A large number of elements can be magnetized with the application of an external

magnetic field. But there exist some elements that show magnetism even when the
external magnetic field is switched off. Finite magnetization in the absence of a magnetic
field is called spontaneous magnetization. The elements that show finite spontaneous
magnetization are called ferromagnetic elements and the phenomenon is called
ferromagnetism. The spontaneous magnetization suggests that the electron spins and
hence the magnetic moments are aligned in a regular manner. Therefore, a
ferromagnetic state is an ordered state and ferromagnetism is a cooperative
phenomenon. Some common ferromagnetic elements are F e 26 , N i 27, C o28 , G d 64, and
66
D y . In addition to these there are a large number of ferromagnetic materials that are
either oxides or alloys of the elements listed above.

At very low temperatures, a ferromagnetic material shows spontaneous magnetization

M (T ), which is a function of temperature T . With an increase in temperature, M (T )
decreases and at a particular temperature T c, spontaneous magnetization vanishes. T c is
called the ferromagnetic transition temperature above which the material behaves as a
paramagnetic material. Therefore, T c separates the ordered ferromagnetic state from the
disordered paramagnetic state.
19.1 WEISS MOLECULAR FIELD THEORY
Weiss was the first to explain ferromagnetic behavior in solids. He made two
assumptions

1 A ferromagnetic substance of macroscopic dimensions contains, in general, a

large number of small regions, called ferromagnetic domains, which show
spontaneous magnetization M (T ) as a function of temperature T . In one domain
all the magnetic moments are aligned in one direction, but the direction of
alignment may be different in different domains. The spontaneous magnetization
in a domain is defined as the vector sum of the magnetic dipole moments of all
the atoms in that domain divided by the volume. From the above facts, it is
evident that spontaneous magnetization is a cooperative phenomenon of all the
atomic dipoles within a single domain.
2 Within each domain there is some internal interaction tending to align all the
magnetic moments parallel to each other. This internal interaction gives rise to a
field, which was called the molecular field by Weiss, though perhaps more
appropriately it should be called the exchange field H e x (see Section 19.5). Weiss
assumed that the molecular field is proportional to the magnetization, that is,
H e x (T )=λ M M (T )
Here λ M is called the molecular (or Weiss) constant and is independent of temperature.
According to Eq. (19.1) the molecular field is a function of temperature. In this
approximation, each magnetic moment sees the average magnetization of all other
magnetic moments.