LECTURER: C.M.

MATARA
COURSE: PAVEMENT DESIGN
COURSE OUTLINE

 Lecture 1; Pavement types: Flexible, Rigid; Pavement structures: Wearing course and
other components;
 Lecture 2: Factors affecting Pavement Design and Stresses and deflections in
pavements and wheel load characteristics
 Lecture 3: Design of flexible and Rigid Pavements: empirical and analytical design
methods, Road Note (RN) 29, and RN 31, standards from the public sector, Reinforced
and unreinforced joint details
 Lecture 4: Construction techniques: site investigation, cut and fill, surfacing, drainage
systems
 Lecture 5: Highway construction materials
 Lecture 6: Base construction; stabilization using cement, lime and bitumen, labour
intensive techniques, stage construction
 Lecture 7: Introduction to road maintenance and construction plants
LECTURE 1 PAVEMENT TYPES

1 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

1.1 Functions and Desirable Characteristics of Pavement

A highway pavement is designed to support the wheel loads imposed on it from traffic
moving over it. Additional stresses are also imposed by changes in the environment. It
should be strong enough to resists the stresses imposed on it and it should be thick
enough to distribute the external loads on the earthen subgrade, so that the subgrade
itself can safely bear it.

For satisfactorily performing the above functions, the pavement should have many
desirable characteristics. These are:

1. It should be structurally sound enough to withstand the stresses imposed on it.

2. It should be sufficiently thick to distribute the loads and stresses to a safe value
on the subgrade soil.
3. It should provide a reasonably hard wearing surface, so that the abrasion action
of wheels (pneumatic and iron-tired) does not damage the surface.
4. it should be dust-proof so that traffic safety is not impaired.
5. Its riding quality should be good. It should be smooth enough to provide comfort
to the road users at the high speeds at which modern vehicles are driven.
6. The surface of the pavement should develop as low a friction with the tyres as
possible. This will enable the energy consumption of the vehicles to be low.
7. The surface of the pavement should have a texture and adequate roughness to
prevent skidding of vehicles.
8. The surface should not produce excessive levels of sound when travelling.
9. The surface should be impervious so that water does not get into the lower layers
of the pavement and the subgrade and cause deterioration.
10. The pavement should have long life and the cost of maintaining it annually should
be low.

Some of the requirements enumerated above are conflicting. A good pavement should
be a compromise among such conflicting needs

1.2 Pavement Types

From the point of view of structural performance, pavements can be classified as:

(i) Flexible
(ii) Rigid

A flexible pavement is one which has low flexural strength. Thus, the external load is
largely transmitted to the subgrade by the lateral distribution with increasing depth.
Because of the low flexural strength, the pavement deflects if the subgrade deflects. The
pavement thickness is so designed that the stresses on the subgrade soil are kept within
its bearing power and the subgrade is prevented from excessive deformations. This
implies that in a flexible pavement, the subgrade plays an important role as it carries the
vehicle loads transmitted to it through the pavement. The strength and smoothness of
the pavement depends to a great extent on the deformation suffered by the subgrade
and its resistance to such

As a contrast, a rigid pavement derives its capacity to withstand loads from the flexural
strength or beam strength (modulus of elasticity), permitting the slab to bridge over minor
irregularities in the subgrade, sub-base or base upon which it rests. This implies that the
inherent strength of the slab itself is called upon to play a major role in resisting the
wheel load. Minor imperfections or localised weak spots in the material below the slab
can be taken care of by the slab itself. This is not to under-rate the role of the sub-grade
soil. In fact, a good, stable and uniform support is necessary for a rigid pavement as
well. But as long as a certain minimum requirement is met with in this regard, the
performance of the rigid pavement is more governed by the strength of the slab itself
than by the subgrade support.

Based on design. There are 2 types of pavements: Flexible and Rigid. This course will
focus on flexible and rigid pavements only

1.2.1 Flexible Pavements

The wearing surface usually is constructed of bituminous materials such that they remain
in contact with the underlying material even when minor irregularities occur. Flexible
pavements usually consist of a bituminous surface underlaid with a layer of granular
material and a layer of a suitable mixture of coarse and fine materials. Traffic loads are
transferred by the wearing surface to the underlying supporting materials through the
interlocking of aggregates, the frictional effect of granular materials, and cohesion of fine
materials.

Flexible pavements are further divided into three subgroups: high type, intermediate
type, and low type.
 High-type pavements have wearing surfaces that adequately support the
expected traffic load without visible distress due to fatigue and are not
susceptible to weather conditions.
 Intermediate-type pavements have wearing surfaces that range from surface
treated to those with qualities just below that of high- type pavements.
 Low-type pavements are used mainly for low-cost roads and have wearing
surfaces that range from untreated to loose natural materials to surface-treated
earth.

1.2.2 Types of Rigid Pavements

Rigid highway pavements can be divided into four general types: plain concrete
pavements, simply reinforced concrete pavements, and continuously reinforced concrete
pavements. The definition of each pavement type is related to the amount of
reinforcement used.
 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP): Plain concrete pavement has no
temperature steel or dowels for load transfer. However, steel tie bars often are
 used to provide a hinge effect at longitudinal joints and to prevent the opening of
these joints.
 Plain concrete pavements are used mainly on low-volume highways or when
cement-stabilized soils are used as subbase. Joints are placed at relatively
shorter distances than with other types of concrete pavements to reduce the
amount of cracking. In some cases, the transverse joints of plain concrete
pavements are skewed in plan, such that only one wheel of a vehicle passes
through the joint at a time. This helps to provide a smoother ride.
 Simply Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP) Simply reinforced concrete
pavements have dowels for the transfer of traffic loads across joints, with these
joints spaced at larger distances, ranging from 30 to 100 ft. Temperature steel is
used throughout the slab, with the amount dependent on the length of the slab.
Tie bars also are used commonly at longitudinal joints.
 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP): Continuously
reinforced concrete pavements have no transverse joints, except construction
joints or expansion joints when they are necessary at specific positions, such as
at bridges. These pavements have a relatively high percentage of steel, with the
minimum usually at 0.6 percent of the cross section of the slab. They also contain
tie bars across the longitudinal joints.

JPCP
1.3 Comparison of Rigid and Flexible pavements

1.3.1 Design precision

A cement concrete pavement is amenable to a much more precise structural analysis
than a flexible pavement. This is because of the fact that the flexural strength of
concrete, which is used as the main basis for design, is well understood. On the other
hand, flexible pavement designs are mainly empirical. It may be because of the design
precision associated with a concrete pavement and the accuracy in predicting the
performance of a rigid pavement. Latest research in understanding the performance of
bituminous materials has furthered the knowledge on their behaviour. Computer aided
analysis of layered systems is making the flexible pavement design more exact than
hitherto.

1.3.2 Life
A well-designed concrete slab has a life of about 40 years. The life of a flexible
pavement varies from 10 to 20 years.

Even this shorter life can be achieved only with extra maintenance input as discussed
separately.

1.3.3 Maintenance

A well-designed cement concrete pavement needs practically very little maintenance.

The only maintenance needed is in respect of joints. Continuously Reinforced Concrete
Pavement (CRCP) have reduced the number of joints to be attended to. The hard
surface can withstand the abrasion caused by iron-tyred vehicles, bullock carts, and
studded tyres in the West used under snowy conditions. The surface is unaffected by
spillage of oil and lubricants.

Bituminous surfaces, on the other hand, need great inputs in maintenance. Sealing
cracks, making good potholes, resurfacing and resealing are done very frequently. The
surface is affected by spillage of oil and lubricants. The surface is affected by natural
weathering agents like air, water and temperature changes.

1.3.4 Initial cost

The argument so far used against a cement concrete slab is that it is much more costly
than a flexible pavement. However, while cost of cement has increased very much in
recent years, so has the cost of bitumen, and this comparison has required a re-think in
recent years as

1.3.5 Stage construction

Due to extreme scarcity of resources in the country, road construction is generally done
adopting a policy of stage construction. A new road, for example, is constructed with the
barest minimum specifications, which may involve just a thin bituminous surfacing over a
partially designed thickness. As traffic grows, additional layers, in the form of water-
bound macadam, bitumen-bound bases and superior surfacings are added on. Initial
outlay is minimum and additional outlays are in keeping with traffic growth. Thus, at no
stage is the investment made in advance of the actual requirement. This is a great
 advantage when dealing with new roads in an atmosphere of austerity. Cement concrete
slabs do not fit into such a scheme of stage construction.

1.3.6 Availability of materials

Cement, bitumen, stone aggregates and sand are the major materials involved in
pavement construction. Cement availability depends on the cement plants available and
demand of cement.
Bitumen is also not locally available in Kenya. There is also the danger of the entire oil
reserves in the world shrinking up soon in the next two or three decades. Bitumen is thus
also a scarce commodity worldwide Moreover, import of bitumen involves foreign
exchange, whereas cement is indigenously manufactured.

In locations where stone aggregates are scarce, cement concrete may have an
advantage, since the total construction thickness may be less than a flexible pavement.
In locations where water is scarce, bitumen-bound layers are the only alternative. An
example of this is in desert regions.

1.3.7 Penetration of water

A cement concrete slab is practically impervious, except at joints. If joints are sealed and
well-maintained water will not penetrate and soften the subgrade. If joints are faulty,
water easily finds it way in and serious defects such as "mud-pumping" can follow. A
bituminous surface is not impervious. Water can find its way into the lower layers
through cracks and pores. Such water can impair the stability of the pavement.

1.3.8 Utility location

In cement concrete slabs, proper thought has to be given to locate utilities, such as
water pipes, telephone lines and electric cables. It is difficult to rip open the slab and
restore it to the original condition if any changes in the utility lines are to be made. For
this purpose, gaps are left in the pavement which are constructed with bituminous
materials. Thus, the digging up of pavements at random, a common feature in city
streets in Kenya, is avoided. The disadvantage is thus converted to an advantage.
1.3.9 Glare
Concrete pavements have a grey colour which can cause glare under sunlight. Coloured
cement can reduce the glare. Black bituminous pavements are free from this defect. On
the other hand, bituminous roads need more street lighting.

1.3.10 Traffic dislocation during construction

A cement concrete pavement requires,28 days before it can be thrown open to traffic.
On the other hand, a bituminous surface can be throw open to traffic after it is rolled.
Further traffic will facilitate its compaction. Thus concrete pavements cause dislocation
of traffic, in case the work is done on an existing road.
1.3.11 Overall economy
good road is costly to construct, but once constructed, such a road requires little
maintenance and results in savings in vehicle operating costs. Overall economic
considerations, a rigid pavement is far more economical than the flexible one.\
1.4 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES

A pavement consists of one or more layers. The topmost layer is the surfacing the purpose of
which is to provide a smooth, abrasion resistant, dust-proof and strong layer. The base, which
comes immediately next below, is the medium through which the stresses imposed are
distributed evenly. Additional help in distributing the loads is provided by the sub-base layer.
The subgrade is the compacted natural earth immediately below the pavement layers. The top
of the sub-grade is also known as the formation level. In a concrete road, the concrete slab
itself acts as the wearing surface and distributes the load. The slab may be directly placed on
the subgrade, or, in case of weak soils, a base and sub sub-base may be interposed between
the slab and the subgrade.

Kenya Road Design Manual Part 3

BRITISH PRACTICE

Fig. 1-1. Pavement layers.

In American practice, the top course in a flexible pavement is itself composed of the surface
course and a binder course beneath it. In U.K. practice, the surfacing is similarly composed of
the wearing course at top and a base course beneath it.

1.4.1 Flexible Pavement Courses

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course, tack coat,
binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and natural
sub-grade
Figure 1.1 Typical layers of a Flexible Pavement

Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide
skid resistance.

Tack Coat:: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted
with water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin,
uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

Prime Coat:: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent
surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two
layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a
water tight surface

Surface course: Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally
contains superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt
concrete(AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:

 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will prevent
the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub-base
and sub-grade,

 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface,

 It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening
effect of water.

 To perform as a structural portion of the pavement, To resist the abrasive forces of

traffic.
Binder course: This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose
is to distribute load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates
having less asphalt and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a
part of the surface course by the binder course results in more economical design.

Base course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of
binder course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface
drainage It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized
materials. In summary, the functions of the base course are :
(i) To act as the structural portion of the pavement and thus distribute the loads.
(ii) If constructed directly over the sub-grade„ to prevent intrusion of sub-base
soils into the pavement.
(iii) Contributes to the sub-surface drainage

Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and
the primary functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the
intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open
graded, then the sub-base course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and
the base course A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement
constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a
sub-base course. In such situations, sub-base course may not be provided. In summary, the
functions of the sub-base layer are:

(i) To provide additional help to the base and surface courses in distributing the
loads.
(ii) To prevent intrusion of fine-grained road-bed soils into base courses.
(iii) To minimise the damaging effects of frost action.
(iv) To facilitate drainage of free water that might get accumulated below the
pavement.

Sub-grade: The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses
from the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be
compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content

1.3.2 Rigid pavements

Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a wider
area below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown below.

Figure 1.2 Typical cross section of a rigid pavement

Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the prepared sub-
grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material. Since there is only one layer of
material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer can be called as base or sub-base
course.

In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an
elastic plate resting on a viscous medium

Rigid pavements are constructed by Portland cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed
by plate theory instead of layer theory, assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation.
Plate theory is a simplified version of layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium
thick plate which is plane before loading and to remain plane after loading. Bending of the slab
due to wheel load and temperature variation and the resulting tensile and flexural stress.