PAVEMENT DESIGN PROJECT

Prepared by : Karam Mustafa Rasheed Al-Attili [0155230]

Due Date : 15th Of July, 2018
Courtesy of Prof. Khair Jadaan

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 Table Of Contents
1.
Introduction..............................................................................................3

1.1 Definitions, Types and layers of pavement

1.2 Objectives of the project

2. Stresses, Strains and Deflections in Pavement.......................................7

3. Performance and Failure Criteria for pavements...................................9

4. Structural Design.................................................................................10

4.1 Design Factors

4.2 Quantification of Traffic

4.3 Design Methods

5. Case Study...........................................................................................16

5.1 Calculations and results, Selection of Pavement Materials

6. Cost Estimates.....................................................................................21

6.1 Cost Elements and basis

6.2 Calculations and Results

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1. Introduction
1.1 Definitions, Types and Layers of Pavement
The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance
into two, flexible pavements and rigid pavements.

A. Flexible Pavements
Wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-grain contact of the
aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible pavement,
having less flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet.

The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider

area, and the stress decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of
this stress distribution characteristic, flexible pavements normally
has many layers. Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the
concept of layered system.

- Types Of Flexible Pavements :

1. Conventional Layered Flexible Pavements : Layered system with

high quality (Expensive) materials in the top layers and low quality
(Cheap) materials in the lower layers.

2. Full-depth Asphalt Concrete : Places bituminous layers directly on

the subgrade, and it's used for heavy traffic load only.

3. Thin Asphalt Concrete : Thin Asphalt surface used for low traffic
load and for Parking Lots.

4. Contained Rock Asphalt Mat : Constructed by placing dense/open

graded aggregate layers in between two asphalt layers. Reduces
vertical compressive strain on the subgrade and provides protection
from water.

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 - Typical Layers of Flexible Pavements :

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement are seal coat,

surface course, tack coat, binder course, prime coat, base course,
sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and natural sub-grade.

Seal Coat Water proof the Surface and Skid Resistance

Tack Coat Bonding between two layer of binder course
Prime Coat Bonding Between two layers
Surface Course Contains Superior quality materials, provides friction,
smoothness, drainage. It must resist Distortion and must be
water proof
Binder Course Distribute load to base course
Base Course Provides additional load distribution and contributes to sub-
surface drainage
Sub-Base Course Provide Structural Support, improve drainage, reduce intrusion
of fines from sub-grade
Sub-Grade Course Layer of natural soil prepared to recieve the stresses

B. Rigid Pavements
Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the
wheel load stresses to a wider area below. Compared to flexible
pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the
prepared sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized
material.

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In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the
pavement behaves like an elastic plate resting on a viscous medium.
Rigid pavements are constructed by Portland cement concrete (PCC)
and should be analyzed by plate theory instead of layer theory,
assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation.

- Types of Rigid Pavements :

1. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement : are plain cement concrete

pavements constructed with closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel
bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for load transfer
across joints. They normally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.

2. Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement : Although reinforcements

do not improve the structural capacity significantly, they can
drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to 30m. Dowel bars are
required for load transfer. Reinforcements help to keep the slab
together even after cracks.

3. Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement : Complete elimination

of joints are achieved by reinforcement.

4. Pre-Stressed Concrete Pavement : is a form of concrete used in

construction which is "pre-stressed" by being placed
under compression prior to supporting any loads beyond its own
dead weight.

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 1.2 Objectives of the project
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers
of processed materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose
primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-
grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of
acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light
reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is
to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are
sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of
the sub-grade.

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe

value on the sub-grade soil.
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it.
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles.
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed.
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles.
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing
visibility.
 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
 Long design life with low maintenance cost.

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2. Stresses, Strains and Deflection in Pavement
A. One Layer Systems
• If, one-layer system is assumed as a homogeneous half space,
Boussinesq equations can be applied.

• Half space is an infinite large area with infinite depth with a top
plane on which loads are applied.

• Boussinesq equations are developed for computing stresses in a

homogeneous, isotropic and elastic media due to a point load at the
surface.

• Load is not a point load – it is distributed over an elliptical area.

This contact area can be approximated to a circular shape.

• Vertical stress resulting from uniformly distributed circular load

may be obtained by integration of Boussinesq equation.

• One-layer theory can be applied as an approximation for a

conventional flexible pavement with granular base/subbase with a
thin asphaltic layer on a stiff subgrade comparable to the
base/subbase. (i.e., E1 / E2 ≅ 1).

• Foster and Ahlvin (1954) developed charts for computing vertical,

tangential and radial stresses. The charts were developed for µ = 0.5.

B. Two Layered Systems

• The effect of layers above subgrade is to reduce the

stress and deflections in the subgrade.
• Burmister (1958) obtained solutions for two-layer
problem by using strain continuity equations.
• Vertical stress depends on the modular ratio (i.e., E1/E2)
• Vertical stress decreases considerably with increase in

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 modular ratio.

• For example,
for a/h1=1 and E1/E2 = 1, sz at interface = 65% of contact
pressure
for a/h1=1 and E1/E2 = 100, sz at interface = 8% of contact
pressure

• Burmister (1958) dveloped a chart for computing

vertical surface deflection in a two-layer system.
• The deflection factor, F2, is obtained from the
chart based on the values of a/h1 and E1/E2.
• Then the deflection is computed from the
following equations:
1.5𝑞𝑎
-Deflection under Flexible Plate : 𝑤𝑜 = 𝐹2
𝐸2

1.18𝑞𝑎
-Deflection under Rigid Plate : 𝑤𝑜 = 𝐹2
𝐸2

𝑞𝑎
• Vertical interface Deflection = 𝑤 = 𝐹 , Using Charts
𝐸2

- Strains due to the stresses mentioned :

1
𝜀𝑧 = [𝜎 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑟 + 𝜎𝑡 )
𝐸 𝑧
1
𝜀𝑟 = [𝜎 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑡 + 𝜎𝑧 )
𝐸 𝑟
1
𝜀𝑡 = [𝜎 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑟 )
𝐸 𝑡

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3. Performance and Failure Criteria for Pavements
A. Failure criteria of Flexible Pavements

The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting,

and thermal cracking. The fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is
due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphaltic
concrete. The failure criterion relates allowable number of load
repetitions to tensile strain and this relation can be determined in
the laboratory fatigue test on asphaltic concrete specimens. Rutting
occurs only on flexible pavements as indicated by permanent
deformation or rut depth along wheel load path. Two design
methods have been used to control rutting: one to limit the vertical
compressive strain on the top of subgrade and other to limit rutting
to a tolerable amount (12 mm normally). Thermal cracking includes
both low-temperature cracking and thermal fatigue cracking.

B. Failure criteria of Rigid Pavements

Traditionally fatigue cracking has been considered as the major, or

only criterion for rigid pavement design. The allowable number of
load repetitions to cause fatigue cracking depends on the stress ratio
between flexural tensile stress and concrete modulus of rupture. Of
late, pumping is identified as an important failure criterion. Pumping
is the ejection of soil slurry through the joints and cracks of cement
concrete pavement, caused during the downward movement of slab
under the heavy wheel loads. Other major types of distress in rigid
pavements include faulting, spalling, and deterioration.

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4. Structural Design
4.1 Design Factors
A. Traffic and Loading

Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design.

The key factors include contact pressure, wheel load, axle
configuration, moving loads, load, and load repetitions.
Contact Pressure : it determines the contact area and the contact
pressure between the wheel and the pavement surface.

Wheel Load : the wheel load which determines the depth of the
pavement required to ensure that the subgrade soil is not failed.

Moving Loads : The damage to the pavement is much higher if the

vehicle is moving at creep speed.

Repetition of Load : The influence of traffic on pavement not only

depend on the magnitude of the wheel load, but also on the frequency of
the load applications. Each load application causes some deformation
and the total deformation is the summation of all these.

B. Environmental Factors

Environmental factors that affect pavement are of two types,

temperature and precipitation.
Temperature : The effect of temperature on asphalt pavements is
different from that of concrete pavements. Temperature affects the
resilient modulus of asphalt layers, while it induces curling of concrete
slab.

Precipitation : The precipitation from rain and snow affects the quantity
of surface water infiltrating into the subgrade and the depth of ground
water table. Poor drainage may bring lack of shear strength, pumping,
loss of support, etc.

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C. Design Life

D. Sub-grade Supporting Capacity :

1) CBR, Measures Shearing Resistance

2) Resiliant Modulus, Describes Stiffness and Stress-Strain Relationship.

D. Strength characteristics of pavement materials

4.2 Quantification of Traffic

Traffic is determined in terms of number of repetitions of an 18000lb
single axle load applied to the pavement on two sets of dual tires,
and this is called the Equivalent Single-Axle Load.

ESAL

• Converts wheel load of various types of traffic to an equivalent

number of "Standard" loads.

• Based on the amount of damage they do to the pavement.

• The commonly used standard load is the 18000lb ESAL

• ESAL is computed for each axle category (i)

• ESAL for the axle category i accumulated in the design period t

ESAL = 𝑓𝑑 ∗ 𝐺𝑗𝑡 ∗ 𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇𝑖 ∗ 365 ∗ 𝑁𝑖 ∗ 𝐹𝑖

Where, 𝐺𝑗𝑡 is the Growth Factor Determined from Table 18.6 in

the notes. 𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇𝑖 is the Average Annual Daily Traffic. 𝑁𝑖 is the
Number of Axles. 𝐹𝑖 is the Load Equivalency Factor. 𝑓𝑑 is the
design lane factor.

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4.3 Design Methods
A. Flexible Pavement Design
The design of flexible pavements is on empirical basis due to :

1. Complexity encountered in the analysis of stresses in a multi-

layered elastic system.

2. The difficulty of allowing for the cumulative plastic deformation of

the Sub-grade resulting from the repetitive loading.

- Three Design method are used :

a. Group Index Method.

it is an arbitrary index assigned to the soil type and it has a numerical quantity
(0-20) , The higher the value the weaker the soil. It's based on the percent of
fines, Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index.

It uses charts to calculate the Group Index, Or by the equation :

GI = 0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd

After obtaining the group index, charts are used to find the layers thicknesses.

b. California Bearing Ratio (CBR).

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California Division of
Highway as a method of classifying and evaluating soil-sub grade and base
course materials for flexible pavements. CBR test, an empirical test, has been
used to determine the material properties for pavement design.

Studies carried out by the U.S. Corps of Engineers have shown that there exists a
relationship between pavement thickness, wheel load, tyre pressure and CBR
value within a range 10 to 12 percent.

1.75 1 1/2
𝑡 = √𝑃 [ − ]
𝐶𝐵𝑅 𝜋𝑝

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-Traffic is expressed in Commercial Vehicles/day in both directions

-Values on the y-axis give the depth of the layer/s above that layer whose CBR
value is considered.

-CBR of Subgrade gives total pavement thickness

-CBR of Subbase gives thickness of base+surfacing

-CBR of Base gives thickness of surfacing

C. British design method.

Developed by british engineers in 1960, uses design charts based on

cumulative traffic. In 1965, the charts were amended to take into
account different base materials.

Steps in Design :
1. Decide upon the design life of the road.

2. Determine the number of Commercial vehicles/day/direction expected to use

the road on the day its opened.

3. Determine the cumulative number of commercial vehicles/direction expected

to use the design lane using Figures.

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4. Determine the equivalent number if standard axles to be used for design using
Tables.

5. Determine the sub-base thickness, knowing the CBR of the subgrade using
figure.

6. Determine the road base and surfacing thicknesses from figures according to
used materials.

7. Check design for frost resistance, No material within 450 mm of the road
surface should be susceptible to frost action.

-Whereever practicable the water-table should be prevented from rising to

within 600mm of the formation level. This may be done by subsoil drainage or by
by raising the formation level by means of an embankment.

B. Rigid Pavement Design

1. Decide upon the design life.

2. Determine the equivalent number of standard axles to be used.

3. Determine the CBR value of the sub-grade and classify it using Tables.

4. Determine the sub-base thickness, using the CBR value in a prepared Table.

5. Decide upon the suitable type of sub-base material to be used among Type 1
(Angular Stones), Type 2 (Naturally occuring rounded stones).

6. Determine the slab thickness after deciding to use reinforced or unreinforced

concrete using figures and adjust the thickness to cater for the type of Sub-grade
by subtracting 25mm for very stable soils and adding 25mm for weak soils

7. Determine the weight of the reinforcement required using figure. and there
needs to be a cover for the reinforcement (60mm from the surface for slab
greater than 150mm thick and 50mm for slab lower than 150 thick, and 50mm
from the adjoining slab).

8. Decide upon the joint spacing :

a) Longitudinal Joints : Should be provided so that the slabs are not more
than 4.5m wide, except where special reinforcement is used.

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 b) Transverse joints : The maximum spacing of expansion joints
recommended is 60 m for slabs of 200mm or greater and 40m for slabs of
lesser thickness, with intermediate contraction joints at 5m intervals
where aggregates other than limestone is used. increase spacing by 20%
in the presence of limestone.

9. Specify all the details of joints in the concrete slab.

- Provide joint filler 25mm thick for expansion joints

- Provide all joints with a groove to accomodate the sealing material, fill
the groove with sealing compound to 5mm below the surface.

- Give all dowel bar details.

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5. Case Study
5.1 Calculations and Results
A. Design of The Flexible Pavement

1) Group Index Method (GI)

The Group Index Method is not applicable to what would now

be defined as heavy commercial traffic, i.e. in excess of 1500
c.v.d.

2) California Bearing Ratio Method (CBR)

 Traffic is 2000 Commercial Vehicles Per Day

 CBR of Sub-grade = 7%
 CBR of Sub-base = 22%
 CBR of Road-Base = 70%

Using Figure 7.10 to know the total pavement thickness, base +

surfacing, surfacing

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Total Pavement Thickness = 400 mm

Road-base + Surfacing = 190 mm

Surfacing = 85 mm

Sub-base = 210 mm

Road-base = 105 mm

3) British Method (Flexible Pavement)

 Design Life = 20 Years

 1000 c.v/day/direction
 Growth Rate of 5%
 Cumulative number of c.v/dir using Fig. 19.6 is 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
 Equivalent number of standard axles using Table 19.2 is
𝟖. 𝟔𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
 CBR for Sub-grade, Sub-base and Road-base is 7%,22%
and 70% Respectively.
 Thickness of Sub-base using Fig. 19.9 is 170 mm,
material for Sub-base could be Well Graded Sand
According to Table 19.3.
 Thickness of Road-base is 120 mm using Fig. 19.10. and
the material is crushed stone (The aggregate used for
base must be hard and durable).
 Thickness of Surfacing (basecourse + wearing course) is
100 mm.
 Using Table 19.4 (Column 2), the Wearing course is
Rolled asphalt and has a thickness of 40mm.
 Using Table 19.4 (Column 2), the Base course is Dense
bitumen macadam or dense tarmacadam.
 Total Pavement Thickness is 390mm.

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 (Crushed Stone)
Stone

Flexible Pavement Cross-Section

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B. Rigid Pavement Design

 Design life of 20 Years

 Growth rate of 5%
 Equivalent number of standard axles using Table 19.2 is
𝟖. 𝟔𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
 Sub-grade Classification is (Normal) Sub-grade.
 Sub-base Thickness using Table 19.6 is 80 mm
 Sub-base material : Type 1 (Crushed stone, slag or concrete)
 Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement is used.
 The Slab thickness is 200mm using Fig. 19.14.
 Standard long mesh is used as a reinforcement for the
concrete slab with a minimum weight of 3.41 kg/𝒎𝟐 .
 The reinforcement is provided with a 60mm cover from the
surface of the slab.
 The reinforcement should terminate at least 40mm from the
edge of the slab and from all joints except longitudinal joints.
Joints :
 Longitudinal Joints have a spacing of 4.5m.
 Expansion Joints have a spacing of 21m using Fig. 19.16.
 Contraction Joints have a spacing equal to One Third of the
Expansion Joints' Spacing.
 Expansion Joints should be provided with a joint filler 25mm
thick.
 Width of Groove for Expansion Joints is 30mm, and the depth
of seal is 25-30mm. Using Table 19.7 .
 Width of Groove for Contraction Joints is 10mm, and the depth
of seal is 20-25mm. Using Table 19.7 .
 Dowel bars should be installed for E.Joints with 25mm
Diameter and 650mm Length, with spacing of 300mm and a
cap at 1 end. Using Table 19.8 .
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  Dowel bars should be installed for C.Joints with 20mm
Diameter and 500mm Length, with spacing of 300mm. Using
Table 19.8 .
 Tie bars are installed for L.Joints having Length of 1m,
Diameter 12mm and Spacing 600mm .

Rigid Pavement Cross-Section

Expansion Joint with dowel bar installed

Dowel Bar
Joint
Length (mm) Diameter (mm) Spacing (mm)
Expansion 650 25 300
Contraction 500 20 300

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6. Cost Estimates
Cost Elements and Basis
A. Flexible Pavement

Rolled Asphalt = $0.93 per cubic foot

Screened Sand = $0.63 per cubic foot
Crushed Stone = $1.10 per cubic foot
Dense Tarmacadam = $1.00 per cubic foot

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B. Rigid Pavement

Concrete without rebar = $5.00 per yard

Rebar = 552.52 Per Tonne

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