint. Construction joints are formed or placed into
slabs to define stopping places or the extent of an
individual concrete placement.
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 1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)
• Base course:
– Does not directly contribute to the Structural Capacity of the pavement system.
• Base course used to:
– Control pumping
– Control frost action
– Drainage layer
– Control shrinkage & swelling of subgrade
– Construction platform
• FAA AC 150/5320-6F: Stabilized materials are required for subbase under PCC
(&AC) serving airplanes weighing 100,000 pounds (45,359 kg) or more.

44
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)

45
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)

46
1.2 Pavement Types (Rigid) Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC)

47
 1.3 Design Philosophy of Pavements
• The design philosophy of a pavement is quite different from the other classical civil
engineering structures such as steel structures, reinforced concrete structures, and so
on. These classical structures are designed such that they do not show any crack,
significant deformation, or collapse during the service life.

• For example, a concrete beam in a building is not expected to show any crack. However,
a pavement structure is designed with the consideration that there might be many cracks
or some permanent deformation, and or roughness, during its service life, as shown in
Figure 1.7. However, these distress severities are expected to be within some tolerable
limits set by the designers.

• The threshold values of distresses are determined considering the riding quality, safety,
and economy. This means even after showing some distresses, pavement structures
provide some services for some time.

48
1.3 Design Philosophy of Pavements

49
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Pavement performance is an important issue in
the operation and planning of highway
engineering. There are several factors that affect
pavement performance, such as traffic, soil,
environmental, economic and stress distribution
factors.
The performance of a pavement is influenced
by many factors, including gross applied load,
tire pressure, number of load applications,
thickness and durability of the various
pavement components, and the mechanical
properties of the pavement materials.
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1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

51
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Flexible Pavements
The cracks form due to the forces applied by turning or
braking motion of vehicles. Distortions in an asphalt
pavement are caused by instability of an asphalt mix or
weakness of the base or subgrade layers. These
distresses may include rutting, shoving, depressions,
swelling and patch failures.

Rigid Pavements
Poor soil support results to pavement failure. Soil
The main causes of failures in rigid pavements due to
stabilization thru hydraulic binders can help prevent
faulting are: The pumping or the erosion of material
the weakening of soil due to moisture. Leakage from
under the pavement, resulting in voids under the
underground water pipes deteriorates the soil that
pavement slab causing settlement. The temperature
anchors the pavement due to erosion. It may result
changes and moisture changes that cause curling of the
in a hole or a localized void on the pavement.
slab edges. 52
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
1.4.1 Distress in Flexible Pavements

53
1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

54
1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

Traffic/ Climate/
Distress Type
Load Materials
Fatigue Cracking X
Block Cracking X
Transverse/Longitudinal
X
Cracking
Potholes X
Patching/Patching
X
Deterioration
Rutting/Shoving X
Bleeding X
Weathering/Raveling
X 55
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Fatigue
Fatigue cracking is one of the primary damage
mechanisms of structural components. Fatigue cracking
results from cyclic stresses that are below the ultimate
tensile stress, or even the yield stress of the material.
This leaves tiny steps in the surface that serve as stress
risers where tiny cracks can initiate.
Transverse Cracking
Transverse cracks occur roughly perpendicular to the
centerline of the pavement. They can be caused by
shrinkage of the asphalt layer or reflection from an
existing crack. They are not load-related.
Longitudinal Cracking
Longitudinal cracks occur parallel to the centerline of the
pavement. They can be caused by: a poorly constructed
joint; shrinkage of the asphalt layer; cracks reflecting up from
an underlying layer; and longitudinal segregation due to
improper paver operation. These cracks are not load-related.
Block Cracking
Block cracking is mainly caused by shrinkage of
the asphalt concrete and daily temperature
cycling, and it is not load associated. The
occurrence of block cracking usually indicates
that the asphalt has hardened significantly. Block
cracking normally occurs over a large portion of
pavement area.
Potholes
Potholes are formed when the pavement
disintegrates under traffic loading, due to
inadequate strength in one or more layers of the
pavement, usually accompanied by the presence
of water. Most potholes would not occur if the root
cause was repaired before development of the
pothole. Repair by excavating and rebuilding.
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 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Patching/Patching Deterioration
Poor bonding to existing pavement
Improper compaction
Poor materials
Propagation of original distress
Bleeding
Bleeding occurs when asphalt binder fills the
aggregate voids during hot weather and then expands
onto the pavement surface. Since bleeding is not
reversible during cold weather, asphalt binder will
accumulate on the pavement surface over time.
In aviation and aerospace, foreign object damage
(FOD), is any particle or substance,
alien to an aircraft or system, which could potentially
cause damage.
Rutting/Shoving
Rutting is the formation of valleys in the surface
or “wearing course” of asphalt roads and bridge
decks. Shoving is the presence of small mounds
or ripples in the wearing course caused by
horizontal stresses. Intersections and highway
off-ramps are common areas that exhibiting
shoving characteristics.
Weathering/Raveling
As pavement ages and hardens, the asphalt binder
and fine aggregate may begin to wear away. This
process is called weathering. As weathering
progresses, coarse aggregate becomes exposed,
dislodged, and missing, resulting in a distress called
raveling. This usually results in a pavement surface
with an increasing FOD potential.
57
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

High Severity Fatigue Cracking Permanent Deformation

Block Cracking

Longitudinal
Transverse Cracking Cracking Pothole
58
1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

Rutting/Shoving
Patching/Patching
Deterioration

Weathering/Raveling
Bleeding
59
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
• Permanent Deformation / Rutting in AC layer

60
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
• Unbound Layer(s) Permanent Deformation

61
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
• Effect of Temperature
• Pavements, like all other materials, will expand as they rise in temperature and
contract as they fall in temperature. Small amounts of expansion and contraction are
typically accommodated without excessive damage, however extreme temperature
variations can lead to catastrophic failures.

• At what temperature
– Rutting is most critical?

– Fatigue is most critical?

– Thermal cracking is most critical?

62
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
1.4.2 Distress in Rigid Pavements

63
1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Traffic/ Climate/
Distress Type
Load Materials
Corner Breaks X

D-Cracking or ASR X

Transverse Cracking X X
Joint Spalling X
Patch/Patch Deterioration X
Joint Faulting X
Pumping X (X)
Joint Seal Damage X
Punchout X
Longitudinal Cracking X X 64
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Corner Breaks D-Cracking (ASR)
A crack that intersects the PCC slab joints
near the corner. “Near the corner” is typically
defined as within about 2 m (6 ft) or so. A
corner break extends through the entire slab
and is caused by high corner stresses.

65
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Transverse Cracking
Transverse cracks that occur adjacent to transverse
joints commonly occur as a result of one or more
“secondary” mechanisms. These transverse cracks
appear to be the result of drying shrinkage in the
concrete that may have occurred in the pavement
surface immediately after construction.
Patch Deterioration
Rigid pavement patches are used to treat localized
slab problems such as spalling, scaling (e.g.,
reactive aggregate distress, over-finishing the
surface), joint deterioration, corner breaks or
punchouts.
Joint Spalling
Excessive compressive stress causes deterioration in the
joints, called as the spalling. This may be related to joint
infiltration or the growth of pavement, that are caused by
the reactive aggregates. Poor quality concrete or
construction technique will also result in joint spalling.
Joint Faulting
The difference in elevation between the joints is called as
faulting. The pumping or the erosion of material under
the pavement, resulting in voids under the pavement slab
causing settlement. The temperature changes and
moisture changes that cause curling of the slab edges.
66
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses
Pumping
Pumping of subgrade material is a leading cause of
damage to and failure of rigid pavements. In the pumping
process water infiltrates a pavement at the joints and
edges of the slab, and, later in life, through cracks in the
slab. This water accumulates in voids between the
pavement slab and the subgrade material.
Punchout
A localized area of concrete slab that is broken into
pieces will be named as punch out distress. This
distress can take any shape or form. These are
mainly defined by joints and cracks. The joints and
cracks will mainly keep 1.5 m width.
Joint Seal Damage
Joint sealant damage is any joint seal condition that
enables soil or rocks to accumulate in the joints, or
allows significant infiltration of water. Accumulation
of incompressible materials prevents the slabs from
expanding and may result in buckling, shattering, or
spalling.
Longitudinal Cracking
Longitudinal cracking is cracking in the surface of
road that runs longitudinally along the pavement. It
can consist of a single crack or as a series of
parallel cracks.
67
 1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

Corner Break D-Cracking (ASR)

Pumping

Transverse Cracking
Faulting Joint
JointSpalling
Spalling 68
1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

Patch Deterioration Joint Faulting

Pumping Joint Seal Damage 69

1.4 Pavement Performance & Distresses

Punchout
Punchout

Blow-up (Buckling) Longitudinal Cracking 70

 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
Two major pavement design guides used in the United States are the:

1) American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1993

Pavement Design Guide.

2) AASHTOWare Pavement Mechanistic-Empirical (ME) Design Guide, also known as

Pavement ME Design.

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1.5 Pavement Design Methods

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1.5 Pavement Design Methods

Flexible Rigid

• AASHTO 1993 Guide • AASHTO 1993 Guide

• Asphalt Institute (AI) • Portland Cement

Association (PCA)
• New AASHTO MEPDG
• New AASHTO MEPDG

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 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
Outputs
Inputs
• Alternative designs
• Design objectives
and constraints Thickness and Layer
• Reliability level Material Types
• Soil & material Design Optimization,
Performance
properties Selection &
Method Prediction Documentation for
• Traffic loads
Construction
• Climatic factors Life Cycle Economic
• Unit prices Evaluation
• …….

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 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
1.5.1 The AASHTO 1993 Pavement Design Guide
1) The AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures (AASHTO, 1993) was developed
based on field performance data collected from the American Association of State Highway
Officials (AASHO) road test project during 1956–1960 at Ottawa, IL, shown in Figure 1.8.

2) That project focused on the performance of pavement structures of known thickness under
moving loads of known magnitude and frequency.

3) It consisted of six two-lane loops along the alignment of Interstate 80 (I-80).

4) The pavement structure within each loop was varied so that the interaction of vehicle loads
with pavement structure could be investigated.

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 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
• The results from the AASHO road test were used to develop some regression equations for a
pavement design guide, first issued in 1961 as the AASHO Interim Guide for the Design of
Rigid and Flexible Pavements, with major updates issued in 1972, 1986, and 1993.

• The 1993 version (Figure 1.9) was in widespread use in the world until the AASHTOWare
pavement ME design came out in 2008.

• The design philosophy of the AASHTO (1993) method is to limit vertical stress on subgrade
within a tolerable limit.

• This method does not consider the performance of the pavement such as cracking, rutting, and
smoothness with its service life.

• The AASHTO 1993 design method is purely empirical. The design equations, methodology,
reliability, etc. were developed based on the road test data from Ottawa, IL. However, the
climate, materials, and traffic behavior in that test section are not similar.
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1.5 Pavement Design Methods

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 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
1.5.2 The AASHTOWare Pavement Mechanistic-Empirical (ME)
Design Guide

• To overcome the limitations of the AASHTO 1993 pavement design guide, a new mechanistic-empirical
(ME) method was started to develop about the year 2000.

• The advancements in computational tools and invention of performance models enable pavement
designers to predict certain distress more accurately. These performance models use mechanistic
pavement responses (such as stress and strain) while conducting analysis and design.

• The AASHTOWare pavement ME design (also termed pavement ME design) was officially implemented in
2008 as the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) under NCHRP project 1-37A
(AASHTO, 2015; NCHRP, 2004).

• This guide has been improved to a new version with the new name of the AASHTOWare pavement ME
design software.
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1.5 Pavement Design Methods

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 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
Different sequences of the AASHTOWare pavement ME design software are listed
below:

 First released in 2004 as an experiment with the name of Design Guide 2002 (DG
2002).
 Revised in 2008 with the revised name of Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design
Guide (MEPDG).
 Further revised in 2011 and renamed as Design, Analysis and Rehabilitation for
Windows (DARWin ME).
 Further revised in 2013 and renamed as AASHTOWare pavement ME design.

The latest version of the AASHTOWare pavement ME design software is available

at https://me-design.com/MEDesign/.

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 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
The input levels available in the AASHTOWare pavement ME design software:

• Level 1. Level 1 is used for pavement design with the greatest accuracy. All or most of
the input parameters such as material density, modulus, strength, traffic volume, traffic
distribution, axle load spectra, climate, etc. are measured directly for the site or project.

• Level 2. Level 2 input parameters represent measured regional average values. The
input parameters and the calibration coefficients of the software are estimated from
correlations or regression equations developed based on local or state-level conditions.

• Level 3. Most of the input parameters and the calibration coefficients of the software
are ME default values, which are based on global or regional default values. This input
level is the least accurate, and commonly used in non crucial pavements.

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 1.5 Pavement Design Methods
Superpave Mix Design
The term "Superpave" is an acronym for Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements, which evolved from
partnerships created among Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), TRB, and others in the Strategic Highway Research
Program (SHRP) community.

A New Approach to Asphalt Mix Design

Rather than a specific process or procedure, Superpave is a performance-based specification for asphalt binder and
volumetric mixture design. The idea was to allow asphalt pavement designs that could handle the unique weather and traffic
conditions of a given site in any geographic area of the U.S. The system consisted of three components:

- Asphalt binder specification: A system of classifying asphalt binder based on its performance response to temperatures
and aging characteristics.
- A design system grounded in traffic loading and environmental conditions
- Mix design system and analysis tests for performance prediction models

Superpave leverages modern asphalt paving technology to develop mixtures more resistant to cracking from low temperature
and fatigue factors and reduce permanent deformation. Superpave means mix designs can be tailored for better performance
and longer life based on a geographical area’s temperature extremes, traffic loads, and utilization of the road or highway.
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 1.6 Design Factors
Factors affecting Pavement Performance:

1.6.1 Traffic and Loading

1.6.2 Environment

1.6.3 Materials

1.6.4 Failure Criteria

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 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.1 Traffic and Loading

1.6.1.1 Axle Loads

1.6.1.2 Number of Load Repetitions

1.6.1.3 Tire Contact Areas

1.6.1.4 Vehicle Speed

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 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.1.1 Axle Loads

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 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.1.2 Number of Load Repetitions
- Loads  damage pavement over time.

- Each individual load inflicts a certain amount of unrecoverable damage.

- Damage is cumulative over the life of the pavement and when it reaches

some maximum value the pavement is considered to have reached the

end of its useful service life.

1.6.1.3 Tire Contact Areas

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 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.1.4 Vehicle Speed
Elastic Theory
Layered elastic models assume that each pavement structural layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and
linearly elastic. In other words, it is the same everywhere and will rebound to its original form once
the load is removed. The resilient modulus is selected to be adequate with the vehicle speed.

Viscoelastic Theory
In materials science and continuum mechanics, viscoelasticity is the property of materials that
exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation. Speed is related to
the loading duration.

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 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.2 Environment
Environmental conditions have a significant effect on the performance of both flexible and rigid
pavements. External factors such as temperature (freeze-thaw cycles) and precipitation (depth to
water table) play a key role in defining the bounds of the impact the environment can have on the
pavement performance.
1.6.2.1 Freeze-Thaw: When temperatures are above freezing, rainwater or snowmelt will make its way into
any small crack in the pavement. Then, as temperatures drop below freezing, the water within the cracked
pavement begins to freeze and expand, causing the crack to expand and grow as well.
1.6.2.2 Precipitation/Moisture: Water is one of asphalt's “natural enemies.” Puddles of water on an
asphalt pavement will slowly break down the asphalt and cause a pothole to form. Water deteriorates asphalt
by breaking the bonds between the asphalt binder and the rocks and sand.

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 1.6 Design Factors
Precipitation/Moisture

– Asphalt Layer:
• Could impact strength & behavior if it leads to moisture damage & stripping.

– Crushed Aggregate Base and Subgrade:

• Significant impact on strength & behavior.
• The higher the moisture content, the lower the strength.

– Portland Cement Concrete:

• Could lead to freeze/thaw damage.
• Possibly alkali-silica reactivity (ASR). The alkali–silica reaction (ASR), more commonly
known as "concrete cancer", is a deleterious swelling reaction that occurs over time in
concrete between the highly alkaline cement paste and the reactive amorphous (i.e., non-
crystalline) silica found in many common aggregates, given sufficient moisture. 91
 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.2.3 Temperature: Pavements, like all other materials, will expand as they rise in temperature and
contract as they fall in temperature. Small amounts of expansion and contraction are typically accommodated
without excessive damage, however extreme temperature variations can lead to catastrophic failures. For
example, the high temperature of pavement makes the asphalt softer, thus the risk is high that heavy vehicles
cause rutting due to the plastic deformation, which will decrease the pavement evenness and consequently
affect the traffic safety.

AC Layer: Stiffness
Concrete Slab: Temperature Gradient – curling stresses/slab subgrade contact.
Crushed Aggregate Base and Subgrade: Unless frozen, insignificant impact on strength & behavior
stronger SG in winter/ weaker SG in spring.

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 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.3 Materials
Flexible pavements are constructed of several
thicknesses of asphalt or bituminous concrete
layers overlying a base of granular material on a
prepared subgrade.

Rigid pavements are made of concrete, composed

of coarse and fine aggregate and Portland cement,
and usually reinforced with steel rod or mesh.

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 1.6 Design Factors
1.6.4 Failure Criteria
The major failure criteria for flexible pavements
are the thermal fatigue cracking that initiates at
the bottom of the surfacing layer and the rutting
that happens at the surface of the subgrade layer.

The main causes of failures in rigid pavements due

to faulting are: the pumping or the erosion of
material under the pavement, resulting in voids
under the pavement slab causing settlement. The
temperature changes and moisture changes that
cause curling of the slab edges.
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1.7 Summary

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