Star and crescent

The star and crescent is an iconographic symbol used in various historical contexts, including as a
prominent symbol of the Ottoman Empire, and in contemporary times used as a national symbol for some
countries as well as recognized as a symbol of Islam.[1] It was developed in the Greek colony of Byzantium
ca. 300 BC, though it became more widely used as the royal emblem of Pontic king Mithradates VI
Eupator after he incorporated Byzantium into his kingdom for a short period.[2] During the 5th century, it
was present in coins minted by the Persian Sassanian Empire; the symbol was represented in the coins
minted across the empire throughout the Middle East for more than 400 years from the 3rd century until the
fall of the Sassanians after the Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century.[3] The conquering Muslim
rulers kept the symbol in their coinage during the early years of the caliphate, as the coins were exact
replicas of the Sassanian coins.

The symbol is the conjoined representation of a crescent and a star. Both elements have a long prior history
in the iconography of the Ancient Near East as representing either the Sun and Moon or the Moon and
Venus (Morning Star) (or their divine personifications). Coins with crescent and star symbols represented
separately have a longer history, with possible ties to older Mesopotamian iconography. The star, or Sun, is
often shown within the arc of the crescent (also called star in crescent, or star within crescent, for
disambiguation of depictions of a star and a crescent side by side).[4] In numismatics in particular, the term
crescent and pellet is used in cases where the star is simplified to a single dot.[5]

The combination is found comparatively rarely in late medieval and early modern heraldry. It rose to
prominence with its adoption as the flag and national symbol of the Ottoman Empire and some of its
administrative divisions (eyalets and vilayets) and later in the 19th-century Westernizing tanzimat (reforms).
The Ottoman flag of 1844, with a white ay-yıldız (Turkish for "crescent-star") on a red background,
continues to be in use as the flag of the Republic of Turkey, with minor modifications. Other states formerly
part of the Ottoman Empire also used the symbol, including Libya (1951–1969 and after 2011), Tunisia
(1831) and Algeria (1958). The same symbol was used in other national flags introduced during the 20th
century, including the flags of Azerbaijan (1918), Pakistan (1947), Malaysia (1948), Singapore (1959),
Mauritania (1959), Kashmir (1974), Uzbekistan (1991), Turkmenistan (1991) and Comoros (2001). In the
latter 20th century, the star and crescent have acquired a popular interpretation as a "symbol of Islam",[1]
occasionally embraced by Arab nationalism or Islamism in the 1970s to 1980s but often rejected as
erroneous or unfounded by Muslim commentators in more recent times.[6] Unlike the cross, which is a
symbol of Jesus' crucifixion in Christianity, there is no solid link that connects the star and crescent symbol
with the concept of Islam. The connotation is widely believed to have come from the flag of the Ottoman
Empire, whose prestige as an Islamic empire and caliphate led to the adoption of its state emblem as a
symbol of Islam by association. Unicode introduced a "star and crescent" character in its Miscellaneous
Symbols block, at U+262A (☪).

Contents
History
Origins and predecessors
Classical antiquity
Greeks and Romans
Iran (Persia)
 Western Turkic Khaganate
Medieval and early modern
Christian and classical heraldric usage
Muslim usage
Use in the Ottoman Empire
Contemporary use
National flags
Symbol of Islam
Municipal coats of arms
Sports Club Emblems Ancient design of the star and
Other uses crescent symbol as used in
Byzantium in the 1st century BC.
See also
References
External links

History

Origins and predecessors

Crescents appearing together with a star or stars are a common feature The star and crescent symbol
of Sumerian iconography, the crescent usually being associated with used in the minted coins of the
the moon god Sin (Nanna) and the star with Ishtar (Inanna, i.e. Sassanian Empire from the 3rd
Venus), often placed alongside the sun disk of Shamash.[8][9] In Late century until the 7th century. This
Bronze Age Canaan, star and crescent moon motifs are also found on coin was coined under Ardashir
III.
Moabite name seals.[10]

The Egyptian hieroglyphs representing "moon" (

N11) and "star" (

N14) appear in ligature, forming a star-and-crescent shape

, as a determiner for the word for "month", ꜣbd.[11]

The Adoration of the Magi by
The depiction of the crescent-and-star or "star inside crescent" as it
Stephan Lochner; on the left, the
would later develop in Bosporan Kingdom is difficult to trace to
crescent and star is depicted in
Mesopotamian art.
Exceptionally, a combination of the crescent of Sin
the flag of representatives of
with the five-pointed star of Ishtar, with the star placed inside the
Byzantium.
crescent as in the later Hellenistic-era symbol, placed among
numerous other symbols, is found in a boundary stone of
Nebuchadnezzar I (12th century BC; found in Nippur by John Henry
Haynes in 1896).[12] An example of such an arrangement is also
found in the (highly speculative) reconstruction of a fragmentary stele
of Ur-Nammu (Third Dynasty of Ur) discovered in the 1920s.[13]
Classical antiquity

Greeks and Romans

Many ancient Greek (classical and hellenistic) and Roman amulets

which depict stars and crescent have been found.[14]

Mithradates VI Eupator of Pontus (r. 120–63 BC) used an eight

rayed star with a crescent moon as his emblem. McGing (1986)
notes the association of the star and crescent with Mithradates VI,
discussing its appearance on his coins, and its survival in the coins
of the Bosporan Kingdom where "[t]he star and crescent appear on
Pontic royal coins from the time of Mithradates III and seem to
have had oriental significance as a dynastic badge of the Mithridatic
family, or the arms of the country of Pontus."[15]
Several possible
interpretations of the emblem have been proposed. In most of these,
the "star" is taken to represent the Sun. The combination of the two
symbols has been taken as representing Sun and Moon (and by
extension Day and Night), the Zoroastrian Mah and Mithra,[16] or Sealing depicting the Neo Sumerian
deities arising from Greek-Anatolian-Iranian syncretism, the King, Ibbi-Sin seated with a star or
crescent representing Mēn Pharnakou (Μήν Φαρνακου, the local Dingir and crescent adjacent to him
moon god[17]) and the "star" (Sun) representing Ahuramazda (in
interpretatio graeca called Zeus Stratios)[18][19]

By the late Hellenistic or early Roman period, the star and crescent
motif had been associated to some degree with Byzantium. If any
goddess had a connection with the walls in Constantinople, it was
Hecate. Hecate had a cult in Byzantium from the time of its
founding. Like Byzas in one legend, she had her origins in Thrace.
Hecate was considered the patron goddess of Byzantium because
she was said to have saved the city from an attack by Philip of
Macedon in 340 BC by the appearance of a bright light in the sky.
To commemorate the event the Byzantines erected a statue of the
goddess known as the Lampadephoros ("torch-bearer" or "torch-
Depiction of the emblems of Ishtar
bringer").[20]
(Venus), Sin (Moon), and Shamash
Some Byzantine coins of the 1st century BC and later show the (Sun) on a boundary stone of Meli-
head of Artemis with bow and quiver, and feature a crescent with Shipak II (12th century BC)
what appears to be a six-rayed star on the reverse.


Star and crescent on a coin of A star and

Uranopolis, Macedon, ca. 300 BC crescent symbol Venus, Sun and Moon on the Stele
(see also Argead star). with the star of Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC) found
at Harran (Şanlıurfa Museum)[7]
shown in a
sixteen-rayed
"sunburst"
design (3rd
century BC) on
the Ai-Khanoum
plaque.[21]

Coin of Mithradates VI Roman-era coin with Greek

Eupator. The obverse side inscription (1st century AD) with a
has the inscription bust of Artemis on the obverse
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΙΘΡΑΔΑΤΟΥ and an eight-rayed star within a
ΕΥΠΑΤΟΡΟΣ with a stag crescent on the reverse side.
feeding, with the star and
crescent and monogram of
Pergamum placed near the
stag's head, all in an ivy-
wreath.[22]

The moon-goddess Selene is commonly depicted with a crescent moon, often accompanied by two stars
(the stars represent Phosphorus, the morning star, and Hesperus, the evening star); sometimes, instead of a
crescent, a lunar disc is used.[23][24][25][26] Often a crescent moon rests on her brow, or the cusps of a
crescent moon protrude, horn-like, from her head, or from behind her head or shoulders.[27]


The Moon-goddess The goddess Selene,

Selene or Luna illustration from
accompanied by the Meyers Lexikon,
Dioscuri, or 1888.
Phosphoros (the
Morning Star) and
Hesperos (the
Evening Star).
Marble altar, Roman
artwork, 2nd century
AD. From Italy.

In the 2nd century, the star-within-crescent is found on the obverse side of Roman coins minted during the
rule of Hadrian, Geta, Caracalla and Septimius Severus, in some cases as part of an arrangement of a
crescent and seven stars, one or several of which were placed inside the crescent.[28]

Coin of Roman Emperor Roman

Hadrian (r. 117–138). The period
reverse shows an eight-rayed limestone
star within a crescent. pediment
from Perge,
Turkey
(Antalya
Museum)
showing
Diana-
Artemis
with a
crescent
and a
radiant
crown.

Iran (Persia)
The star and crescent symbol appears on some coins of the Parthian vassal kingdom of Elymais in the late
1st century AD.
The same symbol is present in coins that are possibly associated with Orodes I of Parthia
(1st century BC). In the 2nd century AD, some Parthian coins show a simplified "pellet within crescent"
symbol.[29]

A star and a crescent appearing Coin of Vardanes I of Parthia (r. c.

(separately) on the obverse side of AD 40–45)
a coin of Orodes II of Parthia (r. 57–
37 BC).

Coin of the Gold coin of Coin of Khosrow Coin of Hormizd

Sasanian king Khosrow II (r. III IV
Kavad II, minted 570–628).
at Susa in 628

Silver dirham issued by Sassanid coin was issued, which

Ispahbudh Khurshid of Tabaristan was added with arabic writing by
the umayyads

The star and crescent motif appears on the margin of Sassanid coins in the 5th century.[30]
Sassanid rulers
also appear to have used crowns featuring a crescent, sphere and crescent, or star and crescent.

Use of the star-and-crescent combination apparently goes back to the earlier appearance of a star and a
crescent on Parthian coins, first under King Orodes II (1st century BC). In these coins, the two symbols
occur separately, on either side of the king's head, and not yet in their combined star-and-crescent form.
Such coins are also found further afield in Greater Persia, by the end of the 1st century AD in a coin issues
by the Western Satraps ruler Chashtana.[31] This arrangement is likely inherited from its Ancient Near
Eastern predecessors; the star and crescent symbols are not
frequently found in Achaemenid iconography, but they are present
in some cylinder seals of the Achaemenid era.[32]

Ayatollahi (2003) attempts to connect the modern adoption as an

"Islamic symbol" to Sassanid coins remaining in circulation after
the Islamic conquest
[33] which is an analysis that stands in stark
contrast to established consensus that there is no evidence for any
connection of the symbol with Islam or the Ottomans prior to its
adoption in Ottoman flags in the late 18th century.[34]

Western Turkic Khaganate A coin of Sassanid king Kavadh I

during his second reign (r. 488–531).
Coins from the Western Turkic Khaganate had a crescent moon and Kavadh was the first Sassanid ruler
a star, which held an important place in the worldview of ancient to introduce star-and-crescent motifs
Turks and other peoples of Central Asia.[35] as decorations on the margin of the
obverse side of his coins. Note the
continued use of the star and the
Medieval and early modern crescent appearing on either side of
the king's head.

Christian and classical heraldric usage

The crescent on its own is used in western heraldry from at least the 13th century, while the star and
crescent (or "Sun and Moon") emblem is in use in medieval seals at least from the late 12th century.
The
crescent in pellet symbol is used in Crusader coins of the 12th century, in some cases duplicated in the four
corners of a cross, as a variant of the cross-and-crosslets ("Jerusalem cross").[36]
Many Crusader seals and
coins show the crescent and the star (or blazing Sun) on either side of the ruler's head (as in the Sassanid
tradition), e.g. Bohemond III of Antioch, Richard I of England, Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse.[37] At
the same time, the star in crescent is found on the obverse of Crusader coins, e.g. in coins of the County of
Tripoli minted under Raymond II or III c. 1140s–1160s show an "eight-rayed star with pellets above
crescent".[38]

The star and crescent combination appears in attributed arms from the early 14th century, possibly in a coat
of arms of c. 1330, possibly attributed to John Chrysostom,[39]
and in the Wernigeroder Wappenbuch (late
15th century) attributed to one of the three Magi, named "Balthasar of Tarsus".[40]

Crescents (without the star) increase in popularity in early modern heraldry in Europe. Siebmachers
Wappenbuch (1605) records 48 coats of arms of German families which include one or several
crescents.[41]

A star and crescent symbolizing Croatia was commonly found on 13th-century banovac coins in the
Kingdom of Slavonia, with a two-barred cross symbolizing the Kingdom of Hungary.[42]

In the late 16th century, the Korenić-Neorić Armorial shows a white star and crescent on a red field as the
coat of arms of "Illyria".

The star and crescent combination remains rare prior to its adoption by the Ottoman Empire in the second
half of the 18th century.


Great Seal of Equestrian seal of The crescent flag Historical coat of

Richard I of England Raymond VI, Count ascribed to the arms of Kunság,
(1198)[43] of Toulouse with a Hungarians against where Cumans in
star and a crescent the Mongol Golden Hungary settled,
(13th century) Horde in the Battle 1279.
of Mohi, 1241.

Templar seal of the Polish coats of arms, Coats of arms of the Coat of arms of John
13th century, called Leliwa (1334 Three Magi, with Freigraf of "Lesser
probably of the seal) "Baltasar of Tarsus" Egypt" (i.e.
preceptor of the being attributed a Romani/gypsy), [45]
commanderies at star and crescent 18th-century
Coudrie and Biais increscent in a blue drawing of a 1498
(Brittany).[44] field, Wernigerode coat of arms in
Armorial (c. 1490) Pforzheim church.


Depictions of stars 1668 representation The coat of arms of Banner of Cumania,

with crescents are a by Joan Blaeu of "Illyria" from the used at the
common motif on the Coat of arms of the Korenić-Neorić coronation of
stećak 12th to 16th Kingdom of Bosnia Armorial (1590s) Ferdinand II of
century tombstones from 1595 Korenić- Hungary in 1618
of medieval Bosnia Neorić Armorial and assigned to
Gáspár (Caspar)
Illésházy.

Star and crescent on Coat of arms of the Coat of arms of the Coat of arms of the
the obverse of the noble family Slatte noble family noble family Boose
Jelacic-Gulden of (1625 – 1699) in Finckenberg (1627 – (1642 – 1727) in
the Kingdom of Sweden. 1809) in Sweden. Sweden.
Croatia (1848)


Coat of arms of the Banner of the Coat of arms of

Czech Republic Zaporizhian Sich Transylvania
(Cossacks of
Ukraine) before
1775.

Muslim usage

While the crescent on its own is depicted as an emblem used on Islamic war flags from the medieval period,
at least from the 13th century although it does not seem to have been in frequent use until the 14th or 15th
century,[46][47] the star and crescent in an Islamic context is more rare in the medieval period, but may
occasionally be found in depictions of flags from the 14th century onward.

Some Mughal era (17th century) round shields were decorated with a crescent or star and crescent.


Depiction of a star and crescent flag on the A miniature

Saracen side in the Battle of Yarmouk painting from a
(manuscript illustration of the History of the Padshahnama
Tatars, Catalan workshop, early 14th century). manuscript (c.
1640), depicting
Mughal Emperor
Shah Jahan as
bearing a shield
with a star and
crescent
decoration.

A painting from a Padshahnama Ottoman sipahis in battle, holding the

manuscript (1633) depicts the scene of crescent banner (by Józef Brandt)
Aurangzeb facing the maddened war
elephant Sudhakar. Sowar's shield is
decorated with a star and crescent.


Flag of the Emirate of Jabal Coat of arms Flag of the Kingdom of Egypt (1922–
Shammar (Ha'il in today's Kingdom of Khedivate of 1953) and co-official flag of the
of Saudi Arabia) from 1835 to 1921 Egypt (1867- Republic of Egypt (1953–1958)
1914)

Flag of the Arab Republic of Egypt

Use in the Ottoman Empire

The adoption of star and crescent as the Ottoman state symbol

started during the reign of Mustafa III (1757–1774) and its use
became well-established during the periods of Abdul Hamid I
(1774–1789) and Selim III (1789–1807).[48]
A buyruldu from 1793
states that the ships in the Ottoman navy have that flag, and various
other documents from earlier and later years mention its use.[48]
The ultimate source of the emblem is unclear. It is mostly derived
from the star-and-crescent symbol used by the city of Star-and-crescent flag of the
Constantinople in antiquity, possibly by association with the Ottoman Empire, used as the naval
crescent design (without the star) used in Turkish flags since before ensign and state symbol from late
1453.[49] 18th century, and as the official
Ottoman national flag from 1844 to
With the Tanzimat reforms in the 19th century, flags were 1923.
redesigned in the style of the European armies of the day. The flag
of the Ottoman Navy was made red, as red was to be the flag of
secular institutions and green of religious ones. As the reforms abolished all the various flags (standards) of
the Ottoman pashaliks, beyliks and emirates, a single new Ottoman national flag was designed to replace
them. The result was the red flag with the white crescent moon and star, which is the precursor to the
modern flag of Turkey. A plain red flag was introduced as the civil ensign for all Ottoman subjects.
The
white crescent with an eight-pointed star on a red field is depicted as the flag of a "Turkish Man of War" in
Colton's Delineation of Flags of All Nations (1862). Steenbergen's
Vlaggen van alle Natiën of the same year shows a six-pointed star.
A plate in Webster's Unabridged of 1882 shows the flag with an
eight-pointed star labelled "Turkey, Man of war". The five-pointed
star seems to have been present alongside these variants from at
least 1857.

In addition to Ottoman imperial insignias, symbols appears on the

flag of Bosnia Eyalet (1580–1867) and Bosnia Vilayet (1867–
Eight-pointed variant of the flag used
1908), as well as the flag of 1831 Bosnian revolt, while the
between 1793-1844.
symbols appeared on some representations of medieval Bosnian
coat of arms too.

In the late 19th century, "Star and Crescent" came to be used as a metaphor for Ottoman rule in British
literature.[50] The increasingly ubiquitous fashion of using the star and crescent symbol in the
ornamentation of Ottoman mosques and minarets led to a gradual association of the symbol with Islam in
general in western Orientalism.[51] The "Red Crescent" emblem was used by volunteers of the
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) as early as 1877 during the Russo-Turkish War; it was
officially adopted in 1929.

After the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the new Turkish state maintained the last flag of
the Ottoman Empire. Proportional standardisations were introduced in the Turkish Flag Law (Turkish: Türk
Bayrağı Kanunu) of May 29, 1936.
Besides the most prominent example of Turkey (see Flag of Turkey), a
number of other Ottoman successor states adopted the design during the 20th century, including the Emirate
of Cyrenaica and the Kingdom of Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, and the proposed Arab Islamic Republic.

Contemporary use

National flags

The Ottoman flag of 1844 with a white "ay-yıldız" (Turkish for "crescent-star") on a red background
continues to be in use as the flag of the Republic of Turkey with minor modifications.

Other Ottoman successor states using the star and crescent design in their flag are Tunisia (1831), Libya
(1951, re-introduced 2011) and Algeria (1958).
The modern emblem of Turkey shows the star outside the
arc of the crescent, as it were a "realistic" depiction of a conjunction of Moon and Venus, while in the 19th
century, the Ottoman star and crescent was occasionally still drawn as the star-within-crescent.
By contrast,
the designs of both the flags of Algeria and Tunisia (as well as Mauritania and Pakistan) place the star
within the crescent.

Flag of Turkey Flag of Algeria Flag of Libya Flag of Tunisia

The same symbol was used in other national flags introduced during the 20th century, including the flags of
Azerbaijan (1918, re-introduced 1991), the Rif Republic (1921), Pakistan (1947), Malaysia (1948),
Mauritania (1959), Kashmir (1974) and the partially recognized states of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic
Republic (1976) and Northern Cyprus (1983). The symbol also may represent flag of cities or emirates
such as the emirate of Umm Al-Quwain.

Flag of Azerbaijan Flag of the Rif Flag of Pakistan Flag of Malaysia

Republic

Flag of Mauritania Flag of Sahrawi Flag of Northern Flag of Umm al-

Arab Democratic Cyprus Quwain
Republic

Flag of East Flag of Iraq Flag of Syrian Flag of Azad

Turkestan (1934) Turkmens Turkmen Kashmir

National flags with a crescent alongside several stars:



Flag of Singapore Flag of Uzbekistan Flag of Flag of the Comoros

(1965): crescent and (1991): crescent and Turkmenistan (2002): crescent and
five stars twelve stars (2001): crescent and four stars
five stars (representing four
(representing five islands)
provinces)

Flag of the Cocos

(Keeling) Islands of
Australia (2003):
crescent and
southern cross

National flags and coat of arms with star, crescent and other symbols:


Flag of Moldova Flag of Croatia Flag of Miꞌkmaꞌki Coat of arms of

(1990) (1990) (1867) Romania

Flag of Moldavia
(15th to 16th
century)

Symbol of Islam

By the mid-20th century, the symbol came to be re-interpreted as

the symbol of Islam or the Muslim community.[52]
This symbolism
was embraced by movements of Arab nationalism or Islamism in
the 1970s too, such as the proposed Arab Islamic Republic (1974) Used as the symbol of Islam by the
Nation of Islam
and the American Nation of Islam (1973).[53]

Cyril Glassé in his The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2001 edition,

s.v. "Moon") states that "in the language of conventional symbols, the crescent and star have become the
symbols of Islam as much as the cross is the symbol of Christianity."[1]

By contrast, Crescent magazine — a religious Islamic publication — quoted without giving names that
"Many Muslim scholars reject using the crescent moon as a symbol of Islam".[6]

On February 28, 2017, it was announced by the Qira County government in Hotan Prefecture, Xinjiang,
China that those who reported others for stitching the 'star and crescent moon' insignia on their clothing or
personal items or having the words 'East Turkestan' on their mobile phone case, purse or other jewelry,
would be eligible for cash payments.[54]

Municipal coats of arms

The star and crescent as a traditional heraldic charge is in continued use in numerous municipal coats of
arms (notably the based on the Leliwa (Tarnowski) coat of arms in the case of Polish municipalities).

Coat of arms of Coat of arms of Coat of arms of Coat of arms of

Halle an der Saale, Mińsk Mazowiecki, Przeworsk, Poland. Tarnobrzeg, Poland.
Germany (1327). Poland.

Coat of arms of Coat of arms of Flag of Portsmouth, Coat of arms of

Tarnów, Poland. Zagreb, Croatia. England (18th Mattighofen, Austria
century): crescent (1781)
and estoile (with
eight wavy rays).[55]

Coat of arms of Coat of arms of Coat of arms of Coat of arms of

Oelde, Germany Niederglatt, Oberglatt, Niederweningen,
(1910). Switzerland Switzerland Switzerland
(1928)[56] (1928)[56] (1928)[56]


Coat of arms of Coat of arms of Coat of arms of Coat of arms of

Drogheda, Ireland Algueirão-Mem Aljezur parish, Casal de Cambra
Martins parish, Portugal parish, Portugal
Portugal

Coat of arms of Coat of arms of Nisa Coat of arms of Coat of arms of

Celorico da Beira municipality, Nossa Senhora das Oliveira do Bairro
municipality, Portugal Misericórdias parish, municipality,
Portugal Portugal Portugal


Coat of arms of Coat of arms of São Coat of arms of Coat of arms of

Penacova Brás de Alportel Sintra municipality, Sobreda parish,
municipality, parish, Portugal Portugal Portugal
Portugal

Coat of arms of
Vouzela
municipality,
Portugal

Sports Club Emblems

In rugby union, Saracens F.C. incorporates the crescent and star in its crest. Drogheda United F.C.,
Portsmouth F.C., and S.U. Sintrense all borrow the crescent and star from their respective towns' coats of
arms. Mohammedan SC in Kolkata, India also incorporates the symbol in its crest.

Emblem of
Saracens F.C.

Other uses


Post WWII flag of the Turkish Air Force Flag of the Pakistan Flag of the Alpha
Japan Air Self- aviator badge Army Delta Phi fraternity
Defense Force
(JASDF)

Flag of the Insignia of East Logo of Shriners Logo of the Felicity

Organization of Bengal Regiment International Party
Turkic States

See also
Star
Lunar phase
Pentagram of Venus
New Orleans Police Department

References
1. Cyril Glassé , The New Encyclopedia of Islam (revised ed. 2001), s.v. "Moon" (p. 314).
2. Andrew G. Traver, From Polis to Empire, The Ancient World, c. 800 B.C.–A.D. 500,
Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, p. 257
3. "The star and crescent are common Persian symbols, being a regular feature of the borders
of Sassanian dirhems." Philip Grierson, Byzantine Coins, Taylor & Francis, 1982, p118
 4. "There are also three cases [... viz., associated with the "Danubian Rider Religion"] where
the star, figured as a radiate disc 'balancing the crescent moon', must represent Sol,
balancing Luna who is represented as a crescent instead of in bust. The 'star in crescent'
theme itself appears only once, on an engraved gem, accompanied by the lion and an
indecipherable inscription [...] This theme is connected with the Orient and has a long history
behind it in the Hittite, Babylonian, Assyrian, Sassanid and Iranian worlds. Campbell gives
us valuable particulars. The heavenly bodies thus symbolized were seen as the powerful
influence of cosmic fatalism guiding the destinies of men."
Dumitru Tudor, Christopher
Holme (trans.), Corpus Monumentorum Religionis Equitum Danuvinorum (CMRED) (1976),
p. 192 (https://books.google.com/books?id=utIUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA192#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se) (referencing Leroy A. Campbell, Mithraic Iconography and Ideology' '(1969), 93f.
5. e.g. Catalogue of the Greek coins in The British Museum (2005), p. 311 (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=Xs8GAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA331#v=onepage&q&f=false) (index).
6. "Many Muslim scholars reject using the crescent moon as a symbol of Islam. The faith of
Islam historically had no symbol, and many refuse to accept it."
Fiaz Fazli, Crescent
magazine, Srinagar, September 2009, p. 42 (https://books.google.com/books?id=8oBW-sQ_
dpIC&pg=PA42).
7. A similar stele found in Babylon is kept in the British Museum (no. 90837 (http://www.british
museum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=367113&p
artId=1)).
8. Michael R. Molnar, The Star of Bethlehem, Rutgers University Press, 1999, p78
9. "the three celestial emblems, the sun disk of Shamash (Utu to the Sumerians), the crescent
of Sin (Nanna), and the star of Ishtar (Inanna to the Sumerians)" Irving L. Finkel, Markham J.
Geller, Sumerian Gods and Their Representations, Styx, 1997, p71. André Parrot, Sumer:
The Dawn of Art, Golden Press, 1961
10. Othmar Keel, Christoph Uehlinger, Gods, Goddesses, and Images of God in Ancient Israel,
Fortress Press, 1998, p. 322.
11. A.H. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs. 3rd
Ed., pub. Griffith Institute, Oxford, 1957 (1st edition 1927), p. 486.
12. W. J. Hinke, A New Boundary Stone of Nebuchadrezzar I from Nippur with a Concordance
of Proper Names and a Glossary of the Kudurru Inscriptions thus far Published (1907), 120f
(https://books.google.com/books?id=Ml5MAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120).
University of
Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, object nr. 29-20-1 (http://www.pen
n.museum/collections/object/244029).
13. J. V. Canby, Reconstructing the Ur Nammu Stela (http://www.penn.museum/documents/publi
cations/expedition/PDFs/29-1/Monumental1.pdf), Expedition 29.1, 54–64.
14. Christopher A. Faraone (2018). The Transformation of Greek Amulets in Roman Imperial
Times (https://books.google.com/books?id=Ti1NDwAAQBAJ). University of Pennsylvania
Press. pp. 40–53. ISBN 978-0812249354.
15. B.C. McGing, The Foreign Policy of Mithradates VI Eupator, King of Pontus, Brill, 1986, p 97
16. "The star and the crescent, the emblem of the Pontus and its kings, were introduced by
Mithradates and his successors to the Bosporus and appeared on Bosporan coins and
locally produced jewelry. On the coins this symbol often appears near the head of a young
man wearing a Phrygian cap, who is identified as either a solar deity or his deified
worshipper. [...] the star and the crescent, the badge of the Pontus and its kings, shown on
the Colchian amphora stamp, and appearing on engraved finger-rings discovered in this
area allude to the possibility of an earlier association of the Pontic dynasty with the cult of
mounted Mithra. Mithra in fact must have been one of the most venerated gods of the Pontic
Kingdom, since its rulers bore the theophoric name of Mithradates [...] although direct
evidence for this cult is rather meager."
Yulia Ustinova, The Supreme Gods of the Bosporan
Kingdom, Brill, 1998, 270–274
17. Strabo (12.3.31) writes that Mēn Pharnakou had a sanctuary at Kabeira in Pontus where the
Pontic kings would swear oaths. Mēn Pharnakou is a syncretistic Anatolian-Iranian moon
deity not directly comparable to Zoroastrian Māh. Albert F. de Jong, Traditions of the Magi:
Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature (1997), %A9n%20Pharmakou&f=false p. 306 (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=YLO9CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306).
18. "His royal emblem, an eight rayed star and the crescent moon, represented the dynasty's
patron gods, Zeus Stratios, or Ahuramazda, and Mén Pharnakou, a Persian form of the
native moon goddess." Andrew G. Traver, From Polis to Empire—The Ancient World c. 800
B.C.–A.D. 450, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, p. 257
19. "The significance of the star and crescent on royal coins has also been frequently debated.
Many scholars have identified the star and the crescent as royal symbols of the Pontic
kingdom. Their appearance on every royal issue suggests they were indeed important
symbols, and the connection of this symbol to the royal family is definite. The nature of it,
however, is still uncertain. Kleiner believed they were symbols of an indigenous god and
had their origins in Persia. He associated the star and crescent with the god Men and saw
them as representations of night and day (the star may be considered the sun here). Ritter,
on the other hand, suggested that the star and crescent symbols derived from Perseus, just
as the star symbol of the Macedonians did. […] Ma and Mithras are two other deities with
whom the star and crescent symbol are associated. Olshausen believed that the star and
crescent could be related to a syncretism of Pontic and Iranian iconography: the crescent for
Men and the star for Ahura Mazda. Recently, Summerer has convincingly suggested that
Men alone was the inspiration for the symbol on the royal coins of the Pontic kingdom.
Deniz
Burcu Erciyas, "Wealth, Aristocracy, and Royal Propaganda Under The Hellenistic Kingdom
of The Mithradatids in The Central Black Sea Region in Turkey", Colloquia Pontica Vol.12,
Brill, 2005, p 131
20. "Devotion to Hecate was especially favored by the Byzantines for her aid in having
protected them from the incursions of Philip of Macedon. Her symbols were the crescent and
star, and the walls of her city were her provenance." Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress,
Routledge, 1994, p 15.
"In 340 B.C., however, the Byzantines, with the aid of the Athenians,
withstood a siege successfully, an occurrence the more remarkable as they were attacked
by the greatest general of the age, Philip of Macedon. In the course of this beleaguerment, it
is related, on a certain wet and moonless night the enemy attempted a surprise, but were
foiled by reason of a bright light which, appearing suddenly in the heavens, startled all the
dogs in the town and thus roused the garrison to a sense of their danger. To commemorate
this timely phenomenon, which was attributed to Hecate, they erected a public statue to that
goddess [...]" William Gordon Holmes, The Age of Justinian and Theodora, 2003 p 5-6; "If
any goddess had a connection with the walls in Constantinople, it was Hecate. Hecate had
a cult in Byzantium from the time of its founding. Like Byzas in one legend, she had her
origins in Thrace. Since Hecate was the guardian of "liminal places", in Byzantium small
temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate's importance to
Byzantium was above all as deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack
the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever-present torches,
and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions. Her mythic qualities
thenceforth forever entered the fabric of Byzantine history. A statue known as the
'Lampadephoros' was erected on the hill above the Bosphorous to commemorate Hecate's
defensive aid." Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress, Routledge, 1994, p 126-127. This story
survived in the works , who in all probability lived in the time of Justinian I. His works survive
only in fragments preserved in Photius and the 10th century lexicographer Suidas. The tale
is also related by Stephanus of Byzantium, and Eustathius.
21. On the Ai-Khanoum plaque from Ai Khanoum, Bactria, 3rd century BC. Helios is shown
separately in the form of a bust with a rayed halo of thirteen rays. F. Tissot, Catalogue of the
National Museum of Afghanistan, 1931-1985 (2006), p. 42 (https://books.google.ch/books?id
=TaSOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42).
22. H. G. Liddell, A History of Rome from the earliest times to the establishment of the Empire
(1857), p. 605. C.f. forumancientcoins.com (https://www.forumancientcoins.com/numiswiki/vi
ew.asp?key=mithridates%20vi).
23. LIMC, Selene, Luna 35.
24. Cohen, Beth, "Outline as a Special Technique in Black- and Red-figure Vase-painting", in
The Colors of Clay: Special Techniques in Athenian Vases, Getty Publications, 2006,
ISBN 9780892369423, pp. 178–179;
25. Savignoni L. 1899. "On Representations of Helios and of Selene." The Journal of Hellenic
Studies 19: pp. 270–271
26. Zschietzschmann, W, Hellas and Rome: The Classical World in Pictures, Kessinger
Publishing, 2006. ISBN 9781428655447. p.23
27. British Museum 1923,0401.199 (https://www.britishmuseum.org/system_pages/beta_collecti
on_introduction/beta_collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=437423&partId=1&searchTex
t=Selene); LIMC Selene, Luna 21 (http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id
=13548); LIMC Selene, Luna 4 (http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=1
3514); LIMC Mithras 113 (http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=19022);
LIMC Selene, Luna 15 (http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13541);
LIMC Selene, Luna 34 (http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13602);
LIMC Selene, Luna 2 (http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=6923);
LIMC Selene, Luna 7 (http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13519);
LIMC Selene, Luna 9 (http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13521);
LIMC Selene, Luna 10 (http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=49457);
LIMC Selene, Luna 19 (http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13546).
For the close association between the crescent moon and horns see Cashford.
28. Selene and Luna on Roman Coins (forumancientcoins.com) (http://www.forumancientcoins.
com/moonmoth/reverse_moon.html):
"Bronze coin of Caracalla from Nicopolis ad Istrum with
a single star in the arms of the crescent moon; coin of Geta showing five stars; a denarius of
Septimius Severus with an array of seven stars."
Roman-era coins from Carrhae (Harran):
Carrhae, Mesopotamia, modern day Harran (wildwinds.com) (http://www.wildwinds.com/coin
s/greece/mesopotamia/carrhae/i.html)
29. Michael Alram, Nomina Propria Iranica in Nummis, Materialgrundlagen zu den iranischen
Personennamen auf Antiken Münzen (1986); C. Augé, "Quelques monnaies d'Elymaïde,"
Bulletin de la Société Française de Numismatique, November 1976; N. Renaud, "Un
nouveau souverain d'Elymaïde," Bulletin de la Société Française de Numismatique,
January 1999, pp. 1-5. Coins of Elymais (parthia.com) (http://www.parthia.com/parthia_coins
_elymais.htm#Kamnaskires_Late).
30. "The star and crescent are common Persian symbols, being a regular feature of the borders
of Sassanian dirhems." Philip Grierson, Byzantine Coins, Taylor & Francis, 1982, p118
31. "A rare type with crescent and star alone on the reverse is probably Chashtana's earliest
issue, struck before he extended his power into Malwa." H.H. Dodwell (Ed.), The Cambridge
Shorter History of India, Cambridge University Press, 1935, p. 83.
32. Achaemenid period: "not normally associated with scenes cut in the Court Style"; Persepolis
seal PFS 71 (M. B. Garrison in Curtis and Simpson (eds.), The World of Achaemenid Persia:
History, Art and Society in Iran and the Ancient Near East (2010), p. 354 (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=IoQAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA354))
PFS 9 (M. B. Garrison, Seals And The Elite
At Persepolis; Some Observations On Early Achaemenid Persian Art (1991), p. 8 (https://arc
hive.org/stream/Garrison1991SealsAndTheEliteAtPersepolisSomeObservationsOnEarlyAc
haemenidPersianArt/Garrison%201991%20Seals%20and%20the%20Elite%20at%20Perse
polis%3B%20Some%20Observations%20on%20Early%20Achaemenid%20Persian%20Art
#page/n7/mode/2up)).
Parthian period: "[t]he Parthian king Mithradates I conquered
Mesopotamia around 147 BC, and Susa in about 140 BC A later Parthian king, Orodes II
(58-38 BC), issued coins at Susa and elsewhere which display a star and crescent on the
obverse. The succeeding ruler, Phraates IV (38-3/2 BC), minted coins showing either a star
alone or a star with crescent moon. In representing the star and crescent on their coins the
Parthians thus adopted traditional symbols used in Mesopotamia and Elam more than two
millennia before their own arrival in those parts." John Hansman, "The great gods of
Elymais" in Acta Iranica, Encyclopédie Permanente Des Etudes Iraniennes, v.X, Papers in
Honor of Professor Mary Boyce, Brill Archive, 1985, pp 229–232
33. "Sasani coins remained in circulation in Moslem countries up to the end of the first century
(Hijra). This detailed description of Sasani crowns was presented because the motifs
mentioned, particularly the crescent and star gradually changed into Islamic symbols and
have often appeared in the decorative patterns of various periods of Islamic art. [...] The flags
of many Islamic countries bear crescents and stars and are proof of this Sasani innovation."
Habibollah Ayatollahi (trans. Shermin Haghshenās), The Book of Iran: The History of Iranian
Art, Alhoda UK, 2003, pp 155–157
34. "when we come to examine the history of the crescent as a badge of Muhammadanism, we
are confronted by the fact that it was not employed by the Arabs or any of the first peoples
who embraced the faith of the prophet" "The truth is that the crescent was not identified with
Islam until after the appearance of the Osmanli Turks, whilst on the other hand there is the
clearest evidence that in the time of the Crusades, and long before, the crescent and star
were a regular badge of Byzantium and the Byzantine Emperors, some of whom placed it on
their coins."
William Ridgeway, "The Origin of the Turkish Crescent", in The Journal of the
Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 38 (Jul. - Dec. 1908), pp.
241-258 (p 241)
35. Babayarov, Gaybulla; Kubatin, Andrey (2013). "Byzantine Impact on the Iconography of
Western Turkic Coinage" (https://www.jstor.org/stable/43283250). Acta Orientalia
Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 66 (1): 52. doi:10.1556/AOrient.66.2013.1.3 (https://doi.
org/10.1556%2FAOrient.66.2013.1.3). ISSN 0001-6446 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0001-
6446). JSTOR 43283250 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/43283250) – via JSTOR.
36. In the 12th century found on pennies of William the Lion (r. 1174–1195).
William Till, An
Essay on the Roman Denarius and English Silver Penny (1838), p. 73 (https://archive.org/de
tails/anessayonromand00tillgoog/page/n88).
E.g. "Rev: short cross with crescent and pellets
in angles and +RAVLD[ ] legend for the moneyer Raul Derling at Berwick or Roxburgh mint"
(timelineauctions.com (http://www.timelineauctions.com/lot/scotland-william-the-lion-raul-der
ling-crescent-and-pellets-penny/17359/)).
Seaby SE5025 "Rev. [+RAV]L ON ROC, short
cross with crescents & pellets in quarters" (wildwinds.com (http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/
SE/SE5025.html)).
37. Bohemond III of Antioch (r. 1163–1201)
"Obv. Helmeted head of king in chain-maille armor,
crescent and star to sides" (ancientresource.com (http://www.ancientresource.com/lots/medi
eval_crusades/crusaders_coins.html))
38. "Billon denier, struck c. late 1140s-1164. + RA[M]VNDVS COMS, cross pattée, pellet in 1st
and 2nd quarters / CIVI[TAS T]RIPOLIS, eight-rayed star with pellets above crescent. ref:
CCS 6-8; Metcalf 509 (ancientresource.com (http://www.ancientresource.com/lots/medieval_
crusades/crusaders_coins.html)).
39. "The earliest church in the Morea to include a saint holding a shield marked by the crescent
and star may be St. John Chrysostom, which has been dated on the basis of style to ca.
1300 [...]" Angeliki E. Laiou, Roy P. Mottahedeh, The Crusades From the Perspective of
Byzantium and the Muslim World, Dumbarton Oaks, 2001, p 278
40. p. 21; adopted by Virgil Solis in his Wappenbüchlein (1555)
41. Sara L. Uckelman, An Ordinary of Siebmacher's Wappenbuch (ellipsis.cx) (http://www.ellipsi
s.cx/~liana/heraldry/siebmacher/siebmacherordinary.html) (2014)
42. Kolar-Dimitrijević, Mira (2014). Povijest novca u Hrvatskoj, 1527. − 1941 (https://www.hnb.hr/
-/povijest-novca-u-hrvatskoj) [History of money in Croatia, 1527 − 1941] (PDF) (in Croatian).
p. 13. ISBN 978-953-8013-03-4. Retrieved 2022-04-16.
43. Richard is depicted as seated between a crescent and a "Sun full radiant" in his second
Great Seal of 1198. English heraldic tradition of the early modern period associates the star
and crescent design with Richard, with his victory over Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus in 1192,
and with the arms of Portsmouth (Francis Wise A Letter to Dr Mead Concerning Some
Antiquities in Berkshire, 1738, p. 18 (https://books.google.com/books?id=cFAGAAAAQAAJ&
pg=RA1-PA18)). Heraldic tradition also attributes a star-and-crescent badge to Richard
(Charles Fox-Davies, A Complete Guide to Heraldry, 1909, p. 468).
44. Found in the 19th century at the site of the Biais commandery, in Saint-Père-en-Retz, Loire-
Atlantique, France, now in the Musée Dobré in Nantes, inv. no. 303. Philippe Josserand,
"Les Templiers en Bretagne au Moyen Âge : mythes et réalités", Annales de Bretagne et des
Pays de l’Ouest 119.4 (2012), 7–33 (p.24).
45. In 15th-century Europe, it was widely assumed that the gypsies were Egyptians (hence the
name gypsies), and several gypsy leaders are known to have styled themselves as "counts
of lesser Egypt". Wilhelm Ferdinand Bischoff, Deutsch-Zigeunerisches Wörterbuch (1827),
p.14 (https://archive.org/details/deutschzigeuner00biscgoog/page/n32)
46. Mohd Elfie Nieshaem Juferi, "What Is The Significance Of The Crescent Moon In Islam?" (htt
ps://www.bismikaallahuma.org/polemical-rebuttals/crescent-moon-in-islam/).
bismikaallahuma.org. Retrieved September 21, 2017.
47. Pamela Berger, The Crescent on the Temple: The Dome of the Rock as Image of the
Ancient Jewish Sanctuary (2012), p. 164f (https://books.google.com/books?id=JekyAQAAQ
BAJ&lpg=PR1&pg=PA164)
48. İslâm Ansiklopedisi (http://www.islamansiklopedisi.info/dia/ayrmetin.php?idno=040298) (in
Turkish). Vol. 4. Istanbul: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı. 1991. p. 298.
49. "It seems possible, though not certain, that after the conquest Mehmed took over the
crescent and star as an emblem of sovereignty from the Byzantines. The half-moon alone on
a blood red flag, allegedly conferred on the Janissaries by Emir Orhan, was much older, as
is demonstrated by numerous references to it dating from before 1453. But since these flags
lack the star, which along with the half-moon is to be found on Sassanid and Byzantine
municipal coins, it may be regarded as an innovation of Mehmed. It seems certain that in the
interior of Asia tribes of Turkish nomads had been using the half-moon alone as an emblem
for some time past, but it is equally certain that crescent and star together are attested only
for a much later period. There is good reason to believe that old Turkish and Byzantine
traditions were combined in the emblem of Ottoman and, much later, present-day
Republican Turkish sovereignty." Franz Babinger (William C. Hickman Ed., Ralph Manheim
Trans.), Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, Princeton University Press, 1992, p 108
50. e.g. A. Locher, "With Star and Crescent: A Full and Authentic Account of a Recent Journey
with a Caravan from Bombay to Constantinope"; Andrew Haggard, "Under Crescent and
Star" (1895).
51. "Mosque and minaret are surmounted by crescents; the air glowing over the Golden Horn is,
as it were, full of moons." Hezekiah Butterworth, Zigzag journeys in the Orient vol. 3 (1882),
p. 481.
52. The symbolism of the star and crescent in the flag of the Kingdom of Libya (1951–1969) was
explained in an English language booklet, The Libyan Flag & The National Anthem, issued
by the Ministry of Information and Guidance of the Kingdom of Libya (year unknown, cited
after Jos Poels at FOTW (http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/Flags/ly_1951.html), 1997) as
follows: "The crescent is symbolic of the beginning of the lunar month according to the
Muslim calendar. It brings back to our minds the story of Hijra (migration) of our Prophet
Mohammed from his home in order to spread Islam and teach the principles of right and
virtue. The Star represents our smiling hope, the beauty of aim and object and the light of our
belief in God, in our country, its dignity and honour which illuminate our way and puts an end
to darkness."
53. Edward E. Curtis, Black Muslim religion in the Nation of Islam, 1960–1975 (2006), p. 157 (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=VdcQNcJZoSgC&pg=PA157).
54. Joshua Lipes, Jilil Kashgary (4 April 2017). "Xinjiang Police Search Uyghur Homes For
'Illegal Items' " (https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/searches-04042017172301.html).
Radio Free Asia. Translated by Mamatjan Juma. Retrieved 16 December 2019. "A second
announcement, issued Feb. 28 by the Chira (Cele) county government, said those who
report individuals for having “stitched the ‘star and crescent moon’ insignia on their clothing
or personal items” or the words “East Turkestan”—referring to the name of a short-lived
Uyghur republic—on their mobile phone case, purse or other jewelry, were also eligible for
cash payments."
55. The blazon of the coat of arms is attested in the 19th century, as Azure a crescent or,
surmounted by an estoile of eight points of the last (William Berry, Robert Glover,
Encyclopædia Heraldica, 1828). This is apparently based on minor seals used by
Portsmouth mayors in the 18th century (Robert East H. Lewis, Extracts from Records in the
Possession of the Municipal Corporation of the Borough of Portsmouth and from Other
Documents Relating Thereto, 1891, p. 656). The medieval seal showed no such design
(Henry Press Wright, The Story of the 'Domus Dei' of Portsmouth: Commonly Called the
Royal Garrison Church, 1873, p. 12 (https://books.google.ch/books?id=NQ3JaxBA_YkC&pg
=PA12)). The claim connecting the star and crescent design to the Great Seal of Richard I
originates in the mid 20th century (Valentine Dyall, Unsolved Mysteries: A Collection of
Weird Problems from the Past, 1954, p. 14).
56. Peter Ziegler (ed.), Die Gemeindewappen des Kantons Zürich (1977), 74–77 (http://www.e-p
eriodica.ch/digbib/view?pid=mag-001:1977:49::47#86).

Charles Boutell, "Device of Star (or Sun) and Crescent". In The Gentleman's Magazine,
Volume XXXVI (New Series). London: John Nicols & Son, London, 1851, pp. 514–515

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