Cosmology

DSE: Astronomy and Astrophysics (32227506)
Unit 5: Cosmology
November 26, 2022
Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 1 / 38

Outline
• Standard Candles ( Cepheids and SNe Type1a)

• Cosmic Distance Ladder
• Olbers Paradox,
• Hubble Expansion
• Cosmological Principle
• Newtonian Cosmology
• Friedmann Models

Cosmic Distance Ladder
To specify the position of an object in three-dimensional space, we need 3

coordinates. But, if we are observing from the Earth (or its vicinity from
satellites), we should make use spherical polar coordinate system with us
being the reference point (i.e. the origin). Two of the coordinates, namely,
θ and ϕ (which are related to the declination and right ascension,
respectively) are easily fixed by pointing a telescope in the direction of the
object. Fixing the distance to an astronomical object is relatively trickier.
In this context, the basic principle involved is to use the properties of the
nearby objects and deduce distances of similar objects farther off using
these properties. Then we use the latter objects to deduce the distances to
objects still farther, and so on. This series of steps which takes us from
one step (in terms of distances) to the next step (in terms of distances
even farther) is termed the Cosmic Distance Ladder.

Cosmic Distance Ladder (conti ...)

Cosmic Distance Ladder (conti ...)

Distance Measurement using Cepheid Variables
Let us see how the method of measuring distances by parallax method can
be used to calibrate another technique for distance measurements using
Cepheid variable stars, which in turn are used to measure even further
distances. The brightness of Cepheid variable stars is a periodic function
of time.

Distance Measurement using Cepheid Variables (conti ...)
We have a large number of such stars in our neighbourhood. Their
distances can be measured by the parallax method. From these distances
and from their observed apparent magnitudes, their absolute magnitudes
and luminosities can be calculated. It turns out that their absolute
magnitudes are directly proportional to their periods. This is called the
period-luminosity relation for the Cepheids.

Distance Measurement using Cepheid Variables (conti ...)
This period-luminosity relation for the Cepheids is firmly established for

the local sample. Now we assume, that the distant sample of these stars
also obey this relation. So, the observed period of a member of the distant
sample is used to find its absolute magnitude. The apparent magnitude
can be observed directly. Using the relation between the absolute
magnitude and the apparent magnitude:
M = m + 5 − 5 log r (1)
we can find the distance of this star. In this way, the Cepheid variable
stars have been used to find distances of nearby galaxies. Used in this
manner, Cepheids are called standard candles.
We can now use Cepheids to define some other objects, such as

supernovae, to act as standard candles to estimate even larger distances.

Type 1A supernovae (SNe Type1a as standard candles)
Supernovae occur when massive stars explode at the end of their lives. A
white dwarf star in a binary pair with a red dwarf star steals mass from the
red dwarf until it is too massive to support itself against gravity any more.
Then its core collapses, starting a runaway nuclear reaction and a bright
explosion. Because the collapse always happens at the same mass, the
luminosity of the explosion is always the same. From this known
luminosity we can estimate the distance.
Supernovae are very bright – often as bright as all the stars in a whole
galaxy put together. Because they are so bright, we can see them at very
great distances, up to around 10,000,000,000 parsecs.
The disadvantage of supernovae as standard candles is that they don’t

hang around - you have to spot them when they go off, or shortly
afterwards.

Hubble’s Law
We find that distant galaxies are rushing away from us with velocities
which are proportional to their distances. This is called Hubble’s law. It
was discovered by Edwin Hubble and it relates the distances of galaxies
with the velocities with which they are receding away from us.

Hubble’s Law (conti ...)
The velocity of any object can be resolved into two components: a
component that is along the line-of-sight and another that is along the
transverse direction from the line-of-sight. The line of-sight component of
the velocity can be determined very accurately by Doppler shift of the
light that we receive from the object. Hence this gives the velocity with
which the object is coming towards us or receding away from us.
Using similar methods, Hubble estimated the distances and velocities of a

set of galaxies and plotted them and hence inferred that galaxies in were
receding away from us. This is popularly known as the theory of
expanding universe. Further, the velocities with which they are receding
away, are directly proportional to their distances from us.
v =Hr (2)
where v is the line-of-sight velocity of an object, r its distance from us and

H is called the Hubble constant.
Hubble’s Law (conti ...)
The importance of this relation is that, once we know the velocity of a

galaxy (by red shift measurement), we can calculate the distance at which
it is located. Hubble’s law holds even if we were on some other galaxy.
Our location in the universe does not have any special importance.
From eqn. (2), we notice that H is the slope of the curve between
distance and velocity . In a very simple picture, we can imagine that all
the galaxies which are today moving away from one another, were, at
some time in the past, together at one point. Some event occurred at that
time which triggered the expansion of the universe. This event is usually
called the Big Bang. The quantity H −1 measures the time since that
event, or the age of the universe.

Olbers’s Paradox
Heinrich Olbers, a physician and astronomer who publicized the problem
of the “ night sky” in 1826.
Figure: Image credits: Astronomy- the Solar System and Beyond (by Michael A. Seeds and Dana E. Backman)

Olbers’s Paradox (conti ...)
Olbers has used the analogy of lines of sight in a forest. When we are deep
in a forest, every line of sight ends at a tree trunk, and we cannot see out
of the forest. In the same spirit, every line of sight from Earth into space
should eventually end at the surface of a star. Of course, the more distant
stars would be fainter than nearby stars because of the inverse square law.
However, the farther we look into space, the larger the volume we are
viewing and the more stars are included; the two effects cancel out.
The result should be that the entire sky should be as bright as the surface
of an average star — like suns crowded “shoulder to shoulder,” covering
the sky from horizon to horizon. It should not get dark at night.

Olbers’s Paradox (conti ...)
The paradox : Let us suppose the Universe is infinite and that the stars
are uniformly distributed in space. No matter in what direction one looks,
sooner or later the line of sight will encounter the surface of a star. Since
the surface brightness does not depend on distance, each point in the sky
should appear to be as bright as the surface of the Sun. This clearly is not
true.
Solution to the puzzle : Olbers’s paradox makes an incorrect prediction

because it is based on incorrect assumptions. The universe may be infinite
in size, but it is neither infinitely old nor static. The essence of modern
cosmologists’ answer to Olbers’s question was suggested first by Edgar
Allan Poe in 1848. He proposed that the night sky is dark because the
universe is not infinitely old but came into existence at some finite time in
the past. The more distant stars are so far away that light from them has
not yet reached Earth.

Cluster of Galaxies
A cluster of galaxies contains about a thousand galaxies. A galaxy cluster

consists of a variety of galaxies. It is an observed fact that the gross
features of these clusters are very similar.
We expect that roughly the same kind of physical processes are responsible
for their evolution. Further, it is also assumed that they were created at
different times and began to evolve.

Cluster of Galaxies (conti ...)

Cluster of Galaxies (conti ...)
Let us consider a set of systems, A, B, C, and so on. Let the evolution in

each of these systems be governed by the same physical processes. If they
started to evolve at different times, we would expect that at any time, in
particular today, they should be in different stages of evolution. Hence, we
would expect they should not show great similarity.
However, if we find that they look similar today, one may naively think
that they must have got created at the same time, but observations
suggest that is not true.
In fact, cosmologists believe they may have been created at different times
but they have reached some kind of steady state today. Such systems have
a simple, but important relationship for their kinematic parameters such as
their mass and velocity. This relationship is called the virial theorem.

Virial theorem and dark matter
The virial theorem states that if a system is bounded and is in equilibrium,

then its moment of inertia does not change with time. Such a system will
have the following relation between its total kinetic and potential energies:
2T + V = 0 (3)
where, T is the total kinetic and V is the total potential energy of the
system.
Let us imagine a spherical system of gravitationally interacting N particles.

If ⃗ri and ⃗vi be the position and velocity of the i th particle then we can
write the total kinetic energy and potential energy of the system in the
following way-
N
1 X 2
K= m ⃗vi (4)
2
i=1

Virial theorem and dark matter (conti ...)
X mi mj
V =G (5)
|⃗ri − ⃗rj |
i>j
For a spherically symmetric distribution, V ∝ M(R)/R, with R being the

radius of the system and M the total mass enclosed in a sphere of radius
R.
The total kinetic energy can be estimated in the following manner: If the
velocities are in random directions, some of the particles of the system will
contribute a blue shift and some red shift. This will result in broadening of
the spectral lines. Hence, from the width of the spectral lines we can
estimate the root mean square (rms) velocity. This gives the total kinetic
energy. If the system is in equilibrium, we should have
V 2 1
T = ⇒ vrms ∝ (6)
2 R
Virial theorem and dark matter (conti ...)
An estimate of the mass of the system in this manner, suggests that there
is much more mass in the system as compared to that suggested by the
luminous mass alone.
Hence, it is postulated that there should be a significant fraction of mass

in the form of dark matter. What form this dark matter takes, we do not
yet know.
One possibility is that it consists of cold, burnt out stars which emit very
little radiation. Another possibility is that it is in the form of particles
which interact very weakly with normal matter.

Newtonian Cosmology
In cosmology, we set up equations and solve them to obtain the very large
scale features of the universe. To set up the basic equations governing the
evolution of the universe as a whole, Newtonian theory of gravity is
inadequate rather inapplicable. However, it can still result into correct
equations as predicted by the most accepted theory- the General theory of
relativity (or GTR) in this aspect.
We know that over a variety of scales the universe is not homogeneous.

We have planets, stars, galaxies and clusters of galaxies, which indicate
that the universe is far from being homogeneous. However, if we consider
the universe as a whole, then at large enough scales the universe seems to
be homogeneous and isotropic.

Newtonian Cosmology (conti ...)
We would now derive the equations that govern the overall evolution of a
homogeneous universe.
Let us construct a sphere with two points: O (being the centre) and P such
that, OP be the radius, of a sphere. The force with which a test particle at
P is gravitationally pulled towards O can be calculated by just using the
mass enclosed by the sphere. As we know, the mass outside the sphere will
not exert any net force on P. If ρ(t) be the density of matter independent
of position (due to homogeneity of space) but in general a function of
time. Then, the mass of this sphere with radius r (t) = OP is given by
4π
M= ρ(t) r 3 (t) (7)
3

The gravitational potential at P due to this sphere is = GM/r and let

v = r˙ be the velocity with which P is moving with respect to O.
Depending on the magnitudes of the kinetic energy (T ) and the potential
energy (U), the particle at point P may keep moving away from O or may
turn back and fall towards O. This is the well known condition for escape
velocity.
The total energy per unit mass (E ) of a test particle at P is
v 2 GM
E =T +V = − (8)
2 r
or,
2G M
r˙2 − 2 E = (9)
r

If E > 0 , then the distance between P and O will keep increasing and if
E < 0, P will attain a maximum distance from O and then begin to fall
towards O. We can also write:
−2 E = 2 k |E | (10)
where, k = 1 for E < 0. Using eqn.(10), we can re-write eqn.(9) as
2G M
r˙2 + 2 k |E | = (11)
r
Dividing both sides by r 2 and expressing the mass M in terms of the
density ρ as: M = 4πρr 3 /3, such that we get-
r˙2 2 k |E | 8πG ρ
2
+ 2
= (12)
r r 3

Friedmann equation
p
Defining a new variable a = r / 2|E | , we can now write the Friedmann
equation governing the evolution of the distance between two particles i.e.
ȧ2 k 8πG ρ
+ = (13)
a2 a2 3
We get the same equation from the general theory of relativity. The
parameter k then signifies the curvature of space. In the general theory of
relativity, the effect of the gravitational field is to make the space curved.
The curvature of space is denoted by k, which can take values: +1, 0or 1,
depending on the overall density of the universe. It is a measure of total
energy of the particle.
The quantity a is called the scale factor and the nature of a as function of
t (time) indicates the nature of the expansion of the universe.

Friedmann equation (conti ...)

These curves are the solutions of the Friedmann equation. We see that
when k = 1 (which according to general theory of relativity implies that
the overall density of the universe is less than a certain critical density), or
k = 0 (the overall density of the universe equals the critical density), the
universe keeps expanding.
However, When k = +1 (the overall density of the universe is greater than

the critical density), the universe expands up to a point and then starts
contracting.
Present observations indicate that the universe will keep expanding, and
its expansion will not be followed by contraction.

In the early phase of the universe, the curvature must have been small, so
it is sufficient to consider the case of k = 0. The solution of the Friedmann
equations, of course, depends on the nature of energy density. If ρ ∝ a−n ,
the equation can be solved for k = 0 and the result comes out to be
a ∝ (n/2)(2/n) t (2/n) (14)

Re-writing eq.(13) as
8π
r˙2 =
G ρ(t)r 2 − 2 k |E | (15)
3
Also, If we denote the present values of various parameters by subscript 0,
we can write
r02

1 8π 2 2 8π 2
k= G ρ(t)r − r˙ = G ρ0 (t) − H0 (16)
2|E | 3 2|E | 3
where, H(t) = r˙(t)/r (t) is called the Hubble’s parameter, such that its
present value can be denoted as, H0 (t) = r˙(t0 )/r (t0 ).
If two galaxies separated by distance d now are receding away from one
another with a velocity v (independent of time), then there must have
been some time in the past, when the distance between them was very
small. This state existed at time τ (say) before now, such that
d 1
τ= = (17)
v H0
Hubble Time
The quantity 1/H0 called the Hubble time, gives a rough estimate of the
time when expansion of the universe started. Thus, it sets the scale for the
age of the universe.
The present value of H, denoted by H0 lies somewhere between

50 − 100 km s −1 Mpc −1 , that suggests the age of the universe to be in the
range 20 − 10 billion yrs.
In cosmology, we mostly use H0 = 100 km s −1 Mpc −1 , such that a lies

between 0.5 − 1.

Let us consider the three cases for k:

• k > 0:
In this case, the universe is gravitationally bound. The solution of the
Friedmann equation suggests the curve of r (t) against t is a cycloid.
r (t) increases with t initially, reaches a maximum value and thereafter
decreases. Thus, expansion gives way to a contraction after rmax is
reached.
This model corresponds to idea of an oscillating universe. Since,
r = 0 is a singular state, hence, we yet don’t know how to deal with
this situation!!

• k=0
The kinetic energy being equal to potential energy in this case, r can
continue to increase with time. The universe expands faster initially
and then the expansion slows down, but r˙ is never equal to zero and
hence there is no contraction phase. The Friedmann equation
suggests, r (t) ∝ t 2/3 . This model is known as Einstein-de Sitter
model of the universe.
• k <0
In this case, the kinetic energy term is larger than the potential
energy term and the universe expands forever.
When r is small, it varies as t 2/3 as in the Einstein-de Sitter model,
while when its value if quite large, r˙ → constant value, i.e. r (t) ∝ t.

Early Universe and nucleosynthesis
It can be readily observed (considering ρ(t) ∝ a−4 for radiations, and

using eqn.(14)) that temperature of radiation varies as inverse of the
square root of time. The immediate consequence of this is that the
radiation temperature in early times should have been very high. If matter
and radiation were in thermal equilibrium, the above statements imply
that the temperature of matter was also high in early times.
Temperature is a measure of the mean kinetic energy which in turn implies

high energy collisions between particles. The earlier the epoch, the higher
the energy with which these particles collide with each other. Today, we
know about the physical phenomena at high energies from experimental
investigations using high energy particle accelerators and colliders. We
should expect that the same phenomenon must have taken place in the
early universe. In fact, for this reason, early universe is often called the
poor man’s laboratory.

Early Universe and nucleosynthesis (conti ...)
An important class of reactions at high energy is those which lead to the

synthesis of nuclei of elements. Very early on, there were the hydrogen
nuclei, i.e., protons. At those energies, even if the protons and neutrons
combined to form higher atomic number nuclei (e.g., the Helium nucleus),
the kinetic energies of the particles were so high that the collisions would
have immediately disintegrated them.
As the universe cooled down, a certain temperature was reached when the
energies were low enough that this backward reaction (namely
disintegration) began to get suppressed. Hence, stable helium nucleus got
formed. As the temperature lowered further, higher atomic number nuclei
must have begun to get synthesized.
However, we know that we cannot hope to understand the synthesis of all
the naturally occurring nuclei in this manner.

Early Universe and nucleosynthesis (conti ...)
This line of reasoning works for formation of only the elements with first
few atomic numbers. As the temperature decreases, Lithium and some
Boron can get synthesized at best. The problem comes up when we need
to form Beryllium.
In the process of the formation of the stable Beryllium nucleus, one passes
through an intermediate stage where, spontaneous disintegration is faster
than the fusion. So even before there can be fusion the nucleus which is
supposed to participate in the fusion, disintegrates. Hence one cannot
form Beryllium by this procedure.
Only after the formation of Beryllium, can the nuclei of higher atomic
numbers be formed. Hence this is called the “Beryllium Bottleneck”.
The universe has to wait for a very long time, namely, till stars form, in
order to synthesize elements of atomic number 5 and higher.

Cosmic Background Radiation
In 1965, Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias, at the Bell Telephone

Laboratories discovered accidentally a radiation at a very low temperature
of only 3 K which seemed to come from all directions. It was highly
isotropic. It was suggested that the radiation fills the whole universe.
Since the wavelength of the peak radiation, ∼ 1 mm, falls in the
microwave region, it was called the cosmic microwave background
radiation (CMBR).
This is the relic of the era when the universe was very hot and dense. It is
argued that the radiation was once very hot and has been cooled to its
present temperature due to the expansion of the universe over billions of
years. The same energy fills an every increasing volume, so its energy
density decreases and so does its temperature.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR)
It shows that the universe was once very hot and dense. This phase is
generally known as the ‘hot Big Bang’. The idea is that some violent
event took place at that time which sent the universe expanding.
Also, if the early universe had not been hot and dense, it would not have
been possible to synthesise light elements, such as Hydrogen , Helium and
Lithium. In fact, the prediction of the precise observed abundances of
these light elements is a very powerful argument in favour of the universe
that changes with time: an evolutionary universe.
This lends great support to theories of the universe which maintain that
the universe is changing with time, that is, it is evolving.
Its existence is a very powerful argument against theories which propose

that the universe is steady, that is, it is unchanging. In the theories of the
latter type, it is extremely hard to produce such a radiation.

Cosmology

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Cosmology

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DSE: Astronomy and Astrophysics (32227506)

November 26, 2022

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 1 / 38

• Standard Candles ( Cepheids and SNe Type1a)

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 2 / 38

To specify the position of an object in three-dimensional space, we need 3

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 3 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 4 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 5 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 6 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 7 / 38

This period-luminosity relation for the Cepheids is firmly established for

We can now use Cepheids to define some other objects, such as

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 8 / 38

The disadvantage of supernovae as standard candles is that they don’t

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 9 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 10 / 38

Using similar methods, Hubble estimated the distances and velocities of a

where v is the line-of-sight velocity of an object, r its distance from us and

The importance of this relation is that, once we know the velocity of a

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 12 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 13 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 14 / 38

Solution to the puzzle : Olbers’s paradox makes an incorrect prediction

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 15 / 38

A cluster of galaxies contains about a thousand galaxies. A galaxy cluster

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 16 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 17 / 38

Let us consider a set of systems, A, B, C, and so on. Let the evolution in

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 18 / 38

The virial theorem states that if a system is bounded and is in equilibrium,

Let us imagine a spherical system of gravitationally interacting N particles.

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 19 / 38

For a spherically symmetric distribution, V ∝ M(R)/R, with R being the

Hence, it is postulated that there should be a significant fraction of mass

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 21 / 38

We know that over a variety of scales the universe is not homogeneous.

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 22 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 23 / 38

The gravitational potential at P due to this sphere is = GM/r and let

The total energy per unit mass (E ) of a test particle at P is

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 24 / 38

where, k = 1 for E < 0. Using eqn.(10), we can re-write eqn.(9) as

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 25 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 26 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 27 / 38

However, When k = +1 (the overall density of the universe is greater than

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 28 / 38

a ∝ (n/2)(2/n) t (2/n) (14)

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 29 / 38

The present value of H, denoted by H0 lies somewhere between

In cosmology, we mostly use H0 = 100 km s −1 Mpc −1 , such that a lies

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 31 / 38

Let us consider the three cases for k:

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 32 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 33 / 38

It can be readily observed (considering ρ(t) ∝ a−4 for radiations, and

Temperature is a measure of the mean kinetic energy which in turn implies

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 34 / 38

An important class of reactions at high energy is those which lead to the

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 35 / 38

Dr. Disha Wadhawan Cosmology November 26, 2022 36 / 38

In 1965, Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias, at the Bell Telephone