CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The literature review of this study is under the following headings theoretical framework,
conceptual framework and review of empirical studies.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.2.1 Conflict Theory
Karl Mark (1883), the great German theorist and political activist, is credited with sowing the
seeds for the several theories that emphasize social conflict. Marxs conflict theory emphasizes a
materialist interpretation of history, dialectical method of analysis (dialectical materialism), a
critical stance towards existing social arrangement and political program of revolution or, at least
reform.
Marx began his assumption that economic organization, especially the ownership of property,
determines the organization of the rest of the society. In other words, the most important
determination of social life is the works people are doing, especially organized and the technology
used in production have a strong impact on every other aspect of society. He maintained that
everything of value in society result from human labour. The central institution of capitalist society
according to Marx is private property, a system by which capital is control by a small minority of
the population. This arrangement leads to two opposed classes, the owners if the capital (the
bourgeoisie) and the workers (the proletariat) whose only property is their own labour time, which
they have to sell to the capitalists. Owners are seen as making profits by paying workers less than
their work is worth, thus exploiting them. Herein lies the core of industrial conflict.
Other conflict theorist like Ralf Dahrendorf in his “class and conflict in industrial society” (1959),
Coser (1956), Randall Collins, etc; have made divergent contributions about the functionality of
conflict.
Similarly, according to Akanji (2010)., the Marxist believes that :
a. Class conflict is the source of organizational change.
b. Class conflict arises primarily from the disparity in the distribution of and access to
economic power in the organization.
c. Conflict in whatever firm is merely an expression underlying economic conflict within the
organizations.
The Marxist analysis assumed that organizational change is universal within societies and
that class conflict is the catalytic source of such change. The conflict that takes place in
industrial relations between employer and employees is seen as a permanent power feature
 of capitalism which merely reflects the predominant power base of the bourgeois and class
relations. The Marxist perceives political and class conflict as synonymous.
2.3 Conceptual Framework
2.3.1 Strike
According to Aleksander (2009) strike action is referred to as the work stoppage; the concerted
refusal of employees to perform work that their employers has assigned to them in other to force
the employers to grant certain demanded concessions, such as increased wages or improved
employment conditions. Strike action, also called labor strike, is a work stoppage caused by the
mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee
grievances. Strike become common during the Industrial Revolution, when mass labor become
important in factories and mines. In most countries, strike actions were quickly made illegal, as
factory owners had far more power than workers. Most Western countries partially legalized
striking in the late 19th or early 28th centuries (Worral, 2014).
A work stoppage is generally the last step in a labor-management dispute over wages and working
conditions. Because employees are not paid when they go on strike and employers lose
productivity, both sides usually seek to avoid it. When negotiations have reach in impasse,
however, a strike may be only bargaining tool left for employees. Employees can strike for
economic reasons, for improvement of their working conditions , or for the mutual aid and
protection of employees in another union. In addition, even if they do not have a union employees
can properly agree to stop working as a group; in that case they are entitled to all the protections
that organized strikers are afforded (Mather, 2008)
2.3.1.2 Concept of conflict and industrial Strike Action
Unions and management tend to have opposite views because of the divergence between the
expectations of management and labor in organizations which often leads to conflict. Conflict by
nature is a constant phenomenon in any human organizations. It is ubiquitous in social life that it
has been isolated by some as the basic unit for understanding social existence (Ajala, 2003;
Alimba, 2010)
The endemic nature of conflict in human grouping has been traced to the pursuit of divergent
interest, goals and aspirations by individuals and/or groups in defined social and physical
environment (Otite, 2001). Thus, conflict remains the most permanent feature that makes humanity
convinced that growth and development are predicated on conflicts. Though conflict is generally
perceived as something devastating, abnormal, dysfunctional and detestable, yet it could be a
precursor of positive change if constructively handled (Edwards, 2002, Hammed and Ayatunji,
2002).
As a concept, conflict has been subject to diverse definitions by various scholars based on the
contex and their understanding of the concept. For example, Lederach (1995) describe conflict as
an ongoing situation that is based on deep seated differences of values, ideologies, and goals. In
support of definition, fisher et al.,(2004) defined conflict as a relationship between two or more
parties (individuals or groups) who have or think they have incompatible goals. It therefore implies
that conflict is a continuous interaction that can span through lifetime of man and not just a one-
off relationship.
Industrial strike action, on the other hand are viewed as the clash of interest and resulting disputes
of varying intensity between individuals, groups and organizations in the industrial relations
system (Akanji,2005). Fajana (2000) sees industrial strike actions as the inability of these parties
either between employers and employees or within the their groups to reach agreement connected
with the object of employer – employees interaction, whether or not this inability result in strikes
or lockout or other forms of protestation. Another definition that seems to be the most acceptable
sociological which viewed strike action is that of Kornhauser et al,. (1954:7), which viewed strike
action as the total range of behaviour and attitudes that express opposition and divergent
orientations between individual owners and managers on the one hand, and working people and
their organizations on the other.
Related to the above definitions is that of Onyeonoru (2005) who holistically defined industrial
strike actions as all expression of dissatisfaction within the employment relationship especially
those pertaining to the employment contract and effort bargain. He expatiated further that it
includes formal expression of conflict, organized along the lines of trade unions and employers
associations as well as the informal conflict that lack systematic organizations such as convert
grievances that may be expressed in the form of industrial sabotage, absenteeism, or lateness.
Usually conflict result in wasteful use of human material resources leading to low productivity,
retrenchment, dismissal, and alienation. Conflict can manifest itself in the form of unrest, work
stoppage (strikes), sabotage, absenteeism, work to rule, lockout and so on. The most common of
the manifestation of conflict is strike. This implies that conflict as a phenomenon can manifest in
diverse ways such as strike, absenteeism sabotage, labour turnover, pilfering, and restriction of
output, lockout and host of others. Logan (2006) opined that the most conflict is caused by
motivational factors. He stated that an employee who feels aggrieved against a manager, a
supervisor or against the company as a whole is unhappy employee and an unhappy employee
cannot work effectively. The employee becomes very low; satisfaction at work in terms of all the
circumstances that surround the job is the key to high morale. It does not matter how well paid and
interesting in job may be unless the individual performing the job feels that he is being fairly
treated his morale will be adversely affected.
Onyeonoru (2005) stated that individuals, group and organization or institution are naturally not
in the state of harmony or equilibrium and that conflict is a natural and inevitable occurrence in
human conditions. He stated further that conflict is not invariably synonymous with a breakdown
in communication but rather, it is different type of communication, which may be in fact be the
ideal mode of expressing ideas. The most liable treatment id often conflict management rather than
conflict resolution. He also pointed out that not all conflict is detrimental to the individual, group
or organization. He stated that it is generally recognized that there can be no change without
conflict and without changes there can be no progress or development whether personal, social or
scientific.
Conclusively, conflict is defined within the context of work relationship as inevitable disagreement
between and within any or all of the actors in the work place. The views of various writers on the
concept of conflict and industrial conflicts have established that conflict is inevitable and that it is
not inherently dysfunctional rather its outcome depends on how it is handled or responded to by
the involved. Whether conflict is seen as central or ancillary to the employment relationship,
however, depends upon ones conceptualization or larger view of the origins, functions of structure
of this relationship. From one prospective, historically and contemporaneously reflected in the
work of industrial relations scholars, the employment relationship is a pluralist, mixed motive
relationship featuring two parties, labor and management, with opposing interest; hence, conflict
is inevitable in this relationship.
2.3.1.3 Source of Strike
Strike arises in schools in two ways namely, internal and external.
A. Internal Source
This comprise of disagreement arising within the schools. Strike orientations within a work
setting centers basically on the opposed nature of the interest of the employers and workers.
The employer is seeking the greatest possible output at the least cost. The employer is
constantly seeking to lower the wage rate, to lengthen the hours of work, to speed up the
workers, to layoff and to discharge workers whenever it is temporally economical. On the
other hand, the union which represents the workshop is seeking continuous employment
for its members at the highest possible conditions in respect of hours of work, security and
continuity, safety, comfort, sanitation, esteem and so on.
In this relation, both the employers and the employees want the largest cut of the industrial
cake that they both cannot get. Moreover, conflict arises because the needs of all three
actors of industrial relations often conflict with one another.
Therefore, according to Otobo (2002), internal source of conflict would include:
i. Style of management
ii. Nature of physical environment of the work place
iii. Orientation or social consciousness of workers
iv. Other conditions of service
v. Efficacy or otherwise of the promotion system and
vi. Cumbersomeness of grievance and disputes procedure.
 B. External Source
These include government industrial and economic policies, the nature of labor legislation,
unpatriotic and unethical behavior of the political and economic classes, national economic
mismanagement and general distribution of wealth and power in the society.
The important thing to note about these factors is that both workers and management
respond to them. Some of external causes of conflict may however not directly instigate
industrial conflict, but they do influence general social expectation.
Ojeli (1977) stated that the cause of industrial conflict in Nigeria is due to the lukewarm
attitude of employers and government in responding to the demands of the workers or
treating their demand with levity, and also, non recognition of the Nigerian Labour
Congress (NLC) as an organ for harmonizing possible conflict between the employers of
labor and employees. He also argued that most union leaders are politically motivated by
making a big case out of nothing in order to obtain cheap popularity. More often than not,
they cause confusion in their organization when they capitalize on trivial matters to blow
their trumpets.
However, there is a consensus that conflict is inevitable in all interactions of human being.
Organizations exemplify this by the way it is structured, because there are different
individuals and groups, various departments, division, units, etc. these various grouping
struggle to maintain their identities, missions and roles in carrying out their different
functions which harbor abundant opportunities of conflict.
2.3.3.4 Natural and Forms of Strike
Majority of strikes are non-violent because of restraint on both sides. Otobo (2000) stated
that a reason for such caution is the realization that a strike is a temporally stoppage f work.
High level of aggression during a strike may negatively affect bargaining relationships
which are crucial for day-to-day labor-management relations.
Ojielo (2002) has argued that the general object of the study is not the labor dispute, the
strike or lock outs but the total range of behaviors and attitudes that express the opposition
and divergent orientations between industrial owners and managers on the one hand and
working people and their union on the other hand. He listed a number of manifestations of
industrial conflict and classified them in to two groups. One covers organized conflict that
is essentially group behavior, usually between union and management, while the other
covers unorganized and individual conflicts. Examples include strikes and lockouts,
outputs restriction, removal plant, conflict in contract negotiations, labor turnover,
automatic supervision, unnecessary firing and unofficial speed-ups for unrecognized
conflict.
Newman (2009) also commented that a strike is a social phenomenon of enormous
complexity, which is its totally is susceptible to complete explanation. Strikes are of many
 varieties; it may involve all the workers or perform certain process. It may even involve
such rigid adherence to the rules that output is stifled.
2.3.3.5 Types of Strikes
Poole (1980) stated the following commonest forms of strike;
i. Wildcat Strike: This form of strike is in violation of contract and not authorized by
the union because no reason or notice is given to employer before embarking on it.
ii. Sit-Down Strike: This type of strike involves workers being present at work but
literally not working.
iii. Constitutional Strike: This refers to actions that conform to the due procedure of
the collective agreement usually specifies the time and the procedure for conducting
a strike by the workers.
iv. Unconstitutional Strike: This is a strike action that does not conform to the
provisions of the collective agreements or the relevant public policies.
v. Unofficial Strike: This type of strike is usually unauthorized by the union leadership.
This happens because the membership have lost confidence in the leaders and are
therefore willing to exert direct pressure on the employer without the authorization
of leaders.
vi. Official Strike: These are strikes that are usually authorized by the leaders of the
union.
2.3.3.6 Effects of Strike
Fajana (2000) is of the view that the significance of the strikes as an industrial relations
phenomenon is illustrated in its effects on all three actors in any system of industrial
relations. He further stated that it is pointless to examine the party who is most affected by
the strike because there are cost and benefits to all the parties.
(i) Impact on the workers and it’s Union
To the individual striker, Fajana (2000) says, it represent the exercise if his fundamental
right to withdraw his services. Strike is a very visible weapon and can be very powerful if
the strikes represent irreplaceable labor if the production loss incurred by the employer
during the strike is very significant. Strike improves the economic well being of members
of the trade union; it also makes the management to take the union seriously in future
negotiations. Thus, successful strikes enhance the bargaining position of union in the next
negotiation and may account for the development of such strategy in future.
The strike could be dubious because its success depends not only on the correct tactics
against opponents but also on the striker’s ability to maintain a united stand throughout the
period of the strike. If the union membership is divided or looses confidence, then the
credibility of the strike as a powerful weapon can vanish overnight.
(ii). Impact on the Employer
Fajana stated further that the most visible effect of strike on the employer is the loss of
production, loss of output, inability to meet customer’s demand, inability to supply custom
orders on schedule, loose of profit and many others. Of course, these are the effects that
are sought for going on strike in the first place. Therefore, these effects on the employers
give strikes the power that is employed by workers.
It should be noted that whether the strike is successful or not, these damages have already
been done. However, there are other costs. Imberman (1979) identified four categories of
cost arising from the shortfall in expected earnings. These are pre-strike cost, during the
strike, long-cost and uncommon cost. The strike make management to prepare better for
next negotiations assuming that the current strike is successful. It tend to rupture good
relationship between managers and trade union leaders. Thus, the cost of the strike to the
employer is so great that I should be enough consideration to warrant the adoption of timely
treatment of conflicts before the strike action is involved.
(iii). Impact on the State and Society
The government as the coordinator of the several activities of the state has explicit
objectives in industrial relations. For instance, the state objectives in industrial relations
include the maximization of social benefits, and the minimization of social cost. The
ultimate effect is the maximization of economic growth and development for the nation.
The strike disrupts the achievement of some of these objectives. The most important of
which are the loss of national output as a result of the loss of output of the industries
affected. The direct impact is the declarations in the Gross National Product (GPN). The
effects also cause political agitations on the ordinary citizens. In an extremely horizontal
integrated industry such as oil exploration, prospecting mining, refining, and marketing
sectors. Strike at any of these stages of production is likely to lead to disruption in the
forward linked stages.
Moreover, where the industries concerned are strategic like the oil industry or
the electricity or other essential services. Strikes in only one industry would set off a ripple
effect in other sectors of the economy.
Conclusively, the effect of strike on the three actions in industrial relations system is that
strikes and other forms of industrial action have both cost and benefits. It would appear
however that whether the costs outweigh the benefits depends on which side of industry is
making such an evaluation.
2.3.4 Labor (Academic Staff) Union
Ivancevich (2007) defined labor union as an organization of employees that uses collective
action to advance its members’ interest in regards to wages and working conditions. They
form or join because of the belief that there is strength in unity. Trade Union Decree 1973
as cited by Shokan (1997) viewed labor union as any combination of temporary and
permanent workers or employees, the purpose of which is to regulate the terms and
conditions of employment of workers. Academic staff unions are in the context of labor
relation, it is the continuous relationship between lecturers and the government. Their
relation includes negotiation of contract about pay, hour and other terms and condition of
employment. Rosemary (1993) established that trade unions are seen as the legitimate
representative of labours and conflicts arising from the clash of interest are resolved, if
possible by bargaining and compromise and if not, by overt power. Armstrong (2004) is of
the opinion that the fundamental purpose of trade union is to promote and protect the
interest of their members. They are to redress the balance of power between employers and
employees.

2.3.5 Academic Performance

Academic Performance is the outcome of students' evaluation in the educational process
indicating to what level the students have achieved the educational goals as specified in the
curriculum which is greatly influenced by internal and external classroom factors.
Wikipedia (2014) buttresses the above concepts by putting forward that academic
performance is commonly measured by evaluation (examination) and continuous
assessment but there is no general agreement on how it can best be captured. It emphasized
among other factors that learning environments/ conditions have great influence on
academic achievement of the student in the related study by Mellisa J. B (2012) emphasized
that academic performance indicates how well a student meets standard set out by the
institution. A student success is measured by academic performance. Scottk (2012)
generally refers academic performance to how well a student is accomplishing his or her
tasks and studies. The study emphasizes that Grades is the most well-known indicator of
academic performance, grades are student's "scores" for their overall tenure. Grades are
often the average of assignment, continuous assessment and semester terminal evaluation
that are often affected by student psychological status, attendance, education environment
etc. Arul Lawrence (2013) described academic achievement as the level of actual
accomplishment or proficiency one has achieved in an academic area, as opposed to one's
potential in the educational goal measured by examinations. Crow and Crow (1969) as
cited in Arul Lawrence (2013) sees academic performance as the extent to which a learner
is profiting from instruction in a given area of learning i.e. achievement is reflected by the
extent to which skill and knowledge has been imparted to him. It is obvious that Crow and
Crow (2015) does not specify how best the profit from learning can be measured.
Ricarda Steinmayr et al. (2014) documented that academic achievement represents
performance outcomes that indicates the extent to which a person has accomplished
specific goals that were the focus of activities in instructional environments, specifically in
school, college and university. The study conceptualized academic achievement to be a
multi-faceted construct that comprises various domain of learning, because of this wide-
ranging of academic achievement and the fact that it covers a broad varieties of educational
outcomes hence its definition depends on the indication used to measure it. Against this
background, the researchers concluded that the more curricular-based as measured by
G.P.A (Grade Point Average) is most reliable and objective indicator and it is being
adopted by the study at hand.
2.4 EMPIRICAL REVIEW
The review of the existing related studies is necessary to determine the positions of the
earlier authors which would facilitate the identification of the knowledge gaps inherent in
these studies and be able to do justice to it by bridging the identified gaps.
Edinyang and Ubi (2013) carried out empirical study on the effect of strike action on human
development among social studies secondary school students in Uyo Local Government
Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. With the objective of assessing the extent which
disruption in academic program in secondary schools due to strike affect students’ learning
effectiveness in social studies. The methodology adopted by the study is survey inferential
research design and the focus of the research is secondary school in Uyo. The study finds
out that disruption in academic program resulting from strike leads to closure of schools
for a period of time. This period may be specific or indefinite thereby affecting students’
learning of the curriculum, hence their development. Disruptions of academic programme
resulting from strike action give students undeserved study year extension.
Ige Akindele (2014) researched on towards the stemming of the tide of strikes in tertiary
institutions in Nigeria: stakeholders’ roles and responsibilities. The study used slight
descriptive statistics and expository style in its analysis. The study finally recommended
that to stem the tide of strike and move tertiary institution forward, an effective
administration of tertiary institutions, adequate funding of education/tertiary education by
government, orientation of staff of tertiary institutions are necessary.
Osuorji A. N. and David S. (2014) investigated the effect of incessant strikes on academic
performance of business education students in Abu, Zaria. Aiming to determine the extent
to which the strike action has affected academic performance of business education
students in ABU, Zaria; and to assess the perception of students about incessant strikes on
academic performance of Business Education in ABU, Zaria. The study adopted
descriptive survey research design. The result shows that incessant strikes by lecturers have
a resultant effect on the academic performance of the students of business education
programme in ABU, Zaria.
Olaniyi and Aina (2014) worked on the incessant strikes and its effects on business
education programme; the study adopted the expository dimension in its analysis and brief
survey of what industrial action is. It concluded that failure to resolve and find a lasting
solution to the challenges posed by incessant strikes would amount to an evasion of the
deeper roots of the problem in Nigeria education.
Ayeni and Kolawole (2014) explored the incessant conflicts and strikes and their effect on
the achievement of goals of business education in tertiary institution in Ekiti State. It
adopted descriptive research survey design. The finding shows that incessant strike
contributed immensely to the challenges confronting tertiary institutions in the state. It was
also revealed that incessant strikes contributed to the mass failure on the part of the student.
And concluded that the study showed that personnel policies have not been effective in
preventing conflict and strike behaviours because management are not sincere and
committed to matters that concern the staff.
Olupayimo (2014) examined the impact of incessant strikes on skills acquisition in
business education with the aim of selecting the strike action within a specified period to
project its impact on skill acquisition in business education programme with the help of
survey methodological approach. It is revealed by the study that strike has become the
order of the day in Nigeria educational system being the only language understands by the
employer (government) and it has a great impact on business education which is essentially
based on skill acquisition. The study concludes that incessant strikes had hampered basic
skill acquisition business education students were supposed to acquire over the years.
Michael (2013) explored Industrial action in schools: strikes and student achievement. The
focus of the research is grade 3 and 6 students in Maths, Reading and Writing in 1996/97
academic year. The data used are student’s scores from education quality and
accountability Office (EAQAO). The study concluded that teachers strike in grade 5 or 6
have negative impact on test score growth between grade 3 and 6.
Gabrielle (2014) researched on the effects of teacher strike activity on student learning in
South African primary schools, the study adopted a cross section analysis using the
students fixed effects to eliminate sources endogeneity bias at student’s level. The findings
of the study revealed that teachers strike have negative effects on learning of students in
South Africa.
From the foregoing, the study uncovered the fact that none of the existing studies adopted
Ex- Post facto Analysis and focuses on University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria. Moreover,
the existing studies adopted descriptive and inferential survey design without representing
the academic performance variable by Grade Point Average (GPA) except the few research
works like Michael baker, 2013; Gabrielle Wills, 2014 which their centers of attention are
Canada and South Africa respectively.
2.5 EFFECTS OF STRIKE ACTIONS
By allowing the university teachers to embark on an indefinite strike before opening any
serious dialogue with their union, an erroneous impression is created that the government
is impervious to dialogue and negotiations and that the only language it understands is
strong-arm tactics – militancy in the Niger Delta or paralyzing strike by ASUU and other
organized labour. Therefore a major lesson from the strike is the yawning absence of any
institutionalized mechanism for industrial arbitration in the country. The government
appeared even confused over which of its ministries – the Ministry of Education or the
Ministry of Labour – should negotiate with ASUU. Not only is it embarrassing that a
government cannot be trusted to keep its words, the lack of institutionalized mechanism
for dealing with the incessant labour disputes in Nigeria is worrisome.
While there are sympathies for ASUU over the government’s shabby handling of the
situation, the lecturers, by their incessant strikes that frequently disrupt the academic
calendar, are now seen as part of the problems of higher education in the country. Since its
formation in 1978, ASUU has had running battles with every government of the day,
mostly over bread-and butter issues that are conveniently camouflaged under the veneer of
fighting for better funding for education (Adibe, 2009).
During the period of strike, students, as a result of their idleness and frustration, engage in
deviant behavior like robbery, arson, rape, touting and constitute nuisance to the society.
When they are apprehended, their academics are abruptly truncated. In the years past, the
country had been made to suffer immense loss of brains to other countries. It is still
happening, as a result of their search for greener pastures. With this marginal loss, few
remaining ones are inadequate to build up the academic performance of the students
(Obasanjo, 2000).
Learning in Universities has been made irregular as students may have forgotten what they
have learnt before the disruption of an academic session upon their resumption to school.
Memory is lost if what is being learnt is not reactivated over time. Statistical reports have
shown that majority of failures in University are recorded in examinations taken
immediately after students return from a long break. The situation witnessed in the
University academics has resulted in the turning out of half-baked graduates into the labor
market. These half baked produced cannot live up to expectation in their various chosen
professions. This is as a result of poor learning necessitated by poor services from
aggrieved lecturers. Students have developed lack of interest in academics because of the
usual long stay away from school; instead they indulge in frivolous activities (Adeniran,
2000). Contributory to this is the fact that the condition in which many of these students
learn in some of the university is deplorable.
Strikes are not homogenous industrial events to the extent that they involve cessation of
work, a breakdown in the flow of consent and open expression of aggression and remain a
social phenomenon or enormous complexity, which, in its totality is never susceptible to
complete description, let alone complete explanation (Gouldner, 2004; Poole, 2006). The
strike is therefore of many varieties, which may involve all the workers or only key men.
The following are one of the commonest forms: Wildcat strikes, Sit down, sympathy,
constitutional and unconstitutional strikes, official and unofficial strikes.
The wildcat strike is so called because no reason or notice is given to the employer before
embarking on it. Thus, it is in violation of the contract and not authorized by the union. Sit
down strikes differ from the sit-ins, because sit downs do not necessarily involve the
takeover of the company’s assets and its management by the workers. Other than this, and
like sit-ins, sit down strike involve workers in being present at work but not necessarily
working. Workers organization (trade union) and industrial conflict are related, Union
members are more likely to strike than organized workers (Comte, 1997).
The economic model view strikes as bargaining outcomes. Workers’ collective actions to
them depend on mobilization of labor organization of some population as resources on
behalf of the group’s common objectives. They both believed that the mobilization or
organizational capacity for collective action of workers (measured by union’s membership)
would be the most powerful prediction of strike. Other factors that may cause strike
includes dissatisfaction with wages, bad social condition, fatigue and frustration at work,
and the discontent and aggressiveness that can come from a general feeling of inferiority
(Olaiya, 2000).

2.4. CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL ACTION IN NIGERIA

According to Fashina (2004), attributes the causes of industrial crisis in the Nigerian
workplace to policy inconsistencies and wrong placement in organizational priorities on
the part of the management. When employers place higher premium on capital input far
above the workers without appreciating that the latter makes the former productive, would
brood industrial rancor. This connotes that poor remuneration may be a strong cause of
industrial crisis. Low level of workers’ motivations with respect to remuneration (both
prompt promptness and total package) has been a bone of contention between the workers
and employers.
The wave of globalization (trade liberalization amongst various economies of the world in
global trade relations) had been said to have created inequality in bargaining power
between corporations and workers (Aremu, 2006). It could have the potency of intensifying
different forms of competition, resulting in stronger responses from labour by stimulating
quest for information (Kanfam, 2000).This portrays that increased international
competition resulting from increased interdependence between different economies of the
world would exert pressure that would result in increased labour market flexibility and
dampened labour protection. This is because when employers tend to have strong
bargaining power, they may become authoritative which will affect the management style
and work rules.
The above had been corroborated by the high level of unemployment in the country, which
makes employers to believe that they can always replace workers that do not comply with
their domineering initiatives (Mas, 2004). Then workers are provoked to join force to resist
such propensities of the employer, thereby straining the strand of industrial tranquility that
hitherto existed. This is because it intensifies the strength and strategies of workers as well,
thereby prompting them to rely on the tools of trade unionism to push forth their rights and
privileges that are been dampened (Kim and Kim, 2003). Even if there is the existence of
‘yellow dog contract’ (where workers are not allowed to unionize), industrial crisis may
still occur. Though the workers may not be able to stop work, their attitudes towards their
work will be negatively affected leading to other forms of grievance expressions such as
lateness, absenteeism, high rate of turnover, sabotage, among others, which will ultimately
affect productivity.
Industrial crisis could also result from conflict of opinions when there is asymmetric
information between the workers and employers. This arises from clash of interests during
the process of negotiation and incompatibility resulting from incomplete means in the
pursuance of their respective goals. Adesina (2003) had also acknowledged that the
government (especially the military regimes) had profound impacts on the trade unions,
which manifested in the alteration of the rules of engagement between the State and the
unions in Nigeria. This could also be as a result of insensitivity and insincerity in handling
union demands by the government and managements (Otobo, 1983).
Another source of the crisis is the breach of collective agreement that has being reached
(CHDR, 2002). Ideally, once decisions are reached via the process of collective agreement
(or by other means) each party is supposed to adhere strictly to the terms and conditions.
Employers (and government) have in most cases been guilty of this, due to their seemingly
stronger force .The University of Ilorin crisis is a very clear instance, which has lingered
on for some years where the management refused to reinstate the sacked lecturers as
directed by the court (Ojiabor and Faloseyi, 2005).
In addition, the use of contingent workers (temporal workers that are not usually entitled
to some employment benefits besides wages) is another issue. The Nigerian Labour
Congress-NLC has frowned at and fought against the use of casual workers (Fashakin,
2005). The use of contingent workers makes the employers not to compensate satisfactorily
their regular staff in as much as there are other cheaper ways of using labour resource. The
economic situation especially the inflationary trend in the country has not equally helped
matters. The inflationary trend has always been worsened as a result of fluctuations
(increases) in the prices of petroleum products which translate to increased transportation
cost and higher cost of living (Osabuohien, 2005). This devalues of the workers’ income,
which is capable of increasing their agitations that could lead to industrial crisis.