Chapter 18

Friedmann Cosmologies

Let us now consider solutions of the Einstein equations

that may be relevant for describing the large-scale struc-
ture of the Universe and its evolution following the big
bang. To do so, we must first make a choice for the form
of the spacetime metric governing our Universe.

487
488 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

18.1 The Cosmological Principle

Possible forms for the metric of spacetime are strongly

constrained by the cosmological principle:

The Universe on large scales is both homoge-

neous and isotropic.

• This implies a proper time such that at any instant the

3-dimensional spatial line element of the Universe,

dℓ2 = γi j dx1 dx j (i, j = 1, 2, 3)

(where γi j is the spatial part of the metric tensor) is

the same in all places and all directions, with

ds2 = −dt 2 + a(t)2 dℓ2

= −dt 2 + a(t)2 γi j dxi dx j .

• The scale parameter a(t) describes expansion or con-

traction of the spatial metric.
• Cosmological principle → no reason for time to pass
at different rates for different locations in an isotropic
and homogeneous Universe. (If time depended on
spatial coordinates, measurement of time could dis-
tinguish one place from another → contradiction.)
• Thus the time term is simply dt and not a more com-
plicated expression as in the Schwarzschild metric.
18.1. THE COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE 489

Thus, we must investigate 3D curved spaces that are both

homogeneous and isotropic. Let us first consider this
question in two dimensions, where visualization is easier,
and then generalize to three spatial dimensions.
490 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

Open
Flat Closed

Figure 18.1: Isotropic, homogeneous 2-dimensional spaces.

18.2 Homogeneous, Isotropic 2-Dimensional Spaces

In two dimensions there are three independent possibilities for homo-

geneous, isotropic spaces:
1. Flat Euclidean space.
2. A sphere of constant (positive) curvature.
3. An hyperboloid of constant (negative) curvature.
These three possibilities are illustrated in Fig. 18.1.

Constant negative curvature surfaces can’t

be embedded in 3-D Euclidean space. The
saddle-like open surface only approximates
constant negative curvature near its center.

In each case the corresponding space has neither a spe-

cial point nor a special direction. Thus, these are 2-
dimensional spaces with underlying metrics consistent
with the cosmological principle.
18.2. HOMOGENEOUS, ISOTROPIC 2-DIMENSIONAL SPACES 491

Let us examine the 2-sphere as a representative example.

• We are used to thinking of 2-spheres in terms of a

2-dimensional surface embedded in a 3-dimensional
space.
• But a metric defines intrinsic properties of a space
that should be independent of any additional embed-
ding dimensions (recall Gaussian curvature).
• Therefore, it should be possible to express the metric
of the 2-sphere in terms of only two coordinates.

From
x2 + y2 + z2 = S2,
we may deduce that (Exercise)

2(xdx + ydy)2
dz = 2
S − x2 − y2
Thus, we may write the metric for the 2-sphere in the form

dℓ2 = dx2 + dy2 + dz2

2 (xdx + ydy)2
2
= dx + dy + 2
S − x2 − y2

This metric describes distances on a 2D sur-

face and depends on only two coordinates (S
is a constant). Distances are specified entirely
by coordinates intrinsic to the 2D surface, in-
dependent of 3rd embedding dimension.
492 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

18.3 Homogeneous, Isotropic 3-Dimensional Spaces

Let us now generalize the discussion of the preceding sec-

tion. Our spacetime appears to have three rather than two
spatial dimensions; thus we consider the embedding of 3D
spaces in four Euclidean dimensions.
18.3. HOMOGENEOUS, ISOTROPIC 3-DIMENSIONAL SPACES 493

18.3.1 Constant Positive Curvature

For a 3-sphere the generalization is obvious:

x2 + y2 + z2 + w2 = S2 ,

where w is now a fourth Euclidean dimension. We may expect that the

metric of the 3-sphere is independent of the embedding and therefore
expressible in terms of only three of these coordinates. By analogy
with the 2-sphere, the metric may be written as

(xdx + ydy + zdz)2

dℓ2 = dx2 + dy2 + dz2 + ,
1 − x2 − y2 − z2
where we now specialize to a unit 3-sphere (S = 1) because the over-
all spatial scale will be set by the expansion factor a(t). Introduce
spherical polar coordinates (r, θ , ϕ ) through the relations

x = r sin θ cos ϕ y = r sin θ sin ϕ z = r cos θ .

The metric of the unit 3-sphere then takes the form

dr2
2
dℓ = 2
+ r2dθ 2 + r2 sin2 θ dϕ 2
1−r
dr2
= 2
+ r2dΩ2
1−r

where we have defined

dΩ2 ≡ dθ 2 + sin2 θ dϕ 2
494 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

The 3-sphere, by analogy with the 2-sphere,

• Corresponds to a homogeneous, isotropic space that

is closed and bounded.
• It has “great circles” as geodesics.
• It is a space of constant positive curvature.
• An ant dropped onto the surface of an otherwise fea-
tureless 3-sphere would find that

– No point or direction appears any different from

any other.
– The shortest distance between any two points
corresponds to a segment of a great circle.
– A sufficiently long journey in a fixed direction
would return one to the starting point.
– The total area of the sphere was finite.
18.3. HOMOGENEOUS, ISOTROPIC 3-DIMENSIONAL SPACES 495

18.3.2 Constant Negative Curvature

The generalization of the 2-hyperboloid to three dimen-

sions is given by the equation

x2 + y2 + z2 + w2 = −S2.

By a similar argument as above, the metric in this case can

be expressed as
dr2
dℓ2 = 2
+ r2dΩ2 ,
1+r
By analogy with the 2D case:

• This describes a space that is homogeneous and

isotropic, but now unbounded and infinite.
• It has constant negative curvature, with hyperbolas as
geodesics.
• Our hypothetical ant would find

– No preferred direction or location.

– The shortest distances between any two points
would now be segments of hyperbolas.
– The ant would never return to the starting point
by continuing an infinite distance in a fixed di-
rection.
– The ant would find that the volume of the space
is infinite.
496 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

18.3.3 Zero Curvature

Finally, for a Euclidean 3-space the metric may be ex-

pressed in the form

dℓ2 = dr2 + r2dΩ2 ,

This space is

• Homogeneous and isotropic.

• Of infinite extent, with straight lines as geodesics.
• Obviously, this space corresponds to the limit of no
spatial curvature.
• The volume is infinite, and a straight path in one di-
rection will never return to the starting point.
18.4. THE ROBERTSON–WALKER METRIC 497

18.4 The Robertson–Walker Metric

We may combine the results of the preceding section and write the
most general spatial metric in three dimensions that incorporates the
isotropy and homogeneity constraints as
dr2
dℓ2 = 2
+ r2dΩ2 ,
1 − kr
where the parameter k determines the nature of the curvature:

 +1 hypersphere of positive curvature


k= 0 flat Euclidean space


 −1 hyperboloid of negative curvature

In fact, k can have other normalizations but

one is free to rescale the equations so that it
takes only these three values.

Finally, combining

dr2
dℓ2 = 2
+ r2dΩ2 ds2 = −dt 2 + a(t)2 dℓ2
1 − kr
we arrive at the most general metric for 4-dimensional spacetime that
is consistent with the homogeneity and isotropy required by the cos-
mological principle,

dr 2 
ds2 = −dt 2 + a(t)2 2
+ r2dθ 2 + r2 sin2 θ dϕ 2 ,
1 − kr
where k = 0, ±1.
498 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

The metric

dr2
 
ds2 = −dt 2 + a(t)2 2
+ r2dθ 2 + r2 sin2 θ dϕ 2 ,
1 − kr
is commonly called the Robertson–Walker (RW) metric,
and is the starting point for any description of our Universe
on scales sufficiently large that the cosmological principle
applies.

The time variable t appearing in the

Robertson–Walker metric is the time that
would be measured by an observer who sees
uniform expansion of the surrounding Uni-
verse; it is termed the cosmological proper
time or the cosmic time.
18.4. THE ROBERTSON–WALKER METRIC 499

The Robertson–Walker metric may be expressed in an alternative form

(Exercise) by introducing the 4-dimensional generalization of polar
angles
w = cos χ x = sin χ sin θ cos ϕ
y = sin χ sin θ sin ϕ z = sin χ cos θ

(with ranges 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π , and 0 ≤ χ ≤ π ) into the equa-

tions for spherical geometry, and these variables with the substitutions

w → iw χ → −iχ S → iS,

into the equations for hyperbolic geometry (and choosing S = 1 in

both cases). Then the Robertson–Walker metric may be written as



 d χ 2 + sin2 χ (dθ 2 + sin2 θ dϕ 2 ) (closed)

2 2
ds = −dt + a(t) 2
d χ 2 + χ 2(dθ 2 + sin2 θ dϕ 2) (flat)


d χ 2 + sinh2 χ (dθ 2 + sin2 θ dϕ 2 ) (open)



which is related to

dr2
 
2 2
ds = −dt + a(t) 2
+ r dθ + r sin θ dϕ ,
2 2 2 2 2
1 − kr2
by the change of variables

 sin χ (closed)


r= χ (flat)

 sinh χ

(open)
500 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

Notice that

• The derivation of the Robertson–Walker metric was

purely geometrical, subject to the constraints of
isotropy and homogeneity.
• No dynamical considerations enter explicitly into its
formulation.
• Of course, dynamics are implicit, to the extent that
the overall dynamical structure of the Universe must
be consistent with the cosmological principle that
was used to construct the metric.
18.4. THE ROBERTSON–WALKER METRIC 501

The Robertson–Walker metric may be used to express the line ele-

ment for homogeneous, isotropic spacetime in matrix form:

ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν

  
−1 0 0 0 dt
 0 a2 0 0

dr
= (dt dr dθ dϕ ) 

1 − kr2 .
 
dθ

 0 0 a2 r2 0  
0 0 0 a2 r2 sin2 θ dϕ

Thus, the RW metric is diagonal, with

a2
g00 = −1 g11 = g22 = a2 r2 g33 = a2r2 sin2 θ
1 − kr2
as its non-zero covariant components, and the corresponding con-
travariant components are

00 11 1 − kr2 1 1
g = −1 g = g22 = g33 = ,
a2 a2 r 2 a2 r2 sin2 θ
since the metric tensor is diagonal in the RW metric and
µ
gµα gαν = δν .
502 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

Figure 18.2: Hubble expansion in two spatial dimensions.

18.5 Comoving Coordinates

Homogeneous, isotropic expansion of the Universe can be exempli-

fied in 2D by placing dots on a balloon and blowing it up (Fig. 18.2).

• The spherical coordinates (θ , ϕ ) remain the same but the dis-

tance between points changes with the scale factor R(t).
• Example: 2 positions on the surface of the Earth, defined by
latitude and longitude. Expand the size of the globe by a factor
of 2. The actual distance between the two cities also increases by
a factor of 2, but the coordinates of the two cities are unchanged.
• Termed comoving coordinates or a comoving frame.
• An observer attached to a comoving coordinate (comoving or
fundamental observer) sees all other points receding from him
and sees a homogeneous, isotropic universe.
• An observer not comoving does not see an isotropic universe.
• The receding points maintain their comoving coordinates.
18.5. COMOVING COORDINATES 503

Although the balloon analogy is useful, one must guard

against misconceptions that it can generate, particularly in
popular-level discussions.

• First, the surface that is expanding is 2-dimensional;

the “center” of the balloon is in the third dimension
and is not part of the surface, which has no center.
• Second, the Universe is not being expanded by a
pressure. For that matter, neither is the balloon.
• The expansion of the balloon is generated by a dif-
ference in pressure.
• But in a homogeneous, isotropic universe there can
be no pressure differences on global scales.
• Furthermore, because pressure couples to gravity in
the Einstein equation, addition of (positive) pressure
to the Universe would slow, not increase, the expan-
sion rate
4π G
Later GR Result: ä = − a(ε + 3P).
3
• Finally, if the dots on the balloon represent galaxies,
they too will expand. But real galaxies don’t par-
take of the general Hubble expansion because they
are gravitationally bound.
• A better analogy is to glue solid objects to the surface
of the balloon to represent galaxies, so that they don’t
expand when the balloon expands.
504 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

If we now generalize this idea to three spatial dimensions,

• The coordinates (r, θ , ϕ ) of the Robertson–Walker

metric are comoving coordinates.
• In the RW metric, as the Universe expands the galax-
ies (to the degree that peculiar motion relative to the
Hubble flow can be ignored) keep the same coor-
dinates (r, θ , ϕ ), and only the RW scale factor a(t)
changes with time.
• Just as in the 2D analogy, the galaxies recede from
us but, if we are comoving observers, the receding
galaxies maintain their comoving coordinates and the
recession is described entirely by the time depen-
dence of the scale factor a(t).
• Peculiar velocities will change the comoving coordi-
nates, but these are small on the large scales where
the cosmological principle and therefore the RW
metric is valid.
18.6. PROPER DISTANCES 505

18.6 Proper Distances

Let us consider the measurement of distances between

galaxies in the RW metric.

• To simplify considerations, we take one galaxy to be

at comoving coordinates (r, θ , ϕ ) = (0, 0, 0) and the
other to be at (r, 0, 0), at fixed time t.
• Thus, the portions of the line element depending on
time and the angles θ and ϕ make no contribution
and we obtain from
dr2
 
2 2
ds = −dt + a(t) 2
+ r dθ + r sin θ dϕ
2 2 2 2 2
1 − kr2

dr 2 
−→ ds2 = a(t)2
1 − kr2
the proper distance
Z r
ℓ = a(t) √ dr .
0 1 − kr2
506 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

We may evaluate this for the three generic curvature parameters.

1. Flat Euclidean space (k = 0): the integral is then trivial and we

obtain
Z r
ℓ
ℓ = a(t) √ dr −→ r=
0 1 − kr2 a

Thus, r increases without limit as ℓ increases at fixed a(t), im-

plying that the space is unbounded.

2. Positive curvature (k = +1): solution for k = 1 gives

Z r  
ℓ
ℓ=a √ dr = a sin−1 r −→ r = sin .
0 1 − r2 a

In a universe of constant positive spatial curvature, r returns to

the origin whenever ℓ = π a and the space is bounded and closed.

3. Negative curvature (k = −1): Solution gives

Z r  
ℓ
ℓ=a √ dr = a sinh −1
r −→ r = sinh .
0 1 + r2 a

Therefore, r grows without bound in a Universe of constant neg-

ative curvature as ℓ is increased at fixed a(t), implying an un-
bounded and open geometry.
18.6. PROPER DISTANCES 507

The proper distance is the “rulers end–to–end” distance

that would be measured by a set of observers with rulers
distributed between the two objects.

• Although this notion of distance is conceptually

well-grounded, it is impractical to implement in an
astrophysics context where instead essentially all dis-
tance information comes from data carried by signals
propagating on null geodesics (light).
• Therefore, we shall later have to consider more ex-
tensively the meaning of distance and how to spec-
ify and measure it practically in observational astron-
omy.
508 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

18.7 The Hubble Law and the RW Metric

For a galaxy participating in the Hubble flow r is a comov-

ing coordinate and so is constant in time. Therefore, for
k=0

Z r Z r
√ dr ȧ(t)
ℓ = a(t) → ℓ˙ = ȧ(t) dr = ℓ ,
0 1 − kr2 0 a(t)
where ℓ = a(t)r from above. This may be recognized as a
generalized form of Hubble’s law, with

ȧ(t)
v ≡ ℓ˙ = Hℓ H= .
a(t)
Similar results follow from the equations for positive and
negative curvature at small r.

The RW metric, and the cosmological prin-

ciple upon which it rests, imply the Hubble
law. Conversely, the observation of a Hubble
law is an indicator of homogeneous, isotropic
spacetime.
18.8. PARTICLE AND EVENT HORIZONS 509

18.8 Particle and Event Horizons

An important consequence of the metric

structure of spacetime and the finite speed of
light is the possibility that regions of space-
time may be intrinsically unknowable for a
fixed observer, either at the present time, or
perhaps for all time. Such limitations are
termed horizons.

We shall distinguish two related concepts:

• A particle horizon
• An event horizon.
The former is of particular importance in cosmology and
one often finds the generic term “horizon” used to mean
“particle horizon”. We shall, for the present discussion,
keep the two terminologies distinct.
510 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

18.8.1 Particle Horizons in the RW Metric

A particle horizon is the largest distance from which a

light signal could have reached us at time t if it were emit-
ted at time t = 0.

• Imagine a spherical light wave emitted by us at the

time of the big bang. Over time it sweeps out over
more and more galaxies.
• By symmetry, at the same instant that those galaxies
can see us we can see them.
• So this spherical light front divides the galaxies into
two groups:

1. Those inside our particle horizon, for which

their light has had time to reach us since the big
bang.
2. Those outside our particle horizon, for which
their light has not yet had time to reach us since
the bang.
18.8. PARTICLE AND EVENT HORIZONS 511

In the RW metric, light travels along a geodesic

ds2 = 0.

Choosing the direction θ = ϕ = 0, from ds = 0 and


dr 2 
ds2 = −dt 2 + a(t)2 2
+ r2dθ 2 + r2 sin2 θ dϕ 2
1 − kr
we have
adr
dt = √ .
1 − kr2
Integrating both sides of this expression gives
Z t Z rp
dt ′ = √ dr ,
0 a(t ′ ) 0 1 − kr2
where rp is the comoving distance to the particle horizon.
The proper distance to the particle horizon is
Z rp
ℓh = a(t) √ dr .
0 1 − kr2
Combining the previous two expressions we obtain
Z t
ℓh = a(t) dt ′ .
0 a(t ′ )

• Whether a particle horizon exists depends on the be-

havior of the integral.
• Convergence at the lower limit is not ensured because
the scale factor in the denominator generally tends to
zero at the lower limit in RW cosmologies.
512 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

18.8.2 Example of Particle Horizon: Flat, Static Universe

Flat, Static Universe

As a simple example of a particle horizon, assume a
flat, static Universe. Then the RW metric reduces to the
Minkowski metric expressed in spherical coordinates with
a equal to a constant and

Z t
dt ′ ct
ℓh = a(t) −→ ℓh = a = ct ≃ cτH = rH
0 a(t ′ ) a
where rH is the Hubble radius introduced earlier with
heuristic arguments and is equal to the radius that light
could reach in a time τH = 1/H in a flat, static universe.
18.8. PARTICLE AND EVENT HORIZONS 513

18.8.3 Conformal Time and Horizons

• It is sometimes useful to introduce a new time coor-

dinate η called the conformal time through

dt = a(t)dη .

• The flat Robertson–Walker metric then may be ex-

pressed as

ds2 = −dt 2 + a2(dr2 + r2dθ 2 + r2 sin2 θ dϕ 2 )

= −a2 dη 2 + a2(dr2 + r2dθ 2 + r2 sin2 θ dϕ 2 )
= a2 (−dη 2 + dr2 + r2dθ 2 + r2 sin2 θ dϕ 2 ),

• This is the same form as the metric for a uniformly

expanding Minkowski space.
• For radial light rays dθ = dϕ = ds = 0, so this be-
comes

a(t)2 (dη 2 + dr2) = 0 −→ dη = ±dr.

• Thus, in the η –r plane light rays move at 45 degree

angles at all times, which simplifies discussion of
horizon and causality issues.
514 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

Conformal time is a special case of a conformal trans-

formation, which is a transformation on the metric of the
form gµν → f gµν , where f is an arbitrary spacetime func-
tion.

• Generally, if gµν is a solution of the Einstein equa-

tion, f gµν is not except for the trivial case where f
is a constant.
• However, null geodesics are conformally invariant,
so conformal transformations have the useful feature
that they preserve the light cone structure of the met-
ric.
18.8. PARTICLE AND EVENT HORIZONS 515

η2

η0

η1

r
Big bang singularity
Current horizon

Figure 18.3: Particle horizons in conformal time.

Figure 18.3 illustrates the behavior of particle horizons in conformal

time. The horizon at the present conformal time η0 ,
Z t0
dt
rh =
0 a(t)

is indicated. Clearly the horizon was smaller at the earlier time η1 ,

and will be larger at the future time η2 .

As we saw, the k = 0 Robertson–Walker universe dis-

cussed above is related to Minkowski spacetime by a con-
formal transformation. It is called “flat” for this reason,
even though its spacetime is not flat (spacelike slices of its
spacetime are flat). Generally, the RW metric is said to be
conformally flat for all k, meaning that, for all k, coordi-
nate transformations exist that permit the metric to be cast
in the Minkowski form.
516 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

18.8.4 Event Horizons

An event horizon is the most distant present event from

which a world line could ever reach our world line.

• Proceeding in analogy with our discussion of particle horizons,

the comoving distance re to an event horizon can be defined
through the integral
dt ′
Z tmax Z re
dr
= √ .
t0 a(t ′ ) 0 1 − kr2

• Then the proper distance to the event horizon is

dt ′
Z re Z tmax
dr
ℓe(t) = a(t) √ = a(t) ,
0 1 − kr2 t0 a(t ′ )
which differs from the expression for ℓh only in the limits of the
integral.
• Similar to the case of particle horizons, whether an event horizon
exists depends on the behavior of the integral on the right side of
this equation.
• If this integral converges as tmax → ∞ (which depends on the de-
tailed behavior of a(t) in this limit), an event horizon exists.
18.8. PARTICLE AND EVENT HORIZONS 517

Some metrics have event horizons and some don’t. The

expanding balloon analogy illustrates this qualitatively.

• Suppose inhabitants of galaxies on the surface of the

balloon can exchange signals of constant local speed.
• Since the physical distance between galaxies is in-
creasing with time, the exchanged signals must cover
a greater distance in going from one galaxy to the
next than in a static spacetime.
• If the space is expanding fast enough, the distance
to distant galaxies may increase so rapidly that the
signal will never reach those distant galaxies, even
after an infinite amount of time (treadmill analogy).
• If the expansion is sufficiently rapid, a sphere cen-
tered on each galaxy divides other galaxies into two
groups:

1. Those that have already been reached by a signal

sent from the galaxy, or will be reached by the
signal at some point in the finite future.
2. Those galaxies that will never be reached by the
signal, even after infinite time has elapsed.

• This radius, if it exists, defines an event horizon for

the observer, for by symmetry no signals from galax-
ies beyond this radius will ever reach the observer.
518 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

Such event horizons, if they exist, are similar to event hori-

zons associated with black holes.

• One important difference is that cosmological event

horizons are generally defined relative to an observer.
• Each observer in a universe containing event hori-
zons has her own event horizon..
• The event horizon associated with a Schwarzschild
or Kerr black hole, on the other hand, is associated
with a particular region of spacetime.
18.8. PARTICLE AND EVENT HORIZONS 519

Particle horizons and event horizons are defined by the

same integrals, but with different limits.

• A particle horizon represents the largest distance

from which light could have reached us today, if it
had traveled since the beginning of time.
• An event horizon is the largest distance from which
light emitted today could reach us at any future time.
• Thus particle and event horizons are distinct:

– Cosmological event horizons, as for black hole

event horizons, separate regions of spacetime ac-
cording to the causal properties of the spacetime.
– Particle horizons separate spacetime events ac-
cording to whether objects in the spacetime can
be seen by a particular observer at a particular
time and place.

• Hence the meaning of particle horizons is similar to

our normal meaning of horizons on the Earth.
• Horizons on the Earth also illustrate clearly the de-
pendence on location of the observer.
520 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

tmax

Timelike

Future
Spacelike

y
Now x

Event
Spacelike
Past horizon
Timelike
tmin
Particle
horizon

Figure 18.4: Schematic representation of particle and event horizons in cosmol-

ogy. The maximum possible time coordinate is tmax .

The relationship between particle and event horizons is il-

lustrated in Fig. 18.4. From this we see that an event hori-
zon, if it exists, may be interpreted as the ultimate particle
horizon.
18.9. THE EINSTEIN EQUATIONS FOR THE RW METRIC 521

18.9 The Einstein Equations for the RW Metric

Let’s now solve the Einstein equations that may be rele-

vant for a description of our Universe. A simple set of
such solutions
• Use the Robertson–Walker metric.
• Assume the homogeneously and isotropically dis-
tributed matter of the Universe to be perfect fluid
characterized by an energy density ε and pressure P.
The corresponding cosmologies are commonly termed
Friedmann Cosmologies.
522 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

18.9.1 The Stress–Energy Tensor

The most general form of the stress–energy tensor is

Tµν = (ε + P)uµ uν + Pgµν .

However, for a comoving observer in the Robertson–

Walker metric the space–time, time–space, and non-
diagonal space–space terms are identically zero,

T0i = Ti0 = Ti j (i 6= j) = 0 (RW comoving)

and the stress–energy tensor can be chosen diagonal. The

most general form for a comoving Robertson–Walker ob-
server is
Tµ µ = (ε + P)uµ uµ + Pgµ µ ,
with explicit non-vanishing components

T00 = ε T11 = Pa2 T22 = Pr2a2 T33 = Pr2a2 sin2 θ ,

1 − kr2
since for comoving observers (u0)2 = 1 and (ui )2 = 0.
18.9. THE EINSTEIN EQUATIONS FOR THE RW METRIC 523

18.9.2 The Connection Coefficients

The required connection coefficients are given by insert-

ing the metric tensor components
a2
g00 = −1 g11 = g22 = a2 r2 g33 = a2r2 sin2 θ
1 − kr2

00 11 1 − kr2 1 1
g = −1 g = g22 = g33 =
a2 a2 r 2 a2r2 sin2 θ
into
∂ gµν ∂ gλ ν ∂ gµλ
 
Γλσ µ = 1 νσ
2g + −
∂ xλ ∂ xµ ∂ xν
For example
∂ ∂ ∂
 
g 20 g 10 g 21
Γ212 = 12 g02 + 2 − 0 (ν = 0 term)
∂ x1 ∂x ∂x
1 12 ∂ g21 ∂ g11 ∂ g21
 
+2g + 2 − 1 (ν = 1 term)
∂ x1 ∂x ∂x
∂ ∂ ∂
 
g 22 g 12 g 21
+ 21 g22 + 2 − 2 (ν = 2 term)
∂ x1 ∂x ∂x
1 32 ∂ g23 ∂ g13 ∂ g21
 
+2g + 2 − 3 (ν = 3 term)
∂ x1 ∂x ∂x
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
   
g 22 g 12 g 21 g 22
= 12 g22 + 2 + 2 = 12 g22
∂x 1 ∂x ∂x ∂ x1
1 −1 ∂  2 2 1
 
= −r a = .
2 r 2 a2 ∂ r r
524 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES
Table 18.1: Non-vanishing Friedmann connection coefficients
Γ011 = aȧ/(1 − kr2 ) Γ022 = r2 aȧ Γ033 = r2 sin2 θ aȧ
Γ101 = ȧ/a Γ111 = kr/(1 − kr2 ) Γ122 = −r(1 − kr2 )
Γ133 = −r(1 − kr2 ) sin2 θ Γ202 = ȧ/a Γ212 = 1/r
Γ233 = − sin θ cos θ Γ303 = ȧ/a Γ313 = 1/r Γ323 = cot θ
µ µ
The coefficients are symmetric in the lower indices: Γαβ = Γβ α

The nonvanishing connections coefficients are summa-

rized in Table 18.1.
18.9. THE EINSTEIN EQUATIONS FOR THE RW METRIC 525

18.9.3 The Ricci Tensor and Ricci Scalar

The Ricci tensor may now be constructed from the con-

nection coefficients

Rµν = Γλµν ,λ − Γλµλ ,ν + Γλµν Γλσ σ − Γσµλ Γλνσ .

Utilizing the connection coefficients from Table 18.1, the
non-vanishing components of the Ricci tensor are

R00 = − 3aä R11 = (aä + 2ȧ2 + 2c2k) × (1 − kr2)

R22 = r2(aä + 2ȧ2 + 2c2k) R33 = R22 sin2 θ ,

and the Ricci scalar is obtained by contraction with the

metric tensor,

−6(aä + ȧ2 + c2k)

R = gµν Rµν = .
a2
526 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

18.9.4 The Friedmann Equations

We now have the necessary ingredients to construct the

Einstein equations

Rµν − 21 gµν R = 8π GTµν .

From the 00 and 11 components, utilizing the previous

results for Rµν , R, gµν and Tµν ,

3ȧ2 + 3k = 8π Gρ a2

2aä + ȧ2 + k = −8π GPa2.

These are termed the Friedmann equations, and they rep-

resent the solution of the covariant gravitational equations
with the conditions that we have imposed (the 22 and 33
components don’t give any new results).
18.9. THE EINSTEIN EQUATIONS FOR THE RW METRIC 527

18.9.5 Static Solutions and the Cosmological Term

Let us first ask if the Friedmann equations have a static

solution (corresponding to a scale factor constant in time).

• Setting ä = ȧ = 0, the Friedmann equations become

3k = 8π Gρ a20 k = −8π GP0a20,

from which we find that

k 8π G
= ρ = −8π GP0.
a20 3

• But from this we conclude that

1. For the present mass density ρ to be positive, we
must have k = +1.
2. If ρ > 0, the pressure must be negative, P0 < 0 !

• Thus, we find that the Friedmann universe cannot be

static: it is unstable against either expansion or con-
traction.
• When Einstein first realized this, Hubble had not yet
discovered the expansion of the Universe and the nat-
ural assumption was that a correct cosmology should
give a static solution.
• Thus, Einstein was led to make what he reportedly
confided to Born was the greatest mistake of his ca-
reer.
528 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

Einstein modified the field equations by subtracting Λgµν

from the left side, where Λ is a scalar constant carrying
dimensions of inverse length squared (in c = 1 units):

Rµν − 21 gµν R − Λgµν = 8π GTµν .

Unlike the other terms on the left side, the Λ term does not
vanish in the limit of vanishing mass and curvature.

The cosmological term Λgµν is a rank-2 ten-

sor since Λ is a scalar, and it has vanishing
covariant divergence since

Dα gµν = gµν ;α = 0,

Thus it satisfies all the properties that we ex-

pect for a term in the Einstein equations.

The corresponding Friedmann equations are

ȧ2 k Λ 8π
+ − = Gρ
a2 a2 3 3
2ä ȧ 2 k
+ 2 + 2 − Λ = −8π GP.
a a a

A positive value of Λ becomes a repulsive

force that counteracts gravity and a negative
value becomes an attractive force that adds to
the gravitational force.

By proper adjustment of Λ, it is then possible to obtain a

static Friedmann universe.
18.9. THE EINSTEIN EQUATIONS FOR THE RW METRIC 529

When Hubble discovered the expansion of the Universe,

Einstein realized the opportunity that had been missed.

• Had he more confidence in his original field equa-

tions, he could have predicted that the Universe had
to be either expanding or contracting.
• Once Hubble demonstrated that the Universe was ex-
panding, Einstein discarded the cosmological term.
• But in modern cosmology there may still be a need
for the cosmological term, although for reasons very
different from Einstein’s original motivation.
• Because the data require Λ to be very small if it ex-
ists, it can play a role only over volumes of space
that are cosmological in dimension; this is why it is
commonly termed the cosmological constant.
• Because it is equivalent to an energy density associ-
ated with the ground state of the Universe, Λ is also
often termed the vacuum energy density.
530 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

Because of the interpretation of Λ as a vacuum energy

density, it is convenient in modern applications to absorb
the effect of the cosmological constant on the left side of

Rµν − 21 gµν R − Λgµν = 8π GTµν .

into the terms arising from the stress–energy tensor on the
right side.

Therefore, in the following development we

shall omit the explicit Λ terms from the left
sides of the Friedmann equations and include
the possibility of a finite vacuum energy by a
redefinition of the density and pressure vari-
ables appearing in Tµν on the right side.
18.10. RESOLUTION OF DIFFICULTIES WITH NEWTONIAN VIEW 531

18.10 Resolution of Difficulties with Newtonian View

Finally, let us comment that the covariant theory of gravitation implies

conceptual differences relative to Newtonian cosmology.

1. Expanding space in general relativity alleviates inconsistencies

associated with apparent recessional velocities that would ex-
ceed the speed of light at large distances. Since the “recessional
velocities” are generated by the expansion of space itself, not
by motion within space, there is no conceptual difficulty with
recessional velocities larger than light velocity.

Recall from the discussion of parallel trans-

port that defining relative velocities between
two different spacetime points requires paral-
lel transport of a vector on a curved surface,
which depends on the path taken. Thus, rel-
ative velocity between objects located at two
different spacetime points is ambiguous.

2. Because of the finite speed of (massless) gravitons implied by

Lorentz invariance, gravitation is no longer felt instantaneously
over large distances. It propagates at the speed of light.

3. In general relativity spacetime is generated by matter (and en-

ergy and pressure), so the idea of a boundary between a homo-
geneous universe and an empty space “outside” does not arise.

4. We shall see that the cosmological constant term in the Fried-

mann equations suggests a way to deal with dark energy.
532 CHAPTER 18. FRIEDMANN COSMOLOGIES

Therefore, general relativity solves, at least in princi-

ple, several conceptual difficulties with the Newtonian ap-
proach to cosmology, in addition to providing a more solid
quantitative basis.