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Atmospheric Water Generation: Technologies and Influential Factors Abstract

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Proceedings of the 2017 Industrial and Systems Engineering Conference

Atmospheric Water Generation: Technologies and Influential

Factors

Abstract ID: 2914

Zaid Almusaied
Bahram Asiabanpour
Texas State University
San Marcos, Texas, USA

Abstract
Water has a vital role in any biological activity and existence of life on Earth. The population growth, the
improvement in living conditions, and changes in nutrition habits have created more demand for water for
residential, agricultural, industrial applications. Capturing and utilizing atmospheric water is considered a potential
solution to the growing water demand problem. In this study, major methods for capturing the atmospheric humidity
and converting them into potable water, including the technologies that are based on the ideal gas law, desiccation,
and separation membranes, are identified and explained. The article also addresses the influential factors in each
method to be utilized in a passive noise or an active parameter.

Keywords
Atmospheric water generators, Thermoacoustic refrigeration, Thermoelectric coolers, Desiccation

1. Introduction
Water has a fundamental role in the biological activities and existence of living beings. It comprises a significant
percentage of all living creatures. In some organisms, it reaches 90%, while in an adult human body, it encompasses
up to 60% [1]. According to the United Nations, a human needs 20-50 liters of water per day for drinking, cooking,
and cleaning [4]. The increase in the demand for water is driven by many factors. One of the main factors is the
continuous growth in the population of mankind which reached 7,404,976,783 in 2016 with an average annual growth
rate of 1.07% [2]. This adds roughly 80 million people every year [3]. The population growth creates more demand
for potable water, water for agriculture, industry, and energy. In addition to the previous factors, the improvement in
living conditions and changes in nutrition habits put more pressure on the water demands. The aforementioned
factors, among others, result in an increase of 64 billion cubic meters of demand in freshwater per year [3]. It is
projected that by 2025, 1.8 billion people will live in countries or areas with a severe water shortage [4]. The
problems associated with potable water needs is not limited to the developing countries but can also affect the
developed ones too. As the recent incident of water contamination in Flint, Michigan, shows. Water covers 71% of
the surface of the Earth, with almost 96.5% of it being salty oceans water [5]. Glacier ice, as the solid form of water,
resides in the north and south poles comprise another 2%; the fresh, usable water is less than 1% of the total water
[6]. The gaseous form of water in the atmosphere is calculated to be 3095 cubic miles [7]. The water vapor can be a
solution to the water problem. It is considered a sustainable water resource.
1.1 Water Vapor and Its Condensation
The precise measurement of Earth's atmosphere is not easy to state, but it is widely considered to be around 100km
in depth [8]. The atmosphere consists of molecular nitrogen (78%), molecular oxygen (21%), argon (nearly 1%),
carbon dioxide, neon, helium, methane, ozone, water vapor, and xenon [8]. Most of the aforementioned are
considered well-mixed gases, and their concentration is the same all over the atmosphere except the water vapor,
which has a higher concentration at the lower part of the atmosphere spatially near the surface of Earth [8]. The
pressure applied only by the water vapor molecules is called vapor pressure. This pressure increases as the
concentration of water vapor molecules increases (number density) [9]. Thus, the water vapor pressure comprises a
small percentage of the total atmospheric pressure. The evaporation of water is an aspect associated with the surface,
where some molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to escape the liquid surface and change their liquid phase to
the gas phase [10]. Condensation is the opposite process. Condensation happens when the water vapor molecules hit
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the liquid water surface and chemically bind their molecules [9]. In a closed system, the saturation vapor pressure is
a pressure where the evaporation rate is equal to the condensation rate [9]. When the water vapor pressure is larger
than the saturation vapor pressure, condensation will occur, while if it is lower, evaporation will exist [11]. In
general, the saturation pressure depends on the temperature and material; the saturation pressure rises with
17.27(𝑇𝑎−273)
temperature [11]. 𝑒𝑠 = 0.611 exp( ) (1)
𝑇𝑎 −36

The saturated pressure 𝑒𝑠 is measured in Kpa, the ambient temperature is 𝑇𝑎 Measured in Kelvin [20].

Figure 1: Water vapor pressure vs temperature. Saturation vapor pressure

increases with increasing temperature. At a temperature of 10 ºC the
saturation pressure is about 12 millibars, where at 30ºC it is about 42
millibars [9]

The relative humidity is the percentage of the actual vapor density to the saturation vapor density, while the dew point
is the temperature at which the moisture content in the air saturates it [12]. Cooling the air below the dew point will
cause condensation of some of the water vapor [12].
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Relative humidity = 100% (2)
𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

1.2 Atmospheric Water Generator (AWG) and Passive Dew Collectors

The atmospheric water generator is a device that causes the water phase to change from the gaseous phase to the
liquid phase and collect it. Thus, the device exploits the moist air to generate liquid water. Passive methods to
generate and collect the dew water, where no external input energy is applied to force the condensation process, are
not new to humanity. Many civilizations in different regions utilized the natural formation of the dew water that
results from the condensation of water vapor when the temperature drops below the dew point. Based on
archeological evidence, many methods for capturing the fog and dew were reported, including building cisterns
under trees, employing nets, and constructing honeycombed walls [21]. Using the water vapor from the air to
produce liquid water for survival has been observed in nature by many species. The Stenocara beetle is an example,
where the beetle has hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces on its back, and it generates its own water from the fog
by using them [22]. The passive collectors' productivity depends on many factors, such as weather conditions,
position, material, shape, and size [23].
The sky emissivity is one of the weather conditions that affect water vapor condensation. The low emissivity of the
sky prevents the condensation, as it significantly reduces the radiation from surfaces at ground level [23].
Consequently, the dew formation is more likely to occur under clear skies [23]. Relative humidity is another major
weather factor that affects the natural formation of dew water passively, where no natural condensation will happen if
the relative humidity is low. The wind is the third weather factor that impacts condensation. On the one hand, it can
act as a preventer of condensation as it decreases radiative cooling. This reduction comes from bringing the warmer
air to the surface and thus increases the heat exchange between it and the surface [23]. On the other hand, it is
essential for natural condensation to occur since it brings humid air to the condensation surface. These factors need to
respond to the weather conditions to achieve good yield output. The previous factors also have an impact on the
productivity of the active atmospheric generators, but the impact varies based on the technology used by the AWG.
The atmospheric water generators that perform their tasks, which require external input energy, produce more water
than the passive dew collectors [23]. A passive condenser of 1m2 produces 0.3 to 0.6 L/day of dew water in arid and
semi-arid areas, while some AWGs yield up to 200,000 L/day [23].
2. Atmospheric Water Generator Classifications
The active atmospheric water generators can be categorized based on the methods used to achieve the condensation
into the following:
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Figure 2: Classification of air

dehumidification technologies
for AWG. The technologies
include: Active Magnetic
Regenerator (AMR), Metal
Hydride systems (M.Hyd),
Thermoacoustic refrigeration
(TAR), Thermoelectric Cooler
(TEC), Vapor Absorption
Refrigeration (VAR), Vapor
Compression Refrigeration
(VCR), Polystrenesulfonic
Acid Sodium Salt (PSSASS)
[26] [31]

2.1 Cooling the Surface

2.1.1 Vapor Compression Refrigeration (VCR) and Vapor Absorption Refrigeration (VAR)
Vapor Compression Refrigeration (VCR) systems are very common cooling systems. The VCR cycle in these
systems has the refrigerant expanding and ultimately extracting the heat from a heat exchanger. Then, the refrigerant
is compressed by a compressor to transport the heat to another heat exchanger outside the embodiment [29]. The
VCR-based technology is used by the AWG systems to cool the surface and cause the condensation of water. The
environmental hazards are associated with the use of many refrigerants. R-134a is now used as a refrigerant as it has
less effect on ozone layer depletion, but it still carries this risk for long-term usage [26]. Another method of cooling
is by Vapor Absorption Refrigeration (VAR). These systems will utilize the heat itself to compress the working
fluid. This is the main difference from the VCR system, in which the act of compressing is done by exerting
mechanical work on the working fluid [29]. The functions of sucking and compression of the refrigerant are done by
the absorber and generator, respectively. The working fluid then becomes a vapor at high temperature and high
pressure, where it will deliver its heat to the cooler surrounding the condenser side. Examples of VAR working fluid
are the ammonia-water and lithium-bromide solution in water [29]. The use of ammonia has the risks of poisoning +
when a leak occurs, while lithium-bromide is corrosive, and when it contacts ferrous parts, it generates hydrogen.
Thus, using VAR needs more design consideration to overcome such problems [26].

Figure 3: Schematic of a single stage VAR cycle using low-grade heat

source [29]

2.1.2 Thermoacoustic Refrigerator (TAR)

A sound wave passing through a gas will create oscillations in pressure, displacement, and temperature. The
oscillations interact with the solid boundaries of the system in multiple ways. A thermoacoustic effect will result
from this interaction [15]. The thermal effects are not sensed with ordinary speech sound levels. The variation in
temperature will be barely a ten-thousandth of a degree centigrade [16], but with high-intensity sound in pressurized
resonant craters crafted into multiple types of heat exchangers, the thermoacoustic effects can be then exploited to
make a good heat engine or refrigerator [17]. The implementation of the thermoacoustic phenomenon to create a
cooling system started to gain rapid attention during the last couple of decades. This promising technology has many
advantages when compared to conventional cooling systems. The most prominent one is its use of inert gases such
as helium as refrigerant, where such gases are not carrying hazardous implications on the environment [13]. The
system also uses loudspeakers, which perform a close function of the compressor in conventional cooling systems.
This is considered to be another advantage since they are more durable and simpler than the traditional compressors
[14]. The thermoacoustic systems can be categorized into thermoacoustic engines and thermoacoustic refrigerators.
The thermoacoustic engines take the heat from the high-temperature side, transform it into acoustic energy, and
deposit the unused heat into the cold side [15]. The thermoacoustic refrigerators are heat pumps that move the heat,
as external work is applied, from one side to the other and create a temperature gradient [13] [19]. Both
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thermoacoustic engines and refrigerators can be divided into standing wave or traveling wave (pulse tube) devices,
based on the type of acoustic wave used in the system [14].

Figure 4: The basic action of (a) heat engine, (b) heat pump
• Basic Thermoacoustic Refrigerator (TAR) Components
The basic thermoacoustic refrigerator consists of the following parts: resonator tube, stack, acoustic driver, gas, and
heat exchangers [18]. The stack is a compartment that has multiple plates dividing it into smaller enclosures. The
stack plates have a high heat capacity and end on both sides with the heat exchangers [15] [13]. The driver is a
loudspeaker that converts the electricity into sound and provides the system with it. The function of the resonator
tube is to have a standing wave at a certain frequency. The inert gas is the fluid medium acting as a refrigerant in the
system. The heat exchanger's function is to have the heat transfer with its surrounding [13] [18].

Figure 5: Thermoacoustic refrigerator. The system consists of

a loudspeaker, stack, heat exchangers, resonator tube, and gas

• Basic Thermoacoustic Refrigerator Operation Principles

The electroacoustic transducer (the loudspeaker) transforms the electricity to sound waves delivering work to the
system. The waves will be standing waves as they oscillate in the resonator. This compression and rarefaction of the
gas cause a variation in the local temperature of the gas due to the adiabatic nature of the sound wave. A heat
transfer occurs between the gas and the wall of the stack when the temperature of the gas is higher than that of the
stack wall. The local temperature of the decompressed gas is lower than the temperature of the cold side, which
causes a heat transfer from the cold side to the gas. When the gas is compressed, the local temperature will be
greater than the hot side, causing a heat transfer [19]. The location of the stack and its thermal penetration depth are
calculated to achieve a heat transfer. An efficiency of 40% of Carnot's efficiency has been reached [15].
2.1.3 Thermoelectric Cooling
Another approach to drop the temperature of the air below the dew point to cause condensation is by cooling the
surface with thermoelectric coolers (TEC). The thermoelectric effect is expressed as the direct transformation of
electromotive force into temperature difference and vice versa—the Seebeck effect occurs when the electromotive
force is harnessed from temperature differences, such as in thermocouples. The Peltier effect is when the
temperature differences are harnessed by applying electromotive force such as in the TEC [27]. A direct current is
passing through heterogenous conductors, causing heat to be either absorbed or released based on the current
polarity. Doped semiconductors are used to generate the temperature difference. The n-type and p-type are
connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel. The semiconductors are enclosed by ceramic substrates
[26]. Cooling by using TEC has many advantages, including fewer environmental hazards, no moving parts with
less maintenance, higher temperature control, more shape control, and a good life span [ 28]. The disadvantage can
be seen with the TEC's lower efficiency [26].
Figure 6: (a) The flow of charges through N-type
semiconductors generates temperature difference
across the junction. (b) To increase the effect, many
(a ) (b) single devices are connected electrically in series [27]
2.2 Generating Water Using Desiccation
This method started to gain momentum during the last few years and is expected to be used on a larger scale in the
future as it is projected to have a significant share of the AWG market [24]. American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) gives a description of the process of desiccation and the
materials used to achieve it as follows [25]. The materials that are capable of drawing and capturing other gases or
liquids are called sorbents. Desiccants are types of sorbents that have the capacity to attract and hold water because
they have an affinity for it. Many natural and synthetic materials can attract water, but they cannot hold it. The
 No Author 1, 2, or 3 Last Name For Blind Paper Review
desiccants draw the moisture from the surroundings until an equilibrium is reached between them and the
surroundings. Heating the desiccants to temperatures between 50º and 260ºC and exposing them to a scavenger
airstream is the next step to extract the moisture from the desiccants and causes air to have a high concentration of
the moisture (water vapor). This air is passed on a cold surface to condense the water vapor to liquid water. The
desiccants, on the other hand, need to be regenerated by cooling them so that they can regain their desiccation
capability. The entire cycle in the process depends on creating a water vapor pressure gradient between the desiccant
and the surroundings, which is controlled by heating and cooling [25] [26].

Figure 7: Desiccant cycle [25]

2.3 Gas Separating Membranes

The use of water vapor separating membranes is considered a promising method. This method reduces the energy
required to condense water vapor into liquid water. Systems that use such membranes could reduce the needed
energy by 50% compared to systems without the membranes [30]. The separating membranes systems are systems
that use vapor permeation technology, which refers to the conveyance of specific condensable vapors through a
membrane from a vapor and/or gas supply mixture [31]. The membranes selectively allow only the water vapor to
pass, excluding the other gases in the air, thus increasing the water vapor concentration [30]. These systems need a
constant and stable positive driving force to maintain the penetration through the membranes [31]. Numerous
polymers have the potential to be used as water vapor separation membranes for atmospheric water generators [31].
Although the technology has promising potentials, it has many challenges. The first challenge is the membrane
fouling phenomena, where the membrane performance will be reduced as the feed and permeate concentration
accumulates on the surface of the membrane. The second is the continuous variation of the water vapor partial
pressure as the feed to the system has changed in temperature and relative humidity [31].

3. The Environmental Perspective of Using the AWG to Generate Drinking Water

The technology applied currently is via cooling a surface using VCR systems. This technology is used in most AWG
devices accompanied by filters to provide potable water; thus, water will also be cold. These devices are marketed as
good environmental replacements for bottled water. This statement is not supported by any evidence since such
systems need high energy to operate. These AWGs underperform bottled water coolers [32]. The AWGs can be
environmentally viable replacements to bottled water if they operate with energy supplied by renewable energy
resources.

4. Conclusion
The condensation of the water vapor in the air is achieved by dropping the air temperature below its dew point. The
atmospheric water generators use various methods to perform this function. The most common technology in
achieving this task is through direct cooling of a surface in contact with air. Another method to achieve higher
condensation is by increasing the water vapor density. Using separation membranes and desiccants are examples of
new methods that extract the water vapor from the air. Then the cooling will be the next stage, where the water
vapor density becomes higher, and it will require less cooling to condense the water vapor into liquid water. Further
studies are needed to evaluate each method with respect to the external energy input vs. the yield output water. The
continuous development in improved and innovative cooling technology like thermoacoustic and thermoelectric
cooling can open new venues to atmospheric water generators if their coefficient of performance can reach or
exceed that of the CVR. Exerting higher pressure accompanied with innovative cooling is another direction to be
pursued. New materials with hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces added to the evaporators plus improving the
airflow can be a good enhancement to all the used and proposed methods.
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