LAB REPORT

on

“POWER SYSTEM LAB (EEP-402)”

by

PRAFFUL KUMAR

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

National Institute of Technology, Delhi
Roll No. 191230032

Under the Supervision

of

Dr. Manoj Kumawat

Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology, Delhi

National Institute of Technology, Delhi

(An Autonomous Institute under the aegis of Ministry of Education, Govt. of India)
 EXPERIMENT-1
AIM: To determine the bus admittance matrix for the given power system network.

Software Required: MATLAB R2017b

Theory: In a power system, Bus Admittance Matrix represents the nodal admittances of the
various buses. With the help of the transmission line, each bus is connected to the various
other buses. Admittance matrix is used to analyse the data that is needed in the load or a
power flow study of the buses. It explains the admittance and the topology of the network.
The following are the advantages of the bus admittance matrix.
1. The data preparation of the bus admittance matrix is very simple.

2. The formation of the bus admittance matrix and their modification is easy.

3. The bus admittance matrix is a sparse matrix thus the computer memory requirement is
less.

The amount of current present in the bus can be calculated with the help of formation of the
Admittance matrix. It is expressed as shown above. In the simplest form, the above matrix
can be written as shown below.

Where,

 I is the current of the bus in the vector form.

 Y is the admittance matrix

 V is the vector of the bus voltage.

Let us consider the figure given below.

 Figure1.1: Power system network

From the above figure, the (3×3) admittance matrix is formed as shown below.

The diagonal elements of the Bus Admittance matrix are known as self-admittances and the
off-diagonal elements are known as mutual admittances [1].

Problem Statement: We need to determine the Ybus matrix for the power system network as
shown in figure 1.2 below.

Figure1.2: Power system network for determining Ybus matrix

Code:

Y11 = -1.3i;
Y12 = 0.5i;
Y13 = 0.4i;
Y14 = 0.4i;
Y21 = 0.5i;
Y22 = -1.1i;
Y23 = 0.6i;
Y24 = 0;
Y31 = 0.4i;
Y32 = 0.6i;
Y33 = -1.5i;
Y34 = 0.5i;
Y41 = 0.4i;
Y42 = 0;
Y43 = 0.5i;
Y44 = -0.9i;
Ybus = [ Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14; Y21 Y22 Y23 Y24; Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34; Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44]

Result:

Figure1.3: Ybus matrix for the power system network shown in figure2
Conclusion:

The experiment to construct Ybus matrix for the power system has been performed
successfully with practical results obtained identical to theoretical results.
 EXPERIMENT-2
AIM: To calculate SAG and tension of the transmission line.

Software Required: MATLAB R2017b

Theory: In a transmission line, sag is defined as the vertical difference in level between
points of support (most commonly transmission towers) and the lowest point of the
conductor. The calculation of sag and tension in a transmission line depends on the span of
the overhead conductor. Span having equal level supports (i.e. towers of the same height) is
called level span. Conversely, when the span has unequal levels of support, this is known as
unequal level span. Sag is mandatory in transmission line conductor suspension. The
conductors are attached between two supports with the perfect value of sag. This is because it
protects the conductor from excessive tension. In order to permit a safe level of tension in the
conductor, conductors are not fully stretched; rather they are allowed to have sagged. If the
conductor is stretched fully during installation, wind exerts pressure on the conductor, hence
the conductor gets a chance to be broken or detached from its end support. Thus sag is
allowed to have during conductor suspension [2]. Sag calculation for support at equal levels
is described below.

Figure2.1: Sag and Tension calculation for support at equal levels

Suppose, AOB is the conductor. A and B are points of supports. Point O is the lowest point
and the midpoint.

Let, L = length of the span, i.e. AB

w = weight per unit length of the conductor

 T = tension in the conductor

Let P be any point on the conductor. The distance of P from lowest point O is x and y is the
height from point O to point P. Equating two moments of two forces about point O as per
figure 2.1 above, we get

T*y = w*x*(x/2)

y = (w*(x^2))/(2*T)

When y = S and x = ½ then,

S = (w*(L^2))/ (8*T)

Problem Statement: We need to find SAG and tension in transmission line of 132KV whose

Weight of the conductor = 680 Kg/Km

Length of span = 860 m

Ultimate strength = 3100 Kg

Safety factor = 2

Code:

US = input('enter the value of ultimate strength(in Kg)');

SF = input('enter the value of safety factor SF = ');

L = input('enter the value of span length (in m)');

W = input('enter the value of weight of conductor (in Kg/m)');

T = US/SF;
S = (W*(L*L))/(8*T);

fprintf('/n tension per km is %f',T);

fprintf('/n sag in meter is %f', S);

Result:

Figure2.2. Sag and tension of transmission line at equal support level for given
parameters according to the problem statement

Conclusion:

The theoretical results obtained were identical to the practical results i.e. Tension per km of
transmission line obtained as 1550 and sag in meter obtained as 40.558710 indicating
successful conduction of experiment.
 EXPERIMENT-3
AIM: To calculate minimum ground clearance of a transmission line.

Software Required: MATLAB R2017b

Theory: The minimum ground clearance for a transmission line supported at equal levels can
be calculated as:

Figure3.1: Ground clearance calculation for support at equal levels

Suppose, AOB is the conductor. A and B are points of supports. Point O is the lowest point
and the midpoint.

Let, L = length of the span, i.e. AB

w = weight per unit length of the conductor

T = tension in the conductor

H = height of pole from ground

Let P be any point on the conductor. The distance of P from lowest point O is x and y is the
height from point O to point P. Equating two moments of two forces about point O as per
figure above, we get

T*y = w*x*(x/2)

y = (w*(x^2))/(2*T)
When y = S and x = ½ then,

S = (w*(L^2))/ (8*T)

Ground clearance(GC) = H-S

Problem Statement: We need to find Ground clearance in transmission line of 132KV whose

Weight of the conductor = 680 Kg/Km

Length of span = 860 m

Ultimate strength = 3100 Kg

Safety factor = 2

Height of pole = 80 m

Code:

US = input('enter the value of ultimate strength(in Kg)');

SF = input('enter the value of safety factor SF = ');

L = input('enter the value of span length (in m)');

W = input('enter the value of weight of conductor (in Kg/m)');

T = US/SF;

S = (W*(L*L))/(8*T);

GC = H-S;

fprintf('/n tension per km is %f',T);

fprintf('/n sag in meter is %f', S);

fprintf('/n Ground clearance in meter is %f',GC);

Result:

Figure3.2: Ground clearance of transmission line at equal support level for given
parameters according to the problem statement

Conclusion:

The theoretical results obtained were identical to the practical results i.e. ground clearance in
meter obtained as 39.441290 indicating successful conduction of experiment.
 EXPERIMENT-4
AIM: To calculate string efficiency of an insulator of transmission line.

Software Required: MATLAB R2017b

Theory: A suspension type string insulator consists of a number of porcelain discs connected
in series through metallic links. Suspension insulators or string insulators are very widely
used in electrical overhead transmission system. The figure 4.1(a) below shows a 3-disc
string of suspension insulator. As each porcelain disc lies in between two metal links, it forms
a capacitor. This capacitance is known as self-capacitance or mutual capacitance. Moreover,
air capacitance is also present between metal links and the earthed tower. This is known
as shunt capacitance. The figure 4.1(b) below illustrates the equivalent circuit of a 3-disc
suspension insulator (assuming that shunt capacitance is some fraction of self-capacitance i.e.
shunt capacitance = k * self-capacitance).

Figure4.1: 3-disc string insulator and its equivalent circuit

If there were only mutual capacitances, then the charging current would have been the same
through all the discs. In this case, the voltage would have been uniformly distributed across
the string, i.e. voltage across each disc would have been the same. But, due to the shunt
capacitances, charging current is not same through all the discs.

From the above equivalent circuit, applying Kirchoff's current law to node A,

I2 = I1 + i1
V2ωC = V1ωC + V1ωkC
V2 = V1 + V1k
V2 = (1 + k)V1.........................................equation(1)

applying Kirchoff's current law to node B,

I3 = I2 + i2
V3ωC = V2ωC + (V2+V1) ωKC
V3 = KV1 + (1+K)V2
V3 = KV1 + (1+K)^2 V1...................from equation(1)
V3 = V1(1+3K+K^2)....................equation(2)

Now, voltage between the conductor and the earth tower is

V = V1+ V2+ V3 = V1+(1+K)V1+(1+3K+K^2)V1 = V1(3+4K+K^2).....................equation(3)

As explained above, voltage is not uniformly distributed over a suspension insulator string.
The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it and, hence, it will be under
maximum electrical stress. Due to this, the disc nearest to the conductor is likely to be
punctured and subsequently, other discs may puncture successively. Therefore, this unequal
voltage distribution is undesirable and usually expressed in terms of string efficiency. The
ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the voltage
across the disc nearest to the conductor is called as string efficiency [3].
String efficiency = Voltage across the string / (number of discs X voltage across the disc
nearest to the conductor).
Problem Statement: An insulator string is made of three similar insulators. Find the max
voltage that string can withstand if the max voltage per unit is 17.5 KV. Assume k = 0.125
Code:

V3 = input ('Enter the value of maximum Voltage per unit (in volts) ');
n = input ('Enter the total number of disc in the string n = ');
k = input ('Enter the value of k = ');
V1 = V3 / ((k * k) + 3 * k + 1);
V2 = V1 * (1 + k);
V = V1 + V2 + V3;
SE = (V / (n * V3)) * 100;
fprintf ('\n V1 = %f', V1);
fprintf ('\n V2 = %f', V2);
fprintf ('\n V = %f', V);
fprintf ('\n String Efficiency is %f\n', SE);

Result:

Figure4.2: String efficiency based on parameters specified in the problem statement

Conclusion:

The experiment to calculate string efficiency of suspension insulators is performed

successfully with practical results identical to theoretical results i.e. string efficiency obtained
as 84.269663. It is observed that greater the string efficiency, more uniform is voltage
distribution. String efficiency becomes 100% if the voltage across each disc is exactly the
same, but this is an ideal case and impossible in practical scenario.
 EXPERIMENT-5
AIM: To calculate corona loss per km per phase in a transmission line.

Software Required: MATLAB R2017b

Theory: There are two types of transmission lines, overhead lines, and underground lines.
We all know that; the overhead lines operate at high voltage to reduce the transmission loss.
Therefore, a very high amount of electric field produced between the conductors. In overhead
transmission lines, the conductors place in free air. Hence, the air acts as the dielectric
medium between the conductors. The dielectric strength of air at normal temperature and
pressure is 30 kV/cm. If the voltage between conductors is high, it causes the potential
gradient between the conductors to exceed this value. In this condition, the breakdown of air
will take place. And the air is ionized and current will flows through it. The potential gradient
value between conductors reaches 30 kV/cm, the air in the vicinity of the conductor becomes
conducting and a hissing sound heard and some vibration produced in the conductor. Around
the conductor, a dark violet glow occurs with a hissing noise. During this process, ozone gas
produced. This entire process is known as the corona. Corona appears in the transmission line
when the surface voltage gradient at the line conductor reaches the breakdown stress. Due to
corona, heat and bluish light produce. There is a loss of power and energy dissipation. This
loss is known as the corona loss. The efficiency of the transmission line decreased due to
corona loss. There is also a minor effect on the voltage regulation of the transmission line.
But this is always negligible. In normal and fair atmospheric conditions, the corona loss can
vary between few kW/km lengths of the conductor in extra high voltage transmission line [4].
The equation for corona power loss is given by

Where,
Pc is corona power loss
f is frequency of supply in Hz
δ is air density factor
En is RMS phase voltage in KV
Eo is disruptive critical voltage per phase in KV
R is radius of conductor in meters
D is spacing between conductors in meters
Problem Statement: A sphere , 50 Hz, 132 KV transmission line consists of conductors of
1.17 cm diameter and spaced equilaterally at the distance of 3 cm. The conductors have
smooth surface with mo = 0.96 . The barometric pressure is 72 cm of Hg and temperature is
20 ̊ C. Determine corona loss per Km per phase under fair conditions given dielectric strength
of air = 33KV and its RMS value 21.22 KV/cm.

Code:

b = input ('Enter the value pf harmonic pressure (in cm of hg) ');

D = input ('Enter the diameter of conductor (in cm) ');
t = input ('Enter the value of temp (in deg Celcius) ');
V = input ('Enter the value of Line Voltages ');
mo = input ('Enter the value of mo = ');
d = input ('Enter the value of distance between lines (in cm) = ');
A = (3.92 * b) / (273 + t);
r = D / 2;
go = 21.21;
Vd = r * A * go * mo * log (d / r);
Vph = V / 1.172;
C = r / d;
P = 241 * 0.00001 * ((50 + 25) / A) * (sqrt(C)) * (Vph - Vd) * (Vph - Vd);
fprintf ('\nCorona Loss Per Km per phase is %f\n', P);

Result:

Figure5.1: Corona loss per km per phase in a transmission line based on parameters
specified in the problem statement
Conclusion:

The experiment to calculate corona loss per km per phase in a transmission line is performed
successfully with practical results identical to theoretical i.e. corona loss per km per phase
obtained as 730.136660. It is evident from the corona loss formula that it is dependent upon
atmospheric condition, line voltage, ratio of D/r, nature of conductor surface, roughness of
conductor, effect of frequency, effect of density of air, effect of air conductivity.
 EXPERIMENT-6
AIM: To calculate the inductance per phase per km of double circuit 3-phase line.

Software Required: MATLAB R2017b

Theory: It is common practice to build double circuit three phase Line so as to increase
transmission reliability at somewhat enhanced cost. From the point of view of power transfer
from one end of the line to the other, it is desirable to build the two lines with as low an
inductance/phase as possible. In order to achieve this, self GMD (Ds) should be made high
and mutual GMD (Dm) should be made low. Therefore, the individual conductors of a phase
should be kept as far apart as possible (for high self GMD), while the distance between
phases be kept as low as permissible (for low mutual GMD). Figure 6.1 shows the three
sections of the transposition cycle of two parallel circuit three phase line with vertical
spacing.

Figure6.1: Arrangement of conductors of a double-circuit three-phase line

It may be noted here that conductors a and a’ in parallel compose phase a and similarly b and
b’ compose phase b and c and c’ compose phase c. In order to achieve high Ds the conductors
of two phases are placed diametrically opposite to each other and those of the third phase are
horizontally opposite to each other. Applying the method of GMD, the equivalent equilateral
spacing is

……………………….equation(1)
Where

Dab = mutual GMD between phases a and b in section 1 of the transposition cycle

= (DpDp)1/4 = (Dp)1/2

Dbc = mutual GMD between phases b and c in section 1 of the transposition cycle

= (Dp)1/2

Dca = mutual GMD between phases c and a in section 1 of the transposition cycle

= (2Dh)1/2

Hence

……………………..equation(2)
It may be noted here that Deq remains the same in each section of the transposition cycle, as
the conductors of each parallel circuit rotate cyclically, so do Dab, Dbc and Dca. The reader is
advised to verify this for sections 2 and 3 of the transposition cycle in Figure 6.1. Self GMD
in section 1 of phase a (i.e., conductors a and a’) is

…………………….equation(3)
Self GMD of phases b and c in section 1 are respectively

………………………equation(4) and equation(5)

Equivalent self GMD Ds = (DsaDsbDsc)1/3

…………………………………equation(6)
Because of the cyclic rotation of conductors of each parallel circuit over the transposition
cycle, Ds also remains the same in each transposition section. The inductance per phase is
 ……………………equation(7)
Problem Statement: Find the inductance per phase per km of double circuit 3-phase line
where conductors are transposed and are of radius 0.75 cm each. The phase sequence is ABC.

Code:

%FIND THE INDUCTANCE PER PHASE PER KM OF DOUBLE CIRCUIT 3-PHASE

LINE SHOWN
%IN FIG. THE CONDUCTORS ARE TRANSPOSED AND ARE OF RADIUS 0.75CM
EACH.
%THE PHASE SEQUENCE IS ABC.
r=0.75;%cm
GMR=0.7788*r;
disp('GMR')
disp(GMR)
Dab = sqrt(3^2+0.75^2);
disp('ab distance');
disp(Dab);
DaB = sqrt(3^2+4.75^2);
disp('aB distance');
disp(DaB);
DaA = sqrt(6^2+4^2);
disp(DaA);
disp('aA_distance');
%equivalent self GMD of one phase is
Daa = 0.584*10^-2;
DaA = 7.21;%m
Dac = 6;
Dca = Dac;
DCA = Dac;
DAC = Dac;
Dbc = Dab;
DbA = Dab;
DcB = DaB;
DAa = DaA;
DAA = Daa;
Dbb = Daa;
DBB = Dbb;
DbB = 5.5;%m
DBb = DbB;
Dcc = Daa;
DCC = Dcc;
DcC = DaA;
DCc = DcC;
DAB = Dab;
DCa = 4;
DAc = Dca;
DCA = Dac;
DBA = Dbc;
DbC = DbA;
DbA = DcB;
DAb = DaB;
Ds1 = (Daa*DAa*DaA*DAA)^(1/4);
disp('Ds1');
disp(Ds1);
Ds2 = (Dbb*DBb*DbB*DBB)^(1/4);
disp('Ds2');
disp(Ds2);
Ds3 = (Dcc*DCc*DcC*DCC)^(1/4);
disp('Ds3');
disp(Ds3);
Ds = (Ds1*Ds2*Ds3)^(1/3);
disp('Ds');
disp(Ds);
%equivalent mutual GMD Dm
D_AB = ((Dab*DaB*DAb*DAB).^(1/4));
D_BC = D_AB;
D_CA = (Dca*DCa*DAc*DCA).^(1/4);
Dm = (D_AB*D_BC*D_CA).^(1/3);
disp('Dm');
disp(Dm);
inductance_phase_m = ((10.^-7)*2*log(Dm/Ds));
disp('inductance_phase_m');
disp(inductance_phase_m);

Result:

Figure6.2: Inductance per phase per km of double circuit 3-phase line based on
parameters specified in the problem statement

Conclusion:

The experiment to calculate inductance per phase per km of double circuit 3-phase line is
performed successfully with practical results identical to theoretical i.e. inductance per phase
per km obtained as 6.2280e-07.
 EXPERIMENT-7
AIM: To determine the power flow analysis using Fast Decouple method.

Software Required: MATLAB R2017b

Theory: The basic idea of the fast decoupled method is expressing the nodal power as a
function of voltages in polar form; separately solving the active and reactive power equations
by using active power mismatch to modify voltage angle and using reactive power mismatch
to modify voltage magnitude. In this way, the computing burden of load flow calculation is
alleviated significantly. In the following, the derivation of the fast decoupled method from
the Newton method is discussed. As described previously, the core of the Newton load flow
approach is to solve the correction equation. When the nodal power equation is expressed in
polar form, the correction equation is

equation (1) and (2) respectively.

The iterative process can be briefly summarized in the following steps:
1. Specify node voltage vector initial value 𝜃𝑖(0),𝑉𝑖(0).
2. Calculate the node active power mismatch Δ𝑃𝑖 according to (1), and then calculate Δ𝑃𝑖/
Δ𝑉𝑖.
3. Solving correction equation, calculate the node voltage angle correction Δ𝜃𝑖.
4. Modify the node voltage angle 𝜃𝑖 : 𝜃𝑖(𝑡)=𝜃𝑖(𝑡−1)Δ𝜃𝑖(𝑡−1)
5. Calculate node reactive power mismatch Δ𝜃𝑖 according to (2) and then calculate Δ𝑄𝑖/Δ𝑉𝑖.
6. Solving correction equation, calculate the node voltage magnitude correction Δ𝑉𝑖.
7. Modify the node voltage magnitude 𝑉𝑖 : 𝑉𝑖(𝑡)=𝑉𝑖(𝑡−1)Δ𝑉𝑖(𝑡−1)

Code:

% program for fast decoupled load flow

pi = 3.14; b11= -15.0; b12 = 10.0; b13 = 5.0 ; b21 = b12; b22 = -15.0;
b23 = 5.0; b31=b13;b32=b23;b33=-10.0;
del1 = 0.0; del2 = 0.0; del3 = 0.0;
v1 = 1.0; v2 = 1.1; v3 = 1.0;
for i = 1:1:10
d12 = del1-del2
d13 = del1-del3
d23 = del2-del3
d31 = -d13
d21 = -d12
d32 = -d23
p2c = (v2*v1*b21*sin(d12)) + (v2*v3*b23*sin(d23))
p3c = (v3*v1*b31*sin(d31)) + (v2*v3*b32*sin(d32))
q2c = (-b22*v2*v2)-(v2*v1*b21*cos(d21))-(v2*v3*b23*cos(d23))
q3c = (-b33*v3*v3)-(v3*v1*b31*cos(d31))-(v2*v3*b23*cos(d32))
dp2 = 5.3217-p2c
dp3 = -3.6392-p3c
dq3 = -0.5339-q3c
pow = [dp2
dp3
dq3]
h22 = -q2c-(b22*v2*v2)
h23 = v2*v3*(-b23*cos(d23))
h32 = v3*v2*(-b32*cos(d32))
h33 = -q3c-(b33*v3*v3)
n23 = 0.0
n33 = 0.0
m32 = 0.0
m33 = 0.0
l33 = q3c-(b33*v3*v3)
%jacobian formation
jac = [h22 h23 n23
h32 h33 n33
m32 m33 l33]
 ch=inv(jac)*pow
%change in variable -chdel2, chdel3, chv3
chdel2 = ch(1)
chdel3 = ch(2)
chv3 = ch(3)
del2 = del2+chdel2
del3 = del3+chdel3
v3 = v3+chv3
end

Result:

Figure7.1: Power flow analysis using Fast Decouple method based on parameters
specified in the problem statement

Conclusion:

The experiment to perform power flow analysis using Fast Decouple method is performed
successfully with final node voltage obtained as -26.0356 V.
 EXPERIMENT-8
AIM: To determine positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence reactance of
generator subjected to different types of fault.

Software Required: MATLAB R2017b

Theory: The analysis for both symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault is given as: -
a) Three phase fault:
Fault current (If) = Vth/Zth
Zth = Z1 = Vth/If …………………………………………………………. equation(1)
Where, Vth = Thevenin’s voltage
Zth = Thevenin’s impedance
Z1 = Positive sequence impedance
b) Single line to ground fault:
Fault current (If) = 3Ia1
Ia1 = Ea/( Z1+ Z2+Z0)
( Z1+ Z2+Z0) = Ea/Ia1 = Ea/(Ia/3) ……………………………………………equation(2)
Where, Z1 = Positive sequence impedance
Z2 = Negative sequence impedance
Z0 = Zero sequence impedance
Ia1 = Positive sequence current
c) Line to line fault:
Fault current (If) = Ia1(a2-a) = Ia1(-0.5-0.866i+0.5-0.866i)
Ia1 = If/(1.732) = Ea/( Z1+ Z2)
( Z1+ Z2) = Ea/(If/1.732) ……………………………………………………equation(3)
Where, Z1 = Positive sequence impedance
Z2 = Negative sequence impedance
Ea = Voltage of generator
d) Double Line to ground fault:
Fault current (If) = 2Ia0 + (Ia1+ Ia2) (a2+a)
Ia1 = Ea/( Z1+ (Z0Z2/ Z0+Z2) ………………………………………………equation(4)
Ia2 = (-Ia1* Z0)/ (Z0+Z2) ……………………………………………………equation(5)
Ia0 = -(Ia1- Ia2) ……………………………………………………………...equation(6)
Problem Statement: A generator of negligible resistance having 1 p.u. voltage behind
transient reactance is subjected to different types of

type of the fault - resulting current in p.u

3- phase : 3.33

L-L : 2.23

L-G : 3.01

Calculate the per unit value of 3 sequence reactance Verify the result using MATLAB
program.

Code:

clc

% unsymmetrical fault analysis problem

% a generator of negligible resistance having l p.u. voltage behind
% transient reactance is subjected to different types of
% type of the fault resulting current in pu
% 3- phase 3.33
% L-L 2.23
% L-G 3.01
%calculate the per unit value of 3 sequence reactance
% solution
% case i : 3-phase fault Eg = 1;% p.u
I = 3.33;
Ea = Eg;
Xd = ((Ea)/(I)); X1 = Xd;
disp('positive sequance reactance of genrator, X1 = Xd') disp(Xd)
% case ii : L-L fault
%Ib=Iao+(a^2*Ia1)+(a*Ia2);
% for a line to line fault Ia0 = 0, Ia2 = -Ia1
%1b = lal * ( -0.5-0.866i+0.5-0.866i); If= 2.33;
lal = 2.33/1.732;
disp('Ia1') disp(Ial);
%Ial = (Ea/(Xl+X2)) X2 = ((Ea / (Ia1) ) - X1);
disp('X2')
disp(X2);
%case iii ; L-G fault If3 = 3.01;
Ia3 = If3/3;
X0 = ((Ea/(Ia3))-(X1+X2));
disp('X0') ;
disp('result')
disp('positive sequence reactance of reactance X1')
disp(XI)
disp(' negative sequence reactance of reactance X2')
disp(X2)
disp(' zero sequence reactance of reactance Xo')
disp(X0)

Result:

Figure8.1: Determine positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence reactance
of generator based on parameters specified in the problem statement

Conclusion:

The experiment to determine positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence of
generator subjected to different types of faults is performed successfully with practical results
identical to theoretical results i.e. positive sequence reactance equals 0.3003 ohms, negative
sequence reactance equals 0.2533 ohms.
 EXPERIMENT-9
AIM: To determine ABCD constants for transmission lines.

Software Required: MATLAB R2017b

Theory:
Short transmission network :
A = 1;
B = Z;
C = 0;
D = 1;
Medium line PI network :
A = 1+ YZ/2;
B = Z;
C = Y(1 + YZ/4)
D = A;
Medium line T network:
A = 1+ YZ/2;
B = Z(1+YZ/4);
C = Y;
D = A;
Long transmission network:
A = cosh*sqrt(YZ);
B = sqrt(Z/Y)*sinh*sqrt(Z*Y);
C = 1/sqrt(Z/Y)*sinh*sqrt(Z*Y);
D = A;
Problem statement:
For short line , length = 40 Km
For medium line , length = 140 Km
For long line , length = 300 Km
Z = (0.2+0.408i)*length;
Y = (0+ 3.14e-6i)*length;
Find ABCD constants for all transmission lines
Code:
%program to calculate ABCD parameter for short transmission network
Z = input('enter the value of impedance Z in ohm:');
Y = input('enter the value of admittance Y in siemen:');
l = input('enter the value of length l in meter:');
Z1 = Z*1;
Y1 = Y*1;
A = 1;
B = Z1;
C = 0;
D = 1;
fprintf('\n The value of A for short line is %f%+fi \n',real(A),imag(A));
fprintf('\n The value of B for short line is %f%+fi \n',real(B),imag(B));
fprintf('\n The value of C for short line is %f%+fi \n',real(C),imag(C));
fprintf('\n The value of D for short line is %f%+fi \n',real(D),imag(D));
%program to calculate ABCD parameter for pie network medium line
Z = input('enter the value of impedance Z in ohm:');
Y = input('enter the value of admittance Y in siemen:');
l = input('enter the value of length l in meter:');
Z1 = Z*1;
Y1 = Y*1;
A = 1+((Y1*Z1)/Z1);
B = Z1;
C = Y1*(1+((Y1*Z1)/4));
D = A;
fprintf('\n The value of A for pie network medium line is %f%+fi \n',real(A),imag(A));
fprintf('\n The value of B for pie network medium line is %f%+fi \n',real(B),imag(B));
fprintf('\n The value of C for pie network medium line is %f%+fi \n',real(C),imag(C));
fprintf('\n The value of D for pie network medium line is %f%+fi \n',real(D),imag(D));
%program to calculate ABCD parameter for T network medium line
Z = input('enter the value of impedance Z in ohm:');
Y = input('enter the value of admittance Y in siemen:');
l = input('enter the value of length l in meter:');
Z1 = Z*1;
Y1 = Y*1;
A = 1+((Y1*Z1)/Z1);
B = Z1*(1+((Y1*Z1)/4));
C = Y1;
D = A;
fprintf('\n The value of A for T network medium line is %f%+fi \n',real(A),imag(A));
fprintf('\n The value of B for T network medium line is %f%+fi \n',real(B),imag(B));
fprintf('\n The value of C for T network medium line is %f%+fi \n',real(C),imag(C));
fprintf('\n The value of D for T network medium line is %f%+fi \n',real(D),imag(D));
%program to calculate ABCD parameter for long line network
Z = input('enter the value of impedance Z in ohm:');
Y = input('enter the value of admittance Y in siemen:');
l = input('enter the value of length l in meter:');
Z1 = Z*1;
Y1 = Y*1;
ZC = sqrt(Z1/Y1);
GAM = sqrt(Z1*Y1);
A = cosh(GAM);
B = ZC*sinh(GAM);
C = 1/ZC*sinh(GAM);
D = A;
A = 1+((Y1*Z1)/Z1);
B = Z1*(1+((Y1*Z1)/4));
C = Y1;
D = A;
fprintf('\n The value of A for long line is %f%+fi \n',real(A),imag(A));
fprintf('\n The value of B for long line is %f%+fi \n',real(B),imag(B));
fprintf('\n The value of C for long line is %f%+fi \n',real(C),imag(C));
fprintf('\n The value of D for long line is %f%+fi \n',real(D),imag(D));
Results:

Figure9.1: ABCD constants for short transmission network based on parameters

specified in the problem statement

Figure9.2: ABCD constants for medium line PI transmission network based on

parameters specified in the problem statement

Figure9.3: ABCD constants for medium line T transmission network based on

parameters specified in the problem statement

Figure9.4: ABCD constants for long line transmission network based on parameters
specified in the problem statement
Conclusion:

The experiment to calculate ABCD constants for short line transmission network, medium
line PI and T networks and long line transmission network is performed successfully with
MATLAB results identical to theoretical.
 EXPERIMENT-10
AIM: To solve the swing equation of the given problem by using point-by-point method and
write a MATLAB program to verify the result.

Software Required: MATLAB R2017b

Theory: The Swing Equation of generator describes the relative motion between the rotor
axis and the synchronously rotating stator filed axis with respect to time. This equation is
very helpful in analyzing the stability of connected machines (machine here means
generator). As we know that in a synchronous generator the speed of rotor axis and stator
filed axis is equal to synchronous speed (N = 120f/P) during normal operating condition. This
simply means that the relative speed between rotor axis and stator field axis is zero. Thus, a
constant angle δ is maintained between the rotor field axis and stator filed axis under normal
operating condition. This angle δ is known as Load Angle or Torque Angle. The value of
load angle depends on the loading of machine. The more is the load, the more will be the load
angle δ as suggested by the power equation

P = EfVtSinδ / Xs

where Ef = No Load Excitation Voltage

Vt = Generator Terminal Voltage

Xs = Synchronous Impedance

Also, during steady state operation of generator the value of electromagnetic torque T e is
equal to shaft torque Ts. Since electromagnetic torque Te and load torque Ts act in opposite
direction, there is no net torque on the rotor. This is the reason; rotor rotates at constant
angular velocity during steady state operation of generator. But when there is a sudden
change in the loading of machine i.e. if some load is added or removed from the rotor shaft,
the rotor will accelerate or decelerate with respect to the synchronously rotating stator field.
Suppose steam input to the generator is suddenly increased, under this condition the rotor will
accelerate as the electromagnetic torque Te will remain almost constant during transient
period but shaft torque Ts has been increased. Thus a relative motion will set in between the
rotor and stator field axis. Since generator terminals are assumed to be connected to Grid, the
stator filed axis can be taken as reference for study of relative motion. Due to this relative
motion, the load angle δs will vary with time and can be written as

δs = ωrt + δ ………………………………………………………………………equation (1)

where δs is the angle between the reference stator field axis and rotor axis at any time t and δ
is the load angle just before the rotor disturbance.

where wr is the relative angular speed between the rotor axis and stator filed axis.

Also, Ts – Te = Ta

where Ta = Net Accelerating Torque

Since a synchronous machine rotates at constant angular speed, hence the above torque can
be replaced by power for analysis. Hence Te is replaced by electromagnetic power Pe and
Ts by shaft power Ps. Thus, the rotor accelerating power Pa can be written as,

Ps – Pe = Pa

But as per mechanics, power = Torque x Angular Speed

Therefore,

Accelerating power Pa = Taω ……………………………………………………..equation (2)

Since, Torque = Inertia (I) x Angular Acceleration (α)

Therefore from (2),

Pa = Iωα ……………………………………………………………………………equation (3)

Let, M = Iω

But Iω is the angular momentum, hence M is called the angular momentum of generator
rotor. Therefore from (3),

Rotor / Shaft Accelerating Power Pa = Mα ………………………………………equation (4)

It should be noted here that while applying mechanics for the analysis of relative motion
between rotor axis and stator axis, the unit of angular speed w should be considered in
mechanical radian per second. But since we can convert this mechanical radian per second
into electrical radian per second by using

Electrical radian or degree = Mechanical Radian or degree x No. of Pole Pairs

But the angular position of rotor w.r.t is described by (1),

δs = ωrt + δ

Differentiating both side w.r.t time,

dδs / dt = ωr +dδ/dt

Again differentiating w.r.t time,

d2δs / dt2 = d2δ/dt2

But d2δs / dt2 = angular acceleration of rotor i.e. α

Hence from (4),

Pa = Mα = Md2δ/dt2

But Pa = Ps – Pe

⇒ Ps – Pe = Md2δ/dt2 …………………………………………………………….equation (5)

The above equation is known as the Swing Equation [6].

Problem Statement: A 20 MVA, 50 Hz generator delivers 18 MW over a double circuit line

to an infinite bus. The generator has kinetic energy of 2.52 MJ/MVA at rated speed. The
generator transient reactance is Xd=0.35p.u. Each transmission circuit has R=0 and a
reactance of 0.2pu on 20 MVA Base. |E| = 1.1p.u. and infinite bus voltage V=1.0. A three
phase short circuit occurs at the midpoint of one of the transmission lines. Plot swing curves
with fault cleared by simultaneous opening of breakers at both ends of the line at 6.25 cycles
after the occurrence of fault. Also plot the swing curve over the period of 0.5s if the fault
sustained. Solve the swing equation by point-by-point method theoretically and verify using
MATLAB Program. Comment on system stability.

Code:

Program 1: Save this part in another m-file with name swing.m

function[time ang]=swing(tc)

k=0;v=1;E=1.1;pm=0.9;T=0.5;delT=0.05;ddelta=0;time(1)=0;ang(1)=21.64;xdf=1.25;xaf=0.
55;t=0;pi=3.14;

delta=21.64*pi/180;i=2;

m=2.52/(180*50);

while t<T

if t<tc

x=xdf;

else

x=xaf;

end

pmax=E*v/x;

pa=pm-pmax*sin(delta);

ddelta=ddelta+(delT^2*(pa/m));

delta=(delta*180/pi+ddelta)*(pi/180);

deltadeg=delta*180/pi;

t=t+delT;

time(i)=t;

ang(i)=deltadeg;

i=i+1;

end
end

Program 2: Main program that is dependent on swing.m

clc

clear all

close all

for i=1:2

tc=input('enter the value of clearing time: \n');

[time,ang]=swing(tc)

t(:,1)=time;

a(:,i)=ang;

end

plot(t,a(:,1),'*-',t,a(:,2),'d-')

axis([0 0.5 0 inf])

t,a

Inputs to main program

Enter the value of clearing time as 0.25 sec and 5 sec

Result:

Figure10.1: swing equation by point by point method based on parameters specified in

the problem statement

Conclusion:

The experiment to solve swing equation by point-by-point method and obtaining its graph is
successful.
 EXPERIMENT-11
AIM: To determine the power flow analysis using Newton – Raphson method.

Software Required: MATLAB R2017b

Theory: The Newton Raphson method of load flow analysis is an iterative method which
approximates the set of non-linear simultaneous equations to a set of linear simultaneous
equations using Taylor’s series expansion and the terms are limited to first order
approximation. The load flow equations for Newton Raphson method are non-linear
equations in terms of real and imaginary part of bus voltages.

where, ep = Real part of Vp

fp = Imaginary part of Vp

Gpq, Bpq = Conductance and Susceptance of admittance Ypq respectively.

Problem Statement:

Bus code impedance Line charging admittance

1-2 0.08+j0.24 0.0
1-3 0.02+j0.06 0.0
2-3 0.06+j0.15 0.0
 Bus code Assumed voltage Generation Load
MW MVA MW MVA
1 1.06+j0.0 0 0 0 0
2 1.0+j0.0 0.2 0 0 0
3 1.0+j0.0 0 0 0.6 0.25

Code:

Z12 = input (' Enter the value of impedance value bus 1-2');

Z23 = input ('Enter the value of impedance value bus 2-3');

Z31 = input ('Enter the value of impedance value bus 3-1');

% addmittance value

Y12 = (1/Z12)

Y23 = (1/Z23)

Y31 = (1/Z31)

Y21=Y12;

Y32=Y23;

Y13 =Y31;

Y11 = (Y12+Y31)

Y22 = (Y21+Y23)

Y33 = (Y31+Y32)

% admittance matrix

Y = [Y11 Y12 Y13; Y21 Y22 Y23; Y31 Y32 Y33];

disp(Y)
% ASSUME a flat voltage profile for bus 2 and bus 3 and for bus 1

V1 = 1.06+0.0i

%form the nodal admittance matrix and the assumed voltage solution

G11 =6.25;

G12=-1.25;

G21=G12;

G13=-5.0;

G31=G13;

G22=2.916;

G23=-1.66;

G32=G23;

G33=6.666;

B11=-18.75;

B12 =-3.75;

B21=B12;

B13 = -15;

B31=B13;

B22 = 8.75;

B23= -5.0;

B32=B23;
B33 = 20;

% E AND F values

e1 = 1.06; e2 = 1.0;

e3=1.0;f1=0.0; f2=0.0; f3=0.0;

P2=e2*(e1*G21+f1*B21)+(f2*(f1*G21-e1*B21))+(e2*(e2*G22+f2*B22))+(f2*(f2*G22-
e2*B22))+(e2*(e3*G23+f3*B23))+(f2*(f3*G23-e3*B23))

P3=e3*(e1*G13+f1*B13)+(f3*(f1*G13-e1*B13))+(e3*(e2*G23+f2*B23))+(f3*(f2*G23-
e2*B23))+(e3*(e3*G33+f3*B33))+(f3*(f3*G33-e3*B33))

Q2=(e2*e1*B21)+(e2*e2*B22)+(e2*e3*B23)

Q3=(e3*e2*B13)+(e2*e3*B23)+(e3*e3*B33)

delta_Q2 = 0.0 - Q2

delta_Q3 = 0.25- Q3

%diagonal elements

dp2de2=(2*e2*G22)+(e1*G21)+(f1*B21)+(e3*G23)+(f3*B23)

dp3de3=(2*e3*G33)+(e1*G31)+(f1*B31)+(e2*G32)+(f2*B32)

dp2df2=(2*f2*G22)+(f1*G21)-(e1*B21)+(f3*G23)-(e3*B23)

dp3df3=(2*f3*G33)+(f1*G13)-(e1*B13)+(f3*G23)-(e3*B23)

% off diagonal

elements

dp2dq2 =(e2*G23)-(f2*B23)

dp3dq3 =(e3*G32)-(f3*B32)
dp3df2 =(e2*B23)+(f2*G23)

dp3df3 =(e3*B32)+(f3*G32)

%reactive power

dq2de2=(2*e2*B22)-(f1*G21)+(e1*B21)-(f3*G23)+(e3*B23)

dq3de3=(2*e3*B33)-(f1*G31)+(e1*B31)-(f3*G32)+(e3*B32)

dq2df2=(2*f2*B22)+(e1*G21)+(f1*B12)+(e3*G23)+(f3*B23)

dp3df3=(2*f3*B33)+(e1*G13)+(f1*B13)+(e2*G23)+(f2*B23)

Result:

Y12 = 1.2500 - 3.7500i

Y23 = 1.6667 - 5.0000i

Y31 = 5.0000 -15.0000i

Y11 = 6.2500 -18.7500i

Y22 = 2.9167 - 8.7500i

Y33 = 6.6667 -20.0000i

Matrix Ybus

6.2500 -18.7500i 1.2500 - 3.7500i 5.0000 -15.0000i

1.2500 - 3.7500i 2.9167 - 8.7500i 1.6667 - 5.0000i

5.0000 -15.0000i 1.6667 - 5.0000i 6.6667 -20.0000i

V1 = 1.0600

P2 = -0.0690

P3 = -0.2940

Q2 = -0.2250

Q3 = 0
delta_Q2 = 0.2250

delta_Q3 = 0.2500

dp2de2 = 2.8470

dp3de3 = 6.3720

dp2df2 = 8.9750

dp3df3 = 20.9000

dp2dq2 = -1.6600

dp3dq3 = -1.6600

dp3df2 = -5

dp3df3 = -5

dq2de2 = 8.5250

dq3de3 = 19.1000

dq2df2 = -2.9850

dp3df3 = -6.9600

Conclusion:

The experiment to perform power flow analysis using Newton Raphson method is performed
successfully.
 EXPERIMENT-12
AIM: To find load flow solution of the given power system using Gauss-Seidel method
theoretically for one iteration and obtain full solution using MATLAB.

Software Required: MATLAB R2017b

Theory: The gauss-seidel method is an iterative algorithm for solving a set of non linear load
flow equations. The process of computing all the bus voltages is called one itera-tion .the
iterative process is then repeated till the bus voltage converges with in prescribed accuracy.
the converges of bus voltage is quite sensitive to the initial values assumed. Based on
practical experiences it is easier to get a set of initial voltages very close to final solution. To
compute the (k+1)th iteration value of the bus –p voltage, the (k+1)th iteration values of
voltages are used for all buses less than p and kth iteration values of voltages are used for all
buses greater than or equal to p. It is important to note that the slack bus is a reference bus
and so its voltage will not change. therefore, in each iteration the slack bus voltage is not
modified. For generator bus, the reactive power is not refer specified .
Problem Statement: For the sample power system shown below, the generators are connected
at all the four buses, while loads are at buses 2 and 3.Values of real and reactive powers are
listed in the table. All buses other than the slack are PQ type. Assuming a flat voltage start,
find the voltages and bus angles at the three buses at the end of first GS iteration.
Input data:
For the above system, the bus admittance matrix is:

Code:

%Load flow using guass siedel method

clc

clear

n=4;

V=[1.04 1 1 1];

Y=[3-j*9 -2+j*6 -1+j*3 0

-2+j*6 3.666-j*11 -0.666+j*2 -1+j*3

-1+j*3 -0.666+j*2 3.666-j*11 -2+j*6

0 -1+j*3 -2+j*6 3-j*9];

type=ones(n,1);

typechanged=zeros(n,1);
Qlimitmax=zeros(n,1);

Qlimitmin=zeros(n,1);

Vmagfixed=zeros(n,1);

type(2)=2;

Qlimitmax(2)=1.0;

Qlimitmin(2)=-0.2;

Vmagfixed(2)=1.04;

diff=10;

noofiter=1;

Vprev=V;

while(diff>0.00001 | noofiter==1),

abs(V);

abs(Vprev);

Vprev=V;

P=[inf 0.5 -1 0.3];

Q=[inf -0.3 0.5 -0.1];

S=[inf 0.5-j*0.2 -1.0+j*0.5 0.3-j*0.1];

for i=2:n,

if type(i)==2 |typechanged(i)==1,

if (Q(i)>Qlimitmax(i)|Q(i)<Qlimitmin(i))
 if(Q(i)<Qlimitmin(i))

Q(i)=Qlimitmin(i);

else

Q(i)=Qlimitmin(i);

end

type(i)=1;

typechanged(i)=1;

else

type(i)=2;

typechanged(i)=0;

end

end

sumyv=0;

for k=1:n,

if(i~=k)

sumyv=sumyv+Y(i,k)*V(k);

end

end

V(i)=(1/Y(i,i))*((P(i)-j*Q(i))/conj(V(i))-sumyv);

if type(i)==2 & typechanged(i)~=1,

V(i)=PolarTorect(Vmagfixed(i),angle(V(i)*180/pi));

end

end

diff=max(abs(abs(V(2:n))-abs(Vprev(2:n))));

noofiter=noofiter+1

end

Result:

V1 = 1.040000000000000 + 0.000000000000000i

V2 = 1.039111915740814 + 0.015467853135004i

V3 = 1.046054295656085 - 0.107817726845416i

V4 = 1.044802961198227 - 0.034853798770800i

Conclusion:

The experiment to perform load flow solution using Gauss Seidel method is performed
successfully with final bus voltages obtained as mentioned in the results.
REFERENCES

[1] https://circuitglobe.com/bus-admittance-matrix.html

[2] https://www.electrical4u.com/sag-in-overhead-conductor/

[3] https://www.electricaleasy.com/2016/11/string-efficiency.html

[4] http://electricalarticle.com/corona-loss-transmission-line/

[5] https://www.eeeguide.com/inductance-of-double-circuit-three-phase-line
[6]https://electricalbaba.com/swing-equation-
derivation/#:~:text=%E2%87%92%20Ps%20%E2%80%93%20Pe,%E2%8
0%A6%E2%80%A6%E2%80%A6%E2%80%A6..(&text=The%20above%2
0equation%20is%20known%20as%20the%20Swing%20Equation.