Chapter 4 – Jeu Dave F.

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Pavement Design

PAVEMENT TYPES
In general, there are two types of pavement structures: flexible pavements and rigid pavements.
There are, however, many variations of these pavement types. Composite pavements (which are
made of both rigid and flexible pavement layers), continuously reinforced pavements, and post-
tensioned pavements are other types, which usually require specialized designs and are not covered
in this chapter.
Flexible Pavements
A flexible pavement is constructed with asphaltic cement and aggregates and usually consists of
several layers, as shown in Fig. 4.1. The lower layer is called the subgrade (the soil itself). The upper
6 to 8 inches of the subgrade is usually scarified and blended to provide a uniform material before it
is compacted to maximum density. The next layer is the subbase, which usually consists of crushed
aggregate (rock). This material has better engineering properties (higher modulus values) than the
subgrade material in terms of its bearing capacity. The next layer is the base layer and is also often
made of crushed aggregates (of a higher strength than those used in the subbase), which are either
unstabilized or stabilized with a cementing material. The cementing material can be portland
cement, lime fly ash, or asphaltic cement.

Rigid Pavements
A rigid pavement is constructed with portland cement concrete (PCC) and aggregates, as shown in
Fig. 4.2. As with flexible pavements, the subgrade (the lower layer) is often scarified, blended, and
compacted to maximum density. In rigid pavements, the base layer (see Fig. 4.2) is optional,
depending on the engineering properties of the subgrade. If the subgrade soil is poor and erodable,
then it is advisable to use a base layer. However, if the soil has good engineering properties and
drains well, a base layer need not be used. The top layer (wearing surface) is the portland cement
concrete slab. Slab length varies from a spacing of 10 to 13 ft to a spacing of 40 ft or more.
PAVEMENT SYSTEM DESIGN: PRINCIPLES FOR FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

The primary function of the pavement structure is to reduce and distribute the surface stresses
(contact tire pressure) to an acceptable level at the subgrade (to a level that prevents permanent
deformation). A flexible pavement reduces the stresses by distributing the traffic wheel loads over
greater and greater areas, through the individual layers, until the stress at the subgrade is at an
acceptably low level. The traffic loads are transmitted to the subgrade by aggregate-to-aggregate
particle contact. Confining pressures (lateral forces due to material weight) in the subbase and base
layers increase the bearing strength of these materials. A cone of distributed loads reduces and
spreads the stresses to the subgrade, as shown in Fig. 4.3.

Flexible-Pavement Design Equation

The basic equation for flexible-pavement design given in the 1993 AASHTO design guide permits
engineers to determine a structural number necessary to carry a designated traffic loading. The
AASHTO equation is
Structural Number

The objective of Eq. 4.1 and the nomograph in Fig. 4.5 is to determine a required structural number
for given axle loadings, reliability, overall standard deviation, change in PSI, and soil resilient
modulus. As previously mentioned, there are many pavement material combinations and
thicknesses that will provide atisfactory pavement service life. The following equation can be used
to relate individual material types and thicknesses to the structural number:

PAVEMENT SYSTEM DESIGN: PRINCIPLES FOR RIGID PAVEMENTS

Rigid pavements distribute wheel loads by the beam action of the portland cement concrete (PCC)
slab, which is made of a material that has a high modulus of elasticity, on the order of 4 to 5 million
lb/in2. This beam action (see Fig. 4.6) distributes the wheel loads over a large area of the pavement,
thus reducing the high stresses experienced at the surface of the pavement to a level that is
acceptable to the subgrade soil.
Rut Depth

Rut depth, which is a measure of pavement surface deformation in the wheel paths, can affect
roadway safety because the ruts accumulate water and increase the possibility of vehicle
hydroplaning (which results in the tire skimming over a film of water, greatly reducing braking and
steering effectiveness). Because of its potential impact on vehicle control, rut depths are regularly
measured on many highways to determine if pavement rutting has reached critical values that would
require resurfacing or other pavement treatments. Virtually all states measure rut depth using
automated equipment that seeks to determine the difference in surface elevation of the pavement
in the wheel path relative to the pavement that is not in the wheel path. The critical values of rut
depth can vary from one highway agency to the next. Usually, rut depths are considered
unacceptably high when their values reach between 0.5–1.0 inches, indicating that corrective action
is warranted.

Cracking

For flexible pavements, four types of cracking are usually monitored: longitudinal fatigue cracking,
transverse cracking, alligator cracking, and reflection cracking. Longitudinal-fatigue cracking is a
surface-down cracking that occurs due to material fatigue in the wheel path. Such cracking can
accelerate over time and require significant repairs to protect against water penetration into the
flexible pavement structure.

Rut Depth

Rut depth, which is a measure of pavement surface deformation in the wheel paths, can affect
roadway safety because the ruts accumulate water and increase the possibility of vehicle
hydroplaning (which results in the tire skimming over a film of water, greatly reducing braking and
steering effectiveness). Because of its potential impact on vehicle control, rut depths are regularly
measured on many highways to determine if pavement rutting has reached critical values that would
require resurfacing or other pavement treatments. Virtually all states measure rut depth using
automated equipment that seeks to determine the difference in surface elevation of the pavement
in the wheel path relative to the pavement that is not in the wheel path. The critical values of rut
depth can vary from one highway agency to the next. Usually, rut depths are considered
unacceptably high when their values reach between 0.5–1.0 inches, indicating that corrective action
is warranted.

Cracking

For flexible pavements, four types of cracking are usually monitored: longitudinal fatigue cracking,
transverse cracking, alligator cracking, and reflection cracking. Longitudinal-fatigue cracking is a
surface-down cracking that occurs due to material fatigue in the wheel path. Such cracking can
accelerate over time and require significant repairs to protect against water penetration into the
flexible pavement structure.