Chapter 6

Momentum

Momentum is discussed in this chapter in a way parallel to the previous chapter on

energy.

6.1 Momentum And Impulse

By default,
Single Particle
“momentum”
Similar to the derivation of the work-energy theorem, we can derive the analogous refers to “linear
impulse-momentum theorem by starting with Newton’s 2nd law: momentum”.

F = ma
Z Z
) Fdt = m adt

) I=m v= p, (6.1)

where

p ⌘ mv (6.2)

is the momentum of a point particle, and

Z
I ⌘ Fdt (6.3)

is the impulse.
Composite System
For a system of N particles, the total momentum of all components is related to
the impulse due to external forces through the same relation
Z
Iext ⌘ Fext tot dt = Ptot ⌘ [M vCM ] , (6.4)

52
where X
M⌘ mi (6.5)
i

is the total mass and rCM (vCM ) is the center-of-mass position (velocity)
X mi drCM
vCM ⌘ .
rCM ⌘ ri . (6.6) dt
i
M

Exercise: Prove the statement above.

Conversely,
Solution: imposing the
First, the sum of the momenta of all components of a system is condition
" # Iext = P on all
X X d X d
Ptot ⌘ pi = mi vi = mi ri = [M rCM ] = M vCM . (6.7) composite
dt dt
i i i systems leads to
Newton’s 3rd
On the other hand,
law.
" # 2 3
X X XZ XZ X
Ptot = pi = Ii = Fi dt = 4Fext
i + Fij 5 dt
i i i i j6=i
Z X XZ
= Fext
i dt + Fij dt = Iext , (6.8)
i i6=j

where in the last step we have used Newton’s 3rd law. Therefore, we have eq.(6.4) as we
claimed above.
Prove this
The time derivative of eq.(6.4) is directly from
dPtot Newton’s 2nd
Fext = . (6.9) law and 3rd law.
dt

For an order of
Q: Why is the impulse-momentum theorem valid for a composite system while the magnitude
work-energy theorem is typically invalid. estimation of a
force F exerted
Q: There is no discrepancy between the macroscopic momentum M vCM and the on an object over
P
microscopic momentum i pi , unlike the case of energy. What is the crucial mathe- a short period of
matical property that distinguishes momentum from energy? time t, one can
use the formula
Q: If eq.(6.4) is observed to hold in an inertial frame, does it hold in another inertial
P
frame? Does either Iext or Ptot change when you change the reference frame? F= .
t
As an immediate implication of the relation (6.4), the total momentum of an
isolated system is constant. This is the statement of momentum conservation.
Energy-Momentum Conservation
Exercise: Given two particles (in the center-of-mass frame) with opposite initial mo-
In an elastic
menta p1 = p2 , what are all the possible final momenta after an elastic scattering? scattering, the
Solution: total kinetic
Momentum conservation implies that p01 = p02 . energies of the
initial state and
53 the final state
are the same.
 The angle between p1 and p01 is not constrained. What about the magnitude of p01 and
p02 ? Energy conservation implies that

p21 p2 p0 2 p0 2
+ 2 = 1 + 2
2m1 2m2 2m1 2m2
2
) p21 = p01 . (6.10)

That is, the magnitude of the momenta remains the same.

For an isolated
Q: What about two particles with arbitrary initial momenta p1 and p2 ? Can we system, it is
determine their final momenta p01 and p02 up to an arbitrary angle? convenient to go
to the
Q: The initial momenta p1 and p2 of two particles determine a 2-dimensional plane center-of-mass
in space. Are the final momenta p01 and p02 necessarily on the same plane? frame.
Exercise: Consider an object of mass m bound with another object of mass m.
The forces F12 and F21 on each other satisfy the 3rd law and there is no other force
Would there be
present. How would you predict the behavior of this bound system? violation of
Q: Why is there no negative mass (so far)? energy or
momentum?

6.2 Examples
You need to keep
First step for all problems: Is energy or momentum conserved? Are they both con-
in mind the
served? conditions for
energy and
1. elastic scattering momentum
conservation.
Example: Two meteorites “scatter” by gravity.

Example: A ball hitting a rigid wall.

Q: Is energy or momentum conserved?

Q: If this happens in a spaceship, is the total momentum conserved?

Example: Two particles turn into two other particles after collision.

Q: How is this problem different from the scattering of two particles?

Q: How is this problem different if the formulae for energy and momentum are
changed (e.g. due to relativistic effect)?

HW: (E-1) On a surface with no friction, a box of mass m moves at a velocity v

towards a spring (of spring constant k) attached to a box of mass (with a total
mass M ). (1) What will be the maximal length of suppression of the spring
during the collision? (2) What will be the final velocity of the box of mass m
after the collision?

54
 2. inelastic scattering

Example: A bug splattered on the windshield of a car on a highway.

Q: Which suffers bigger force, bigger impulse, or bigger momentum exchange?

Example: Two blobs of clay collide into one big piece.

Example: A bombshell explodes into two pieces.

Example: A particle “absorbs” another particle.

Q: How do energy and momentum conservations constrain this phenomenon?

3. continuous objects
Thinking of all
Example: Machine gun. the bullets as a
system, this is an
Q: Given the mass, velocity and rate of shooting bullets, what is the average example showing
force on a target? that p can be
non-zero due to
Example: Water jet. change in mass
as well as change
Q: Given the density, velocity and cross-sectional area, what is the force due to
in velocity.
the water jet?

Example: Rocket thrust.

HW: (E-2) A machine gun that shoots N bullets (each of mass m) per unit
time at the velocity v is used to “hold” a box of weight W in the air. What will
be the distance between the box and the gun? Assume that all bullets stuck on
the surface of the box.

Exercise: 2-Body Scattering in 1D:

If a ball of mass m at velocity v hits on a ball of mass M initially at rest, what will
be their final velocities?
Solution:
Momentum and energy conservations imply

mv = mv 0 + M V 0 , (6.11)
1 1 2 1 2
mv 2 = mv 0 + M V 0 . (6.12)
2 2 2
m(v v 0 )
The first equation gives V 0 = M , so the 2nd equation becomes
If M > m, v 0 is
in the opposite
55
direction as v.
If M < m, v 0 is
in the same
direction as v.
When M m,
v 0 ' v.
When M ⌧ m,
v 0 ' v.
 m2 (v v 0 )2
m(v + v 0 )(v v0) =
M
) M (v + v 0 ) = m(v 0
v)
M m
) v0 = v. (6.13)
M +m
The velocity V 0 is thus
2m
V0 = v. (6.14)
M +m

Exercise: 3-Body Scattering in 1D:

Following the previous question, if the 2nd ball of mass M is initially placed next to
Strictly speaking,
another ball of mass m at rest (on the other side of the 2nd ball so the 1st ball does this problem is
not hit the 3rd ball), what will happen? not well defined.
Solution: See the next
If we can decompose this process into two consecutive 2-body scattering processes, after the exercise.
scattering of the first and the 2nd balls as analyzed in the previous exercise, the 2nd ball
hits the 3rd ball, and the 2nd scattering can be described by the same result (with m and
M interchanged etc.). There might be another scattering if M < m because the 2nd ball
bounces back to hit the first ball again after the 2nd scattering, and even more scatterings
can happen. To simplify the problem, let us consider the case M > m here and leave the
other case M < m to the readers.
For M > m, while the first ball still has the final velocity
M m
v0 = v (6.15)
M +m
as above since there is no 3rd scattering, the final velocities of the 2nd ball V 00 and the 3rd
ball v 00 are
M m 0 2m(M m)
V 00 = V = v, (6.16)
M +m (M + m)2
2M 4M m
v 00 = V0 = v. (6.17)
m+M (M + m)2

Exercise: 3-Body Scattering in 1D (continued):

Without referring to how the balls interact with one another, what would be the most
general result for the previous exercise?
Solution:
If the only constraints are the conservations of energy and momentum of the whole process,
For instance, if
we only have two equations the balls carry
electric charges,
mv = mv 0 + M V 0 + mv 00 , (6.18)
we cannot clearly
1 1 2 1 2 1 2 decompose the
mv 2 = mv 0 + M V 0 + mv 00 (6.19)
2 2 2 2 3-body
scattering into
two consecutive
56 2-body
scatterings.
for 3 unknowns v 0 , v 00 , V 0 . There are infinitely many solutions. In addition to the solution
already mentioned above, another solution is to have

v 0 = 0, V 0 = 0, v 00 = v. (6.20)

Q: Newton’s Cradle:
Why don’t the balls in the middle move?
What would happen if more than one balls fall at the same time?

Q: Paradox about Newton’s Cradle:

Consider Newton’s cradle with N balls. After the first ball hits on the 2nd ball at
Q: Why can’t
speed v, the last ball moves at speed v, while the first ball stops moving, and the
we allow the
remaining (N 2) balls in between stay at rest. Since the (N 2) balls in the middle (N 2) balls in
have not moved at all in the process, if we replace the (N 2) balls by a rod of the the middle
same mass, the same initial state should result in the same final state: The first ball moving at the
stops and the last ball moves at speed v. On the other hand, When N is large, we same velocity?

have a heavy rod, and the first ball should bounce back with a velocity roughly of
the same magnitude, while the last ball is not expected to move.
This is an
Solution: example where
The mechanism behind Newton’s cradle is a sequence of (N 1) 2-body scattering. If we the macroscopic
glue the (N 2) balls in the middle together to make a rod (assuming that the glue is strong description is
enough to make them behave like a rigid rod), the first ball hits the rod through a 2-body insufficient to
resolve the
scattering, and the rod hits the last ball through another 2-body scattering. It is a different
degeneracy.
process. In other words, even though the balls in the middle stay at rest in the first process,
it does not mean that the result will not be changed if we glue them together (or fix their
positions in space). A crucial question is whether the 2nd scattering happens before or after
the 1st scattering.
Q: What happens if we replace steel balls by massive springs?
Exercise: A bullet of mass m is shot into a block of wood of mass M hung on a tree
by a rope of length R. Assume that the friction is f and the bullet’s initial velocity
is v, and that the bullet stays inside the wood in the end. (Ignore the change in v

57
due to gravity.) (1) How high can the bullet make the wood swing? (2) How much
energy is turned into heat? (3) Do you expect a higher swing for a larger friction?
Here we assume
Solution: that R is
The initial momentum of the bullet is mv. The velocity of the bullet-wood system right sufficiently large
after the hit is v 0 ⌘ Mmv
+m due to momentum conservation. The energy is conserved after so that one can
the hit: ✓ ◆2 ignore the
1 02 1 mv change in height
(M + m)gh = (M + m)v = (M + m) , (6.21)
2 2 M +m before the bullet
so ✓ ◆2 stops with
1 mv respect to the
h= . (6.22)
2g M + m wood.
The energy transferred into heat is
1 1 2 mM
mv 2 (M + m)v 0 = v2. (6.23)
2 2 2(M + m)

Notice that the

HW: (E-3) Following the exercise above, (a) What is the depth of the bullet inside work done by the
the wood? (b) What is the work done by the friction to the bullet? (c) What is friction to the
bullet is different
the work done by the friction to the wood? (d) How is the heat (an answer for the
from that to the
exercise above) related to the answers to questions (b) and (c)?
wood.
Q: Does the work done by the friction to the bullet or to the wood depend on the
friction f ?
Exercise: Falling chains.
A (roughly) uniform chain of mass M and length L is hung at rest with its end
touching a scale. After it is released at t = 0, what will be the reading on the scale
at a time t > 0?
Solution:
Energy is not conserved. Momentum of the chain is changed by the impulse due to the scale.
The back-reaction force on the scale is equally large. The length of the chain in the air at t
is
1 2
L(t) = L gt . (6.24)
2
The mass of the chain in the air is
L(t)
M (t) = M . (6.25)
L
The velocity is v(t) = gt. The force is
✓ ◆
dp d Mg 3 2
F = = (M (t)v(t)) = L gt = Fscale + M g, (6.26)
dt dt L 2
so
3M g 2 t2
Fscale = . (6.27)
2L
At the last moment L = gt2 /2, so Fscale = 3M g.

58
 Another approach: Think of the links hitting the scale like bullets.
dM (t)
Fscale = weight of the chain on the scale v(t)
dt
M g 2 t2 M g 2 t 2 3M g 2 t2
= + = . (6.28)
2L L 2L

6.3 Comments
P
• The microscopic energy 1 2
i 2 mi vi in general does not agree with the macro-
scopic energy 12 M vCM
2
.
P
• The microscopic momentum i pi agrees with the macroscopic momentum P
Ptot = i pi =
M vCM . M vCM

• The conservation of energy in a different inertial frame requires momentum

conservation.

• The conservation of momentum in a different inertial frame is automatic.

• The definition of the potential energy is defined only up to a constant.

Q: Are there other generic conservation laws?

We will talk
Q: Are there non-generic conservation laws specific to a certain class of problems? about angular
momentum.
Q: Why are there conservation laws? Are they coincidences?
Q: How many of the problems in the previous chapters can be solved using the Many
conservation laws without using Newton’s 2nd law explicitly? conservation
laws are
associated with
symmetries:
energy with time
translation,
momentum with
space translation
and angular
momentum with
rotation.

59
Exercises
1. Answer the following questions.
(a) Three physical quantities A, B, and C uniquely determine another quan-
tity D. The units of them are [A] = LT 2 , [B] = M/T , [C] = M LT and
[D] = M 2 L. What is the most general expression of D in terms of A, B,
and C?
Solution:
We have [AB 2 ] = [D] and [AB] = [C], so

D = AB 2 f (AB/C) = BCf1 (AB/C) = A 1

C 2 f2 (AB/C). (6.29)

for an arbitrary function f (or f1 or f2 ).

(b) See the figure on the right. If a point mass initially at rest at point A
slides down to B. What would be its velocity at point B ?
Solution:
The magnitude is
p
v= 2g(R1 + h) (6.30)

and the direction is upward.

(c) A conservative force on a particle at (x, y, z) is given by Fx = 2Axy,
Fy = Ax2 , and Fz = 2Bz for given constants A and B. What is the po-
tential energy U (x, y, z)? Solution:

U (x, y, z) = Ax2 y Bz 2 , (6.31)

2. A spaceship of initial mass M moves in the x-direction by ejecting gas at the

velocity v relative to the spaceship at the rate of mass k per unit time in the
( x)-direction. The velocity of the spaceship is x̂u0 at t = 0. (a) What is the
velocity of the spaceship at a later time t (t > 0)? (b) What is the fictitious
force Ff ict (t) on a particle of mass m with respect to the spaceship’s rest frame?
Solution:
(a) The mass of the spaceship is

M (t) = M kt. (6.32)

60
 When the spaceship is at the velocity u(t),
d
(M (t)u(t)) = k(v u(t)).
dt
) M (t)u̇(t) = kv.
kv
) u̇(t) = .
M kt ✓ ◆
M
) u(t) = u0 v log(M kt)|t0 = u0 + v log . (6.33)
M kt
The velocity is
 ✓ ◆
M
u = x̂ u0 + v log . (6.34)
M kt

(b) The fictitious force is

mkv
Ff ict = mu̇ = x̂ . (6.35)
M kt

3. A uniform rope of length L is initially at rest with one endpoint

fixed on the edge of a table and the other endpoint at a height
h above. The higher endpoint is then released. (a) When it is a
distance d lower than the fixed endpoint, what is the speed v of the
falling endpoint? (b) What are your answers of v for (i) d = h
and (ii) d = L and h 0?

Solution:
(a) With the fixed endpoint as the reference point, the initial potential energy is

h hM g (L h) (L h)M g (2h2 (L h)2 )M g (L2 2Lh h2 )M g

Ui = = = .
2 L 4 L 4L 4L
(6.36)

The potential energy at the point of consideration is

✓ ◆
d dM g L d (L d)M g (L2 + 2Ld d2 )M g
U= +d = . (6.37)
2 L 4 L 4L
The change in potential energy is thus

(2L(d + h) + h2 d2 )M g (h + d)(2L + h d)M g

U =U Ui = = . (6.38)
4L 4L
This leads to an increase in the kinetic energy
1 (L d)M 2 (h + d)(2L + h d)M g
v = , (6.39)
2 2L 4L

61
so
r r
(h + d)(2L + h d)g (2L(h + d) + h2 d2 )g
v= = . (6.40)
L d L d

(b) (i) For d = h, the rope has not dropped at all, so v = 0.

(ii) For d = L, all the potential energy is given to an infinitesimally small mass as its
kinetic energy, so v = 1.

62