Automotive battery functions and types

BAHIR DAR POLY TECHNIC COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOYIVE TECHNOLOGY

MANEGMENT LEVEL 5
ASSESSMENT OF LEAD ACID BATTEREY

MODIFICATION ,COMPONENT ,FABRICATION,REPAIR AND
MAINTENANCE AND E.T.C
PREPARED BY
NO NAME OF MEMBERS
1 GIRMA ENDESHAW
2 JEMBERU FIKAD
3 DERJE DEMELASH
4 YONAS ADUGNA
5 MESFIN TEGEGN
6 TESFAHUN ASMARE
7 BELAYENEH YALEW
Automotive battery
A typical 12 V, 40 Ah lead-acid car battery

An automotive battery or car battery is a rechargeable battery that is used to start a motor vehicle.
Its main purpose is to provide an electric current to the electric-powered starting motor, which in turn
starts the chemically-powered internal combustion engine that actually propels the vehicle. Once the
engine is running, power for the car's electrical systems is still supplied by the battery, with
the alternator charging the battery as demands increase or decrease.
Car batteries are energy storage devices, storing their energy in chemical form. The most
common is the flooded lead-acid battery. Alternating plates of lead, the anode, and lead
oxide, the cathode, are submerged in a bath of sulfuric acid electrolyte, or “battery acid.”
Each cell holds 2.1 V, and car batteries are made of six cells, so the typical “12 V” car
battery holds 12.6 V at full SOC. Less common AGM (absorbed glass mat) car batteries
also use six lead-acid cells, not a liquid electrolyte, but a gel electrolyte trapped in
fiberglass mats.
The humble lead-acid battery has been around for quite some time. In fact, it was
invented in 1860. Since then, it has powered billions of cars! Paul Johnson, Executive
Director of Environmental Affairs at KBI Recycling says “lead-acid batteries are the
most recycled commodity on earth to date, and no other battery is as reusable as the
lead-acid battery.” They’re very heavy, they’re large, and they’re ancient technology.
But they still come as the standard power supply in 98.8% of all cars that are made each
year.
With the introduction of hybrid and electric vehicles, car batteries are changing. Hybrid
and electric vehicle batteries look nothing like 12 V batteries and probably aren't even
visible or accessible by the typical driver or DIYer. Packing upwards of 300 V, these car
batteries can kill an unprotected person. Fortunately, these batteries are well -protected
and well-hidden from unpracticed hands.
Hybrid vehicles may still use a small 12 V pony battery to operate vehicle electrical
systems, but engine starting and running power is provided by the main battery pack and
voltage converters. Hybrid car batteries are typically NiMH or Li -ion (nickel-metal
hydride or lithium-ion).
Electric car batteries are almost universally Li-ion, which is more energy-dense than
NiMH, important for space, weight, and range considerations, but may still use a small 12
V pony battery for electronics when the vehicle is not “running.” When running, voltage
converters power vehicle electronics and recharge the 12 V battery.
Electric cars like Tesla Model S Renault Zoe BMW i3 , etc., can recharge their batteries
to 80 percent at quick-charging stations within 30 minutes.
The beauty of how electric vehicle batteries are made is that 80% of the components are
recyclable, so when your battery has come to the end of its lifecycle, it can be stripped
down to separate the raw materials to reuse them.
Functions of a Car Battery

Did you know there are many more functions of a car battery than just starting your car?
Understanding how a car battery works can be helpful for many reasons. The battery in
your car is part of a fine-tuned, integrated system that supports your car’s processes. If
you thought it was just a simple chunk of equipment, think again.
Let’s take a look at the five functions of a car battery and discover just how
sophisticated a car battery is.
1. The car’s power storage A car battery is the car’s power bank. The often rectangular,
box-shaped battery is the storehouse for the power your vehicle needs to start the
motor and maintain a charge.
On the outside, a car battery just looks like a boring plastic block with some connectors
on the top. But this plastic outer shell is quite durable and usually acid-resistant, to
protect the complex inner workings and materials inside that do the magic. The inside of
the battery is home to a chemical solution (usually sulfuric acid) and layers of lead and
lead dioxide plates, which react with the acid to create energy.
There are different voltage levels available for car batteries, the most common being 12
volts. A standard 12-volt car battery has six cells, which each produce 2.1 volts in a fully
charged state. Every decrease of .2 volts in a battery’s charge equates to roughly a
25% loss of power. Therefore, it is critical to maintain proper battery charge at all times.
There are some things to be aware of that might drain your battery and decrease your
power stores. You certainly don’t want to find yourself running late for work one
morning, and your car won’t start needing a dead battery recharge. Watching out for
these hazards will reduce the chance that you’ll be surprised by a dead battery:
 Don’t leave your headlights on! Most newer model cars have automatic headlights, so
paying attention to this might not even be on your radar. But imagine, you’re driving
someone else’s car, or a courtesy vehicle while yours gets serviced, and it doesn’t have
automatic headlights. You could forget to turn them on, and you could forget to turn
them off! This will drain the battery fairly quickly.
 Make sure all your doors are shut, interior and exterior, and that no lights or electronics
are running. These things are called a parasitic draw, and they slowly leech the power
out of a battery when the car is off because there’s no active recharging coming from
the alternator.
 Regularly check (or have your mechanic regularly check) your battery connections and
terminals. Over time they can jiggle loose or even start to build up corrosion. This is
easily avoidable but can cause damage to your car’s electrical system if you stall out
during your commute.
 If at all possible, don’t leave your car sitting too long in the extreme heat or cold.
Whether you park it in a garage or you periodically start it up and give the battery some
charge, any battery that is moderately aged may start to weaken in harsh temperatures,
at either end of the thermometer.
 If you notice that your car has trouble starting or won’t start after you’ve just driven it
somewhere, for example – you drove to the supermarket and had no problem, but when
you returned to your car with your bags, the car wouldn’t start – you could have a bad
alternator.To start your car, you need battery power. But while your car is on, the
alternator recharges the battery. So if a single drive seems to drain the life from your
battery, chances are it’s not getting the charge it needs while driving, and you might
need a new alternator.
 Simple factors like age and overuse can wear a battery out, too. If it’s been 3-5 years
without being checked or replaced, start paying a little more attention to it and maybe
have it tested.
2. Energy to Start The EngineWith its power storage, the battery contains enough power
to start the engine. The acid and the plate materials (lead and lead dioxide) interact in a
specific order to create positive and negative charges as well as byproduct materials.
These components create a chemical reaction which generates electrons – or electricity
– that travels out of the battery to start your car.Fun fact: if you’ve ever used a car
charger to boost your weak car battery, the reason it works is because this sequence of
events is reversible. The charger can put the energy back into your battery.Standard 12-
volt car batteries have varying degrees of power strength. The CCA (or cold-cranking
amperes) rating indicates how well the battery will be able to start an engine in the cold.
Depending on the type of battery you have and the climate you live in, you may or may
not have the necessary amount of battery power to crank your car’s engine.
Many people think “more is better,” so they automatically assume the battery with higher
CCA is the right one. The right CCA for your vehicle largely depends on the climate you
live in. High CCA is great for colder climates where engines might be harder to start.
Batteries with higher CCA have had more plates, and more solution added.
But this design isn’t one-size-fits-all. Adding more plates means they have to be thinner
and closer together. In high-heat climates, this isn’t ideal because it can lead to
corrosion and loss of liquid. CCA is a rating best suited for North America and Europe,
where it gets cold frequently. In other parts of the world where it’s mostly hot all the
time, MCA and HCA are a better gauge.
It is important to note that a battery’s available power increases in warmer temperatures

because chemical reaction rates are higher. CCA (cold-cranking amps) measures the
current available at -18°C. MCA (marine cranking amps) measures the available power
at 0°C, which is more helpful in warmer climates where freezing weather is rare. Battery
cranking power increases by roughly 20% under this rating method.
Then there’s HCA (hot cranking amps), which measures the power available at 26.7°C,
or 80°F. A good rule of thumb is, the warmer the conditions, better the battery will be
able to crank. HCA would be the ideal rating method to use in arid and tropical climates.
Still, it’s not as simple as choosing a battery based on the CA measurement that is most
suitable for your climate. Every vehicle has different loads – or the amount of current
needed from the battery. Size is not necessarily the best indicator, either. A smaller
car’s engine may need as much cranking power as a large SUV because it has to be
cranked faster.
Each of the vehicle’s options, from power windows to heated seats, places a demand
on the current needed from the battery. Fuel type is a factor as well. So, just because
you live in a cold climate and you have a newer vehicle with all the bells and whistles,
does that mean you should choose the battery with the highest possible CCA you can
find?
Maybe not. Higher CCA is linked to possible starter damage and can shorten the life of
a battery. Ask your local auto body shop which battery will provide you with the best
balance of power and endurance while sustaining all of your car’s functions in the
weather you most typically experience.
3. Delivers Electricity to the Ignition SystemWhen you turn on your car’s ignition,
whether you do it by turning a key or pushing a button, you send a signal to the battery,
telling it to initiate that chemical reaction we just talked about in order to produce
enough electrical current to get the starter to power up the engine.
Basically, the battery’s job in this part of the process is to exude a strong, short burst of
power. The coil then generates the high voltage necessary to crank the starter, reach
the spark plugs via a distributor, and ignite the fuel inside the combustion chambers.
There are various types of ignition systems, but most of the road vehicles we know
today have a mechanically timed ignition consisting of multiple parts that complete a
circuit. There are many processes working in tandem, somewhat simultaneously, and it
happens very quickly, but it starts with the battery. We all enjoy the ease and
convenience of modern automobiles, thanks to a simple battery that acts as the catalyst
to a series of fascinating processes and exchanges of energy.
4. Works With The Alternator to Power Electronics

You may have already known those first three functions, but were you aware that the
battery also works in tandem with the alternator to power your vehicle’s electronic
processes?
That’s right — the alternator (whose job it is to “alternate” the current and turn
mechanical energy into electrical energy) is the component that keeps your radio, air
conditioning, USB and auxiliary-connected devices, and lights running. But the battery
has to provide reliable backup in the event that the alternator becomes overwhelmed.
When too many processes are draining the alternator, the battery sustains the power
flow by providing an energy boost.
Essentially, the alternator is a generator. The battery is what provides the initial burst of
energy to the starter so that it’ll crank the engine. Still, the alternator is what keeps the
electronics going and charges the battery. That’s why a car battery generally won’t go
dead while the car is being driven because it’s actively charged by the alternator. (But if
you ever have a dead battery, don’t worry Mach1 Services is here to help!)
If you’re a visual person, you may want to understand exactly what happens under the
hood of your car to get this generator (alternator) going. There’s a wheel on the
alternator that gets turned once the car’s engine starts running. The engine spins a set
of wheels, which then spin the wheel on the alternator. It’s like a game of Mouse Trap.
With its stator, rotor, diodes, voltage regulator, and cooling fan, an alternator is
constantly working while your car is running to maintain the energy flow through the
engine and your vehicle.
Fun fact: Although alternators were used as early as World War II, they weren’t
standard on production cars until the 1960s.
Alternators can last up to seven years in good conditions and with proper use, but they
are also one of the most common reasons for “car trouble.” If the alternator dies, your
car will drain the battery’s power fairly quickly and then die.
Alternator repairs can cost anywhere from $300 to over $1,500, depending on the
vehicle and the exact cause of the problem. Warning signs of alternator trouble (things
to look out for):
 Dashboard battery icon is lit, or system message displays “service battery charging
system”
 Dimmer lights than usual (both interior and headlights) and heated/cooled seats not
working as well
 Grinding sounds – alternators have a lot of parts, like pulleys, bearings, and belts that
can wear out over time
 The smell of burning rubber – this could be the alternator’s belt getting melted by some
other component that’s out of alignment
5. The battery helps regulate voltageIt’s a well-known fact that power surges can
damage electronics. Well, your battery prevents sudden spikes in power from damaging
your car’s internal computer and ignition system from damage. Along with various types
of fuse elements and circuit protection devices used throughout the vehicle, a car’s
battery can help to regulate the power that goes to the electrical systems.Alternators
have voltage regulators that convert the electrical current into a type of current that
won’t damage the car’s electronics. The purpose of this regulator is to maintain the
highest possible amount of voltage in the circuit consistently. It can signal the alternator
to generate more or less power according to the vehicle’s needs. Any excess power
charges the battery.Having the battery to rely on as a backup for the alternator is what
protects your car’s systems. If you were to suddenly disconnect the alternator from the
battery, the resulting voltage surge would likely damage your vehicle. But the completed
circuit, with the battery in place, ensures a slower, more regulated change in power
levels if your alternator dies and your battery takes over.
Battery in modern cars

Gasoline and diesel engine
Typically, starting uses less than three percent of the battery capacity. For this reason, automotive
batteries are designed to deliver maximum current for a short period of time. They are sometimes
referred to as "SLI batteries" for this reason, for starting, lighting and ignition. SLI batteries are not
designed for deep discharging, and a full discharge can reduce the battery's lifespan.[1]
As well as starting the engine, an SLI battery supplies the extra power necessary when the vehicle's
electrical requirements exceed the supply from the charging system. It is also a stabilizer, evening
out potentially damaging voltage spikes.[2] While the engine is running most of the power is provided
by the alternator, which includes a voltage regulator to keep the output between 13.5 and
14.5 V.[3] Modern SLI batteries are lead-acid type, using six series-connected cells to provide a
nominal 12-volt system (in most passenger vehicles and light trucks), or twelve cells for a 24-volt
system in heavy trucks or earth-moving equipment, for example.[4]
Gas explosions can occur at the negative electrode where hydrogen gas can build up due to blocked
battery vents or a poorly ventilated setting, combined with an ignition source.[5] Explosions during
engine start-up are typically associated with corroded or dirty battery posts.[5] A 1993 study by the
US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration said that 31% of vehicle battery explosion injuries
occurred while charging the battery.[6] The next-most common scenarios were while working on cable
connections, while jump-starting, typically by failing to connect to the dead battery before the
charging source and failing to connect to the vehicle chassis rather than directly to the grounded
battery post, and while checking fluid levels.[5][6] Close to two-thirds of those injured suffered chemical
burns, and nearly three-fourths suffered eye injuries, among other possible injuries.[6]
Electric and hybrid cars ]

Electric vehicles (EVs) are powered by a high-voltage electric vehicle battery, but they usually have
an automotive battery as well, so that they can use standard automotive accessories which are
designed to run on 12 V. They are often referred to as auxiliary batteries.
Unlike conventional, internal combustion engined vehicles, EVs don't charge the auxiliary battery
with an alternator—instead, they use a DC-to-DC converter to step down the high voltage to the
required float-charge voltage (typically around 14 V).[7]
History[
Early cars did not have batteries, as their electrical systems were limited. A bell was used instead of
an electric horn, headlights were gas-powered, and the engine was started with a crank. Car
batteries became widely used around 1920 as cars became equipped with electric starter motors.
The sealed battery, which did not require refilling, was invented in 1971.[8]
The first starting and charging systems were designed to be 6-volt and positive-ground systems, with
the vehicle's chassis directly connected to the positive battery terminal.[9] Today, almost all road
vehicles have a negative ground system.[10] The negative battery terminal is connected to the
car's chassis.
The Hudson Motor Car Company was the first to use a standardized battery in 1918 when they
started using Battery Council International batteries. BCI is the organization that sets the
dimensional standards for batteries.[11]
Cars used 6 V electrical systems and batteries until the mid-1950s. The changeover from 6 to 12 V
happened when bigger engines with higher compression ratios required more electrical power to
start.[12] Smaller cars, which required less power to start stayed with 6 V longer, for example
the Volkswagen Beetle in the mid-1960s and the Citroën 2CV in 1970.
In the 1990s a 42V electrical system standard was proposed. It was intended to allow more powerful
electrically driven accessories, and lighter automobile wiring harnesses. The availability of higher-
efficiency motors, new wiring techniques, and digital controls, and a focus on hybrid vehicle systems
that use high-voltage starter/generators have largely eliminated the push for switching the main
automotive voltages.[13]
Design
An automobile battery is an example of a wet cell battery, with six cells. Each cell of a lead storage
battery consists of alternate plates made of a lead alloy grid filled with sponge lead (cathode plates)
or coated with lead dioxide (anode).[14] Each cell is filled with a sulfuric acid solution, which is the
electrolyte. Initially, cells each had a filler cap, through which the electrolyte level could be viewed
and which allowed water to be added to the cell. The filler cap had a small vent hole which
allowed hydrogen gas generated during charging to escape from the cell.
The cells are connected by short heavy straps from the positive plates of one cell to the negative
plates of the adjacent cell. A pair of heavy terminals, plated with lead to resist corrosion, are
mounted at the top, sometimes the side, of the battery. Early auto batteries used hard rubber cases
and wooden plate separators. Modern units use plastic cases and woven sheets to prevent the
plates of a cell from touching and short-circuiting.
In the past, auto batteries required regular inspection and maintenance to replace water that was
decomposed during the operation of the battery. "Low-maintenance" (sometimes called "zero-
maintenance") batteries use a different alloy for the plate elements, reducing the amount of water
decomposed on charging. A modern battery may not require additional water over its useful life;
some types eliminate the individual filler caps for each cell. A weakness of these batteries is that
they are very intolerant of deep discharge, such as when the car battery is completely drained by
leaving the lights on. This coats the lead plate electrodes with lead sulfate deposits and can reduce
the battery's lifespan by a third or more.
VRLA batteries, also known as absorbed glass mat (AGM) batteries are more tolerant of deep
discharge but are more expensive.[15] VRLA batteries do not permit addition of water to the cell. The
cells each have an automatic pressure release valve, to protect the case from rupture on severe
overcharge or internal failure. A VRLA battery cannot spill its electrolyte which makes it particularly
useful in vehicles such as motorcycles.
Batteries are typically made of six galvanic cells in a series circuits. Each cell provides 2.1 volts for a
total of 12.6 volts at full charge.[16] During discharge, at the negative (lead) terminal a chemical
reaction releases electrons to the external circuit, and at the positive (lead oxide) terminal another
chemical reaction absorbs electrons from the external circuit. This drives the electrons through the
external circuit wire (an electrical conductor) to produce an electric current (electricity). As the
battery discharges, the acid of the electrolyte reacts with the materials of the plates, changing their
surface to lead sulfate. When the battery is recharged, the chemical reaction is reversed: the lead
sulfate reforms into lead dioxide. With the plates restored to their original condition, the process may
be repeated.
Some vehicles use other starter batteries. For weight savings, the 2010 Porsche 911 GT3 RS has
a lithium-ion battery as an option;[17] from 2018 onward, all Kia Niro conventional hybrids feature one
as well.[18] Heavy vehicles may have two batteries in series for a 24 V system or may have series-
parallel groups of batteries supplying 24 V.[19]
Specifications[
Physical format[
Batteries are grouped by physical size, type and placement of the terminals, and mounting style.[15]
Amp hours (Ah)[]

Ampere hours (Ah or A·h) is a unit related to the energy storage capacity of the battery. This rating is
required by law in Europe.
The ampere hour rating is generally defined as the product of (the current a battery can provide for
20 hours at a constant rate, at 80 degrees F (26.6 °C), while the voltage drops to a cut-off of 10.5
volts) times 20 hours. In theory, at 80 degrees F, a 100 Ah battery should be able to continuously
provide 5 amps for 20 hours while maintaining a voltage of at least 10.5 volts. It is important to
realize that the relationship between the Ah capacity and the discharge rate is not linear; as the
discharge rate is increased, the capacity decreases. A battery with a 100Ah rating generally will not
be able to maintain a voltage above 10.5 volts for 10 hours while being discharged at constant rate
of 10 amps. Capacity also decreases with temperature.
Cranking amperages (CCA, CA, MCA, HCA)[

 Cold cranking amperes (CCA): the amount of current a battery can provide at 0 °F (−18 °C) for
30 seconds while maintaining a voltage of at least 7.2 volts. Modern cars with computer
controlled fuel-injected engines take no more than a few seconds to start and CCA figures are
less important than they used to be.[20] It is important not to confuse CCA with CA/MCA or HCA
numbers as the latter will always be higher due to warmer temperatures. For example, a 250
CCA battery will have more starting power than a 250 CA (or MCA) one, and likewise a 250 CA
will have more than a 250 HCA one.[21]
 Cranking amperes (CA): the amount of current a battery can provide at 32 °F (0 °C), again for 30
seconds at a voltage equal to, or greater than, 7.2 volts.
 Marine cranking amperes (MCA): like CA, the amount of current a battery can provide at 32 °F
(0 °C), and often found on batteries for boats (hence "marine") and lawn garden tractors which
are less likely to be operated in conditions where ice can form.[22]
 Hot cranking amperes (HCA) is the amount of current a battery can provide at 80 °F (27 °C).
The rating is defined as the current a lead-acid battery at that temperature can deliver for 30
seconds and maintain at least 1.2 volts per cell (7.2 volts for a 12-volt battery).[citation needed]
Reserve capacity minutes (RCM or RC)[
A battery's ability to sustain a minimum stated electrical load; it is defined as the time (in minutes)
that a lead-acid battery at 80 °F (27 °C) will continuously deliver 25 amperes before its voltage drops
below 10.5 volts.[citation needed]
Group size[
Battery Council International (BCI) group size specifies a battery's physical dimensions, such as
length, width, and height. These groups are determined by the organization.[23][24]
Date codes[
 In the United States there are codes on batteries to help consumers buy a recently produced
one. When batteries are stored, they start losing their charge; this is due to non-current-
producing chemical reactions of the electrodes with the battery acid. A battery made in October
2015 will have a numeric code of 10-5 or an alphanumeric code of K-5. "A" is for January, "B" is
for February, and so on (the letter "I" is skipped).[20]
Lead Acid Batteries

Lead Acid Batteries
Introduction
Lead acid batteries are the most commonly used type of battery in photovoltaic systems.
Although lead acid batteries have a low energy density, only moderate efficiency and high
maintenance requirements, they also have a long lifetime and low costs compared to other
battery types. One of the singular advantages of lead acid batteries is that they are the most
commonly used form of battery for most rechargeable battery applications (for example, in
starting car engines), and therefore have a well-established established, mature technology base.
Operation of Lead Acid Batteries

A lead acid battery consists of a negative electrode made of spongy or porous lead. The lead is
porous to facilitate the formation and dissolution of lead. The positive electrode consists of lead
oxide. Both electrodes are immersed in a electrolytic solution of sulfuric acid and water. In case
the electrodes come into contact with each other through physical movement of the battery or
through changes in thickness of the electrodes, an electrically insulating, but chemically
permeable membrane separates the two electrodes. This membrane also prevents electrical
shorting through the electrolyte. Lead acid batteries store energy by the reversible chemical
reaction shown below.
The overall chemical reaction is:
PbO2+Pb+2H2SO4⇔chargedischarge2PbSO4+2H2O
At the negative terminal the charge and discharge reactions are:
Pb+SO42-⇔chargedischargePbSO4+2e-
At the positive terminal the charge and discharge reactions are:
PbO2+SO42-+4H++2e-⇔chargedischargePbSO4+2H2O
As the above equations show, discharging a battery causes the formation of lead sulfate crystals
at both the negative and positive terminals, as well as the release of electrons due to the change
in valence charge of the lead. The formation of this lead sulfate uses sulfate from the sulfuric
acid electrolyte surrounding the battery. As a result the electrolyte becomes less concentrated.
Full discharge would result in both electrodes being covered with lead sulfate and water rather
than sulfuric acid surrounding the electrodes. At full discharge the two electrodes are the same
material, and there is no chemical potential or voltage between the two electrodes. In practice,
however, discharging stops at the cutoff voltage, long before this point. The battery should not
therefore be discharged below this voltage.
In between the fully discharged and charged states, a lead acid battery will experience a gradual
reduction in the voltage. Voltage level is commonly used to indicate a battery's state of charge.
The dependence of the battery on the battery state of charge is shown in the figure below. If the
battery is left at low states of charge for extended periods of time, large lead sulfate crystals can
grow, which permanently reduces battery capacity. These larger crystals are unlike the typical
porous structure of the lead electrode, and are difficult to convert back into lead.
Voltage of lead acid battery upon charging.
The charging reaction converts the lead sulfate at the negative electrode to lead. At the positive
terminal the reaction converts the lead to lead oxide. As a by-product of this reaction, hydrogen
is evolved. During the first part of the charging cycle, the conversion of lead sulfate to lead and
lead oxide is the dominant reaction. However, as charging proceeds and most of the lead sulfate
is converted to either lead or lead dioxide, the charging current electrolyzes the water from the
electrolyte and both hydrogen and oxygen gas are evolved, a process known as the "gassing" of
the battery. If current is being provided to the battery faster than lead sulfate can be converted,
then gassing begins before all the lead sulfate is converted, that is, before the battery is fully
charged. Gassing introduces several problems into a lead acid battery. Not only does the gassing
of the battery raise safety concerns, due to the explosive nature of the hydrogen produced, but
gassing also reduces the water in the battery, which must be manually replaced, introducing a
maintenance component into the system. In addition, gassing may cause the shedding of active
material from the electrolyte, thereby permanently reducing battery capacity. For these reasons,
the battery should not regularly be charged above the voltage which causes gassing. The gassing
voltage changes with the charge rate.
Lead sulphate is an insulator, and therefore the way in which lead sulfate forms on the electrodes
determined how easily the battery can be discharged.
Characteristics of Lead Acid Batteries

For most renewable energy systems, the most important battery characteristics are the battery
lifetime, the depth of discharge and the maintenance requirements of the battery. This set of
parameters and their inter-relationship with charging regimes, temperature and age are described
below.
Depth of Discharge and Battery Capacity
The depth of discharge in conjunction with the battery capacity is a fundamental parameter in the
design of a battery bank for a PV system, as the energy which can be extracted from the battery
is found by multiplying the battery capacity by the depth of discharge. Batteries are rated either
as deep-cycle or shallow-cycle batteries. A deep-cycle battery will have depth of discharge
greater than 50%, and may go as high as 80%. To achieve the same useable capacity, a shallow-
cycle battery bank must have a larger capacity than a deep-cycle battery bank.
In addition to the depth of discharge and rated battery capacity, the instantaneous or available
battery capacity is strongly affected by the discharge rate of the battery and the operating
temperature of the battery. Battery capacity falls by about 1% per degree below about 20°C.
However, high temperatures are not ideal for batteries either as these accelerate aging, self-
discharge and electrolyte usage. The graph below shows the impact of battery temperature and
discharge rate on the capacity of the battery.
Figure: Relationship between battery capacity, temperature and discharge rate.
Battery Lifetime
Over time, battery capacity degrades due to sulfation of the battery and shedding of active
material. The degradation of battery capacity depends most strongly on the interrelationship
between the following parameters:
 the charging/discharging regime which the battery has experienced

 the DOD of the battery over its life
 its exposure to prolonged periods of low discharge
 the average temperature of the battery over its lifetime
The following graph shows the evolution of battery function as number of cycles and depth of
discharge for a shallow-cycle lead acid battery. A deep-cycle lead acid battery should be able to
maintain a cycle life of more than 1,000 even at DOD over 50%.
Figure: Relationship between battery capacity, depth of discharge and cycle life for a shallow-
cycle battery.
In addition to the DOD, the charging regime also plays an important part in determining battery
lifetime. Overcharging or undercharging the battery results in either the shedding of active
material or the sulfation of the battery, thus greatly reducing battery life.
Figure: Impact of charging regime of battery capacity.
The final impact on battery charging relates to the temperature of the battery. Although the
capacity of a lead acid battery is reduced at low temperature operation, high temperature
operation increases the aging rate of the battery.
Figure: Relationship between battery capacity, temperature and lifetime for a deep-cycle battery.
Constant current discharge curves for a 550 Ah lead acid battery at different discharge rates, with
a limiting voltage of 1.85V per cell (Mack, 1979). Longer discharge times give higher battery
capacities.
Maintenance Requirements
The production and escape of hydrogen and oxygen gas from a battery causes water loss and
water must be regularly replace
d in lead acid batteries. Other components of a battery system do not require maintenance as
regularly, so water loss can be a significant problem. If the system is in a remote location,
checking water loss can add to costs. Maintenance-free batteries limit the need for regular
attention by preventing or reducing the amount of gas which escapes the battery. However, due
to the corrosive nature the elecrolyte, all batteries to some extent introduce an additional
maintenance component into a PV system.
Battery Efficiency
Lead acid batteries typically have coulombic efficiencies of 85% and energy efficiencies in the
order of 70%.
Lead Acid Battery Configurations
Depending on which one of the above problems is of most concern for a particular application,
appropriate modifications to the basic battery configuration improve battery performance. For
renewable energy applications, the above problems will impact the depth of discharge, the
battery lifetime and the maintenance requirements. The changes to the battery typically involve
modification in one of the three basic areas:
 changes to the electrode composition and geometry

 changes to the electrolyte solution
 modifications to the battery housing or terminals to prevent or reduce the escape of
generated hydrogen gas.
Special Considerations for Lead Acid

Batteries
Flooded lead acid batteries are characterised by deep cycles and long lifetimes. However,
flooded batteries require periodic maintenance. Not only must the level of water in the
electrolyte be regularly monitored by measuring its specific gravity, but these batteries also
require "boost charging".
Boost Charging
Boost or equalization charging involves short periodic overcharging, which releases gas and
mixes the electrolyte, thus preventing stratification of the electrolyte in the battery. In addition,
boost charging also assists in keeping all batteries at the same capacity. For example, if one
battery develops a higher internal series resistance than other batteries, then the lower SR battery
will consistently be undercharged during a normal charging regime due to the voltage drop
across the series resistance. However, if the batteries are charged at a higher voltage, then this
allows all batteries to become fully charged.
Specific Gravity (SG)
A flooded battery is subject to water loss from the electrolyte due to the evolution of hydrogen
and oxygen gas. The specific gravity of the electrolyte, which can be measured with a
hydrometer, will indicate the need to add water to the batteries if the batteries are fully charged.
Alternately, a hydrometer will accurately indicate the SOC of the battery if it is known that the
water level is correct. SG is periodically measured after boost charging to insure that the battery
has sufficient water in the electrolyte. The SG of the battery should be provided by the
manufacturer.
Special Considerations for Gelled, Sealed Lead Acid Batteries

Gelled or AGM lead acid batteries (which are typically sealed or valve regulated) have several
potential advantages:
 they can be deep cycled while retaining battery life

 they do not need boost charging
 they require lower maintenance.
However, these batteries typically require a more precise and lower voltage charging regime.
The lower voltage charging regime is due to the use of lead-calcium electrodes to minimise
gassing, but a more precise charging regime is required to minimise gassing from the battery. In
addition, these batteries may be more sensitive to temperature variations, particularly if the
charging regime does not compensate for temperature or is not designed for these types of
batteries.
Failure Modes for Lead Acid Batteries

The battery for a PV system will be rated as a certain number of cycles at a particular DOD,
charging regime and temperature. However, batteries may experience either a premature loss in
capacity or a sudden failure for a variety of reasons. Sudden failure may be caused by the battery
internally short-circuiting due to the failure of the electrical separator within the battery. A short
circuit in the battery will reduce the voltage and capacity from the overall battery bank,
particularly if sections of the battery are connected in parallel, and will also lead to other
potential problems such as overcharging of the remaining batteries. The battery may also fail as
an open circuit (that is, there may be a gradual increase in the internal series resistance), and any
batteries connected in series with this battery will also be affected. Freezing the battery,
depending on the type of lead acid battery used, may also cause irreversible failure of the battery.
The gradual decline in capacity may be worsened by inappropriate operation, particularly by

degrading the DOD. However, the operation of one part of the battery bank under different
conditions to another will also lead to a reduction in overall capacity and an increase in the
likelihood of battery failure. Batteries may be unintentionally operated under different regimes
due either to temperature variations or to the failure of a battery in one battery string leading to
unequal charging and discharging in the string.
Installation
Battery installation should be conducted in accordance with the relevant standard in the country
in which they are being installed. At present, there are Australian standards AS3011 & AS2676
for battery installation. There is also a draft standard for batteries for RAPS applications which
will eventually become an Australian standard.
Among other factors to be considered in the installation of a battery system are the ventilation
required for a particular type of battery bank, the grounding conditions on which the battery bank
is to be placed, and provisions taken to ensure the safety of those who may have access to the
battery bank. In addition, when installing the battery bank care must be taken to ensure that the
battery temperature will fall within the allowable operating conditions of the battery and that the
temperature of the batteries in a larger battery bank are at the same temperatures. Batteries in
very cold conditions are subject to freezing at low states of charge, so that the battery will be
more likely to be in a low state of charge in winter. To prevent this, the battery bank may be
buried underground. Batteries regularly exposed to high operating temperatures may also suffer a
reduced lifetime.
Safety
Batteries are potentially dangerous and users should be aware of three main hazards: The sulfuric
acid in the electrolyte is corrosive. Protective clothing in addition to foot and eye protection are
essential when working with batteries.
Batteries have a high current generating capability. If a metal object is accidentally placed across
the terminals of a battery, high currents can flow through this object. The presence of
unnecessary metal objects (e.g. jewellery) should be minimised when working with batteries and
tools should have insulated handles.
Explosion hazards due to evolution of hydrogen and oxygen gas. During charging, particularly
overcharging, some batteries, including most batteries used in PV systems, may evolve a
potentially explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gas. To reduce the risk of explosion,
ventilation is used to prevent the buildup of these gasses and potential ignition sources (i.eWH
ich may generate sparks or arcs) are eliminated from the battery enclosure.
circuits wh
Batteries introduce a periodic maintenance component into a PV system. All batteries, including
"maintenance free" batteries require a maintenance schedule which should ensure that:
 the battery terminals are not corroded

 the battery connections are tight
 the battery housing should be free of cracks and corrosion.
Flooded batteries require extra and more frequent maintenance. For flooded batteries, the level of
electrolyte and the specific gravity of the electrolyte for each battery needs to be checked
regularly. Checking the specific gravity of a battery by using a hydrometer should be carried out
at least 15 minutes after an equalisation or boost charge. Only distilled water should be added to
batteries. Tap water contains minerals which may damage the battery electrodes.
Do you know the main reason lead-acid batteries break down and lose capacity?
Battery sulfation. It’s the cause of these issues 80% of the time. But with the right tools
for battery maintenance and a little investment of time, you’ll bring your batteries back to
life and keep them functioning reliably. Learn everything you need to know about battery
maintenance.
Batteries are poorly understood, even by that living off-grid that depend on them for
power. A better understanding of the inner-workings would go a long way in keeping
those batteries happy. Given how expensive batteries are, and how they are a major
(recurring) expensive of an overall off-grid system, battery care should be high on
everyone’s off-grid list.
Starter batteries, semi-traction batteries, traction batteries, and even stationary batteries
all need maintenance to perform to their full potential. Regularly perform the six
essential maintenance tasks we outline here to optimize the performance and reliability
of your lead-acid batteries.
Regular Inspection and Maintenance
Regular testing and inspection will help to maximize battery life. A routine inspection at
least once a month is recommended to maintain optimum performance.
Use the following as a guide when examining your battery:
1. Check the battery's state of charge. Most batteries have a State of Charge Indicator on top of the ba
will give you an on the spot diagnosis of the battery condition. However, a more reliable way to check i
voltmeter to determine the stabilized voltage or if the vent caps are removable a hydrometer to determ
specific gravity (SG) of the electrolyte. A charged Century battery will have a stabilized voltage above 1
and an SG reading above 1.240.
2. Ensure the battery top is clean, dry, free of dirt and grime. A dirty battery can discharge across the g
top of the battery casing.
3. Inspect the terminals, screws, clamps, and cables for breakage, damage or loose connections. Thes
be clean, tight and free of corrosion.
4. Apply a thin coating of high-temperature grease to posts and cable connections for added protection
5. Inspect the battery case for obvious signs of physical damage or warpage. This usually indicates the
has been overheated or has been overcharged.
6. If you have a maintainable battery, it is important to check if the battery has sufficient electrolyte cov
battery plates. If topping up is required, do not overfill as the fluid levels will rise when the battery is ful
and may overflow. Top up using distilled or demineralized water and never fill with sulphuric acid.
7. When servicing a sealed maintenance free (SMF) battery, check the State of Charge Indicator. This
a snapshot of the battery's condition and whether the battery needs to be charged or replaced. The ve
still start the engine although the indicator outlines to replace the battery. If the State of Charge Indicat
'Replace Battery' it is important that the battery is replaced as the electrolyte levels may be below the p
which can lead to an internal explosion.
8. For batteries used in seasonal applications and stored long term, fully recharge the battery prior to s
Check the state of charge or voltage regularly. Should the voltage drop below 12.5V, recharge the batt
important to check the battery completely before reconnecting to electrical devices.
If you are unsure about the condition or state of charge of the battery, take it to your local Century batte
reseller. They can inspect and test your battery and provide you with professional advice and assistanc
Add distilled water to the lead-acid battery

The fluid in your lead-acid battery is called electrolyte. It’s actually a mixture of sulphuric
acid and water. When your battery charges, the electrolyte heats up and some of the
water evaporates. During a process called electrolysis, the water breaks down into
hydrogen and oxygen gases that dissipate. The result? The electrolyte level in the
battery lowers over time.
If the electrolyte level is too low, the plates in the battery cells are exposed and will
suffer damage. In addition, the sulphuric acid will be more concentrated. This means
you need to replace the electrolyte. This is how you do it.
1. Check the battery water level with a level indicator
How do you know when to add water to your battery? It’s one of the most common
questions we are asked. You could constantly check your battery or every battery in
every machine in your fleet, but this is horribly time-consuming and there are easier
approaches. Indicators are specifically designed to check the battery water level for you.
They notify you whenever your battery needs to be topped up.
There are different systems available. One of these is the Smartblinky. You mount it
behind the battery plug. Does it have a green light? Your electrolyte level is fine. When
the light turns red, you know it’s time to add water to the battery cells.
Do you add water to your battery before or after charging? Always make sure the
electrolyte covers the battery plates before you charge. If the plates are covered, charge
the battery and then top up as necessary. This is because the electrolyte will expand
during charging and is more likely to overflow if you’ve already topped it up before
charging.
2. Make sure you always have distilled water nearby
Never fill a battery with normal water. It will damage your battery. You need to use
distilled water. It’s also known as deionized water and demineralized water. Basically,
it’s water that has been filtered to remove metals and minerals that may interfere with
the processes in your battery.
Buy distilled water from a hardware store or automotive parts specialist. It’s also easy to
make yourself. You need simple tap water and a demineralization device like the
Hydropure. The simplest of these devices are filled with a type of resin. You let the tap
water flow in, the resin filters the metals and minerals out of the water and you’re left
with the deionized, demineralized, distilled water that’s suitable for use with your
battery.
3. Install an automatic battery water filler system
How much-distilled water do you add to your battery? That’s another question we are
often asked. The answer varies from one battery to the next. This is one reason why we
recommend using a battery water filler system.
A battery water filler system uses filler caps with floats that are connected to each other
via water hoses. They keep your battery from over-filling. And they save you time. All
you do is run distilled water into the hose. The filling system does the rest.
Battery Charging
Charging a lead-acid battery is the process of replacing the energy removed during
discharge, plus EXTRA to compensate for any charging inefficiencies. The amount of
energy necessary for complete recharge depends on the depth of discharge, rate of
recharge and temperature. Typically 110% - 150% of the discharged ampere-hours
depending on battery type must be returned to the battery to achieve full recharge.
Safety First
Before attempting to charge a battery with an external battery charger, it is important to

be aware of the safety precautions when charging batteries and follow the instructions
outlined by the charger manufacturer.
● Turn the charger off before attaching, rocking or removing the terminal clamps.
● Keep open flames and sparks away from the battery.
● Keep vent caps in place.

● Charge in a well-ventilated area.
● Follow the battery charger manufacturer’s instructions to avoid overheating.
Dangerous explosive gases are generated during the charging process that can be
ignited by a variety of sources including, sparks, naked flames, and static electricity. It is
highly recommended to wear PPE (Personal Protection Equipment) including safety
glasses, chemical resistant gloves, and overalls.
Selecting the Correct Charger
Lead-acid batteries should be charged in 3 stages; constant current (boost), constant

voltage (absorption) and float charge.
When choosing a battery charger, it is important to select a charger that delivers the
specified charging voltage and current to suit the battery type. Flooded, Absorbed Glass
Mat (AGM) and Gel battery types require different charging specifications to provide
optimum performance and service life.
Charging Voltage (for manual chargers)
Monitoring battery voltage during charging is extremely important to reduce the risk of
overcharging and to check the progress of the battery during recharge. Always keep
inside the parameters outlined in the below table. Failure to do so can result in
permanent damage to the battery.
Auxiliary Charge Voltage by Battery Type
Type Absorption Charging Float Charging

Flooded (Maintainable / SMF) 14.4 to 14.8V 13.2 to 13.5V*
AGM (Absorbed Glass Mat) 14.6 to 14.8V 13.6 to 13.8V
Gel Electrolyte 14.2 to 14.4V 13.6 to 13.8V
The recommended temperature during charging is 25°C. Charging must be paused if
the battery reaches 50°C.
The above specifications are for 12-volt lead-acid batteries. When charging 6-volt
batteries, half the voltage specifications provided.
In addition to following the battery charging voltage guidelines, selecting the correct
charging current (Amps) for the battery size is crucial to provide performance and
service life.
Charging Current (for manual chargers)

Factors Affecting Battery Life
As batteries age, they gradually lose their capacity as their function is performed. The
constant charge and discharge eventually lead to failure. Components corrode over
time, electrical shorts occur and vibration causes damage; all eventually causing failure.
Overcharging and undercharging of a battery will also have a bearing on battery life.
Battery Inspection
Check electrolyte level - fluid below the tops of the separators indicates overcharging or
poor maintenance. The overcharge condition may be due to incorrect voltage setting,
low voltage caused by heat or internal defects, or old age deterioration.
● Is there electrolyte on the top of the battery? This can indicate overcharging or
overfilling.
● Is the battery loose in the carrier? This can cause failure from vibration.
● Does the battery have signs of damage or mistreatment? This can also cause failure.
● Discharged (flat) Batteries
A flat battery should be checked with a hydrometer. A low Specific Gravity reading of
1.220 or less in all cells indicates a discharged battery and it must be charged before
further examination and testing can occur. The discharged condition may be due to a
problem in the electrical system (slipping alternator belt, faulty regulator or alternator,
high resistance due to corrosion). Internal shorts may also be due to manufacturing
defects or shorts through the aging process or vibration damage.
Early Warning Signs
Batteries often fail when least expected. The usual warning is a slower than normal
battery ability to crank the engine. Other less noticeable factors, such as changing
driving patterns and colder/hotter weather will all have an effect on the life of a battery.
Encourage your customers to ask for a ‘FREE Battery Test’. It’s good public relations
and if the battery is near failure, it may avoid the inconvenience of a roadside
breakdown.
Battery Disposal and Recycling

The lead in a lead acid battery presents an environmental hazard if it is not properly disposed of.
Lead acid batteries should be recycled so that the lead can be recovered without causing
environmental damage.
Electrode Materials and Configuration

The materials from which the electrodes are made have a major affect on the battery chemistry,
and hence affect the battery voltage and its charging and discharging characteristics. The
geometry of the electrode determines the internal series resistance and the charging and
discharging rate.
Plate Material
The basic anode and cathode materials in a lead acid battery are lead and lead dixodie (PbO2).
The lead electrode is in the form of sponge lead. Sponge lead is desirable as it is very porous,
and therefore the surface area between the lead and the sulfic acid electrolyte is very large. The
addition of small amounts of other elements to the lead electrode to form lead alloys can reduce
several of the disadvantages associated with the lead. The main types of electrodes used are
lead/antimony (using several percent antimony), lead/calcium alloys, and lead/antimony/calcium
alloys.
Antimony lead alloy batteries have several advantages over pure lead electrodes. These
advantages include: the lower cost of lead/antimony; the increased strength of the lead/antimony
electrode; and the ability to be deeply discharged for short period of time. However,
lead/antimony alloys are prone to sulfation and should not be left at low states of charge for
extended periods of time. I addition, lead/antimony alloys increase the gassing of the battery
during charging leading to high levels of water loss. Since the water must be added to these
batteries, they have higher maintenance. Furthermore, lead/antimony batteries have a high
discharge rate and a short lifetime. These problems (xx- check if both problems are caused by
plating)) are caused by the dissolution of antimony from one electrode and its deposition or
plating on the other electrode. (xx the increased adhesion of PbO2 xx)
Lead calcium batteries are an intermediate cost technology. Like antimony, calcium also adds
strength to the lead of the negative electrode, but unlike antimony, the addition of calcium
reduces the gassing of the battery and also produces a lower self-discharge rate. However, lead
calcium batteries should not be deeply discharged. Consequently, these types of batteries may be
considered "maintenance-free", but are only shallow cycle batteries.
Adding antimony as well as calcium to the electrodes provides some of the advantages of both
antimony and lead, but at an increased cost. Deep discharge batteries such as these can also have
a high lifetime. Furthermore, trace amounts of other materials can be added to the electrodes to
increase battery performance.
Electrode Configuration
In addition to the material used to make the electrode plates, the physical configuration of the
electrodes also has an impact on the charging and discharging rates and on the lifetime. Thin
plates will allow faster charging and discharging, but are less robust and more prone to shedding
of material from the plates. As high charging or discharging currents are not typically a required
feature of batteries for renewable energy systems, thicker plates can be used, which have lower
charge and discharge times, but also have longer lifetimes.
Battery Housing
In an open, flooded battery, any gas which is generated can escape to the atmosphere, causing
both safety and maintenance problems. A sealed lead acid (SLA), valve-regulated lead acid
(VRLA) or recombining lead acid battery prevent the loss of water from the electrolyte by
preventing or minimizing the escape of hydrogen gas from the battery. In a sealed lead acid
(SLA) battery, the hydrogen does not escape into the atmosphere but rather moves or migrates to
the other electrode where it recombines (possibly assisted by a catalytic conversion process) to
form water. Rather than being completely sealed, these batteries include a pressure vent to
prevent the build-up of excess pressure in the battery. Sealed batteries require stringent charging
controls to prevent the build-up of hydrogen faster than it can recombine, but they require less
maintenance than open batteries.
Valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) batteries are similar in concept to sealed lead acid (SLA)
batteries except that the valves are expected to release some hydrogen near full charge. SLA or
VRLA batteries typically have additional design features such as the use of gelled electrolytes
and the use of lead calcium plates to keep the evolution of hydrogen gas to a minimum.
Types of Lead Acid Batteries

Despite the range in battery types and applications, the characteristics particularly important in
PV applications are the maintenance requirements of the battery and the ability to deep charge a
battery while maintaining a long lifetime. To promote long cycle life with deep discharge, deep
cycle batteries may be either of the open-flooded type, with an excess of electrolytic solution and
thick plates, or of the immobilized electrolytic type. Sealed gelled batteries may be rated as deep
cycle batteries, but they will usually withstand fewer cycles and lower discharges than the
specially designed flooded plate or AGM batteries. Shallow-cycle batteries typically use thinner
plates made from lead calcium alloys and do not typically have a depth of discharge above 25%.
Batteries for PV or remote area power supplies (RAPS)
The stringent requirements for batteries used in photovoltaic systems have prompted several
manufacturers to make batteries specifically designed for PV or other remote power systems.
The batteries most commonly used in stand-alone photovoltaic systems are either deep-cycle
lead acid types, or shallower cycle maintenance-free batteries. Deep-cycle batteries may be open
flooded batteries (which are not maintenance-free) or captive electrolyte AGM batteries which
are maintenance-free (but which do require care in regulator selection). Special shallow-cycle
maintenance-free batteries that withstand infrequent discharging may also be used in PV
applications, and provided that the battery bank is appropriately designed, never require a DOD
of more than 25%. A long-life battery in an appropriately designed PV system with correct
maintenance can last up to 15 years, but the use of batteries which are not designed for long
service life, or conditions in a PV system, or are part of a poor system design can lead to a
battery bank which fails after only a few years.
Several other types of specific purpose batteries are available and these are
described below. SLA/VRLA in which the electrolyte is absorbed into the separator between the
plates composed of sponge-like fine glass fiber mats.
Lead Acid Battery Types – 5 common battery types

Since there are many different types of batteries on the market, it is difficult to choose the right type
for your application. We recommend that you take a moment to learn more about the 5 most
common battery types.
1. Flooded Batteries
This is the traditional engine start, tractor and deep cycle battery. The liquid electrolyte can move
freely in the battery compartment. Users can access individual batteries and can add distilled water
when the batteries are dry. Popular uses are engine starting and deep cycle design.
For this type of battery, the typical absorption voltage range is 14.4 to 14.9 volts; the typical floating
voltage range is 13.1 to 13.4 volts.
Flooded batteries are common in many applications, such as car start batteries, motorcycle
batteries, ATV batteries, golf cart batteries, and flooded batteries for solar and emergency backup
systems.
2. Sealed Batteries
This term can refer to many different structures, including slight modifications to the submerged
style. In this case, even if the user cannot enter the battery compartment, the internal structure is still
basically the same as the flooded battery. The only difference is that the manufacturer has ensured
that there is a sufficient amount of acid in the battery to maintain the chemical reaction under normal
use throughout the battery warranty period. Other types of lead-acid batteries are also sealed, as
described below. Very popular uses are engine start and limited start/deep cycle applications.
3. VRLA Batteries
This represents a valve-regulated lead-acid battery. This is also a sealed battery. The valve
adjustment mechanism allows hydrogen and oxygen to escape safely during the charging process.
VRLA batteries are common and found in many applications, such as medical mobile scooter
batteries and toy and alarm batteries.
4. AGM Batteries
The absorbing glass mat structure allows the electrolyte to be suspended close to the active material
of the plate. Theoretically, this improves the discharge and recharge efficiency. In fact, the AGM
battery is a variant of the sealed VRLA battery, just a more advanced design. Popular uses include
high-performance engine starting, power sports, deep cycle, solar and storage batteries.
AGM batteries are very common and can be found in many applications, such as RV batteries,
marine batteries, motorcycle batteries, ATV batteries, and UPS and telecommunications batteries for
generators.
5. GEL Batteries
Gel batteries are similar in style to AGM batteries because the electrolyte is suspended, but the
difference is that, technically speaking, AGM batteries are still considered wet batteries. The
electrolyte in the gel battery contains silica additives, which can make it solidify or harden. The
charging voltage of this battery is lower than other types of lead-acid batteries. In terms of the
adverse effects of overvoltage charging, this may be the most sensitive battery. Gel batteries are
most suitable for very deep cycle applications and may last longer in hot weather applications. If an
incorrect battery charger is used on the gel battery, poor performance and premature failure are
certain. Battery chargers with gel profiles will provide information on gel compatibility on the device
or in the manual.
A note about gel batteries: When referring to sealed, maintenance-free batteries, it is common for
individuals to use the term gel battery, just like Tempo when referring to facial tissues or “Xerox
machine” when referring to copy machine. Be very careful when specifying chargers. Normally, what
people think of as a gel battery is actually a sealed, maintenance-free VRLA or AGM type battery.
Learn more about the differences between gel batteries and AGM batteries.
Gel batteries are not as common as AGM batteries, but they often appear in deep discharge
situations, such as wheelchair and medical mobile batteries, trolling machine batteries, and RV deep
cycle batteries.
The different behaviors of AGM and GEL batteries can be attributed to different electrolyte fixation.
Conclusion:
From the user’s point of view, AGM batteries, out of 5 lead acid battery types, are a good choice for
low-cost UPS batteries with an expected life span of 5 to 10 years. For applications with an expected
life of more than 10 years, gel batteries are a better choice. The flat GEL type is used for high
current discharge, and the tubular plate type is used for one hour or longer discharge. This allows
selection for different applications and environmental conditions. Not only should the battery life be
evaluated, but the key nature of the site should also be considered, that is, the cost of removing the
site from an open circuit should be considered. For all high-cycle applications (solar energy, load
balancing, etc.), gel batteries are most suitable.
Starting, lighting ignition batteries (SLI). These batteries are used in automotive applications and
have high discharge and charge rates. Most often they use electrode plates strengthened with
either lead antimony in a flooded configuration, or lead calcium in a sealed configuration. These
batteries have a good life under shallow-cycle conditions, but have very poor lifetime under deep
cycling. SLI batteries should not be used in a PV system since their characteristics are not
optimized for use in a renewable energy system because lifetime in a PV system is so low.
Traction or motive power batteries. Traction or motive batteries are used to provide electric
power for small transport vehicles such as golf carts. Compared to SLI batteries, they are
designed to have a greater ability to be deep-cycled while still maintaining a long lifetime.
Although this feature makes them more suited to a PV system than one which uses SLI batteries,
motive power batteries should not be used in any PV systems since their self discharge rate is
very high due to the use of lead antimony electrodes. A high self discharge rate will effectively
cause high power losses from the battery and make the overall PV system inefficient unless the
batteries experience large DOD on a daily basis. The ability of these batteries to withstand deep
cycling is also far below that of a true deep-cycle battery. Therefore, these batteries are not suited
to PV systems.
RV or marine batteries. These batteries are typically a compromise between SLI batteries,
traction batteries and true deep-cycle batteries. Although they are not recommended, both motive
and marine batteries are used in some small PV systems. The lifetime of such batteries will be
restricted to a few years at best, so that the economics of battery replacement mean that such
batteries are typically not a long-term cost effective option.
Stationary batteries. Stationary batteries are often used for emergency power or uninterruptable
power supply applications. They are shallow-cycle batteries intended to remain close to fully
charged for the majority of their lifetime with only occasional deep discharges. They may be
used in PV systems if the battery bank is sized so that it never falls below a DOD of between
10% and 25%.
Deep-cycle Batteries. Deep-cycle batteries should be able to maintain a cycle life of several
thousand cycles under high DOD (80% or more). Wide differences in cycle performance may be
experienced with two types of deep cycle batteries and therefore the cycle life and DOD of
various deep-cycle batteries should be compared.
Potential Problems with Lead Acid Batteries

A lead acid battery consists of electrodes of lead oxide and lead are immersed in a solution of
weak sulfuric acid. Potential problems encountered in lead acid batteries include:
Gassing: Evolution of hydrogen and oxygen gas. Gassing of the battery leads to safety problems
and to water loss from the electrolyte. The water loss increases the maintenance requirements of
the battery since the water must periodically be checked and replaced.
Damage to the electrodes. The lead at the negative electrode is soft and easily damaged,
particularly in applications in which the battery may experience continuous or vigorous
movement.
Stratification of the electrolyte. Sulfuric acid is a heavy, viscous liquid. As the battery
discharges, the concentration of the sulfuric acid in the elecotrolyte is reduced, while during
charging the sulfiric acid concentratin increases. This cyclicing of sulfuric acid concentration
may lead to stratification of the electrolyte, where the heavier sulfuric acid remains at the bottom
of the battery, while the less concentrated solution, water, remains near the top. The close
proximity of the electrode plates within the battery means that physical shaking does not mix the
sulfuric acid and water. However, controlled gassing of the electrolyte encourages water and
sulfuric acid to mix, but must be carefully controlled to avoid problems of safety and water loss.
Periodic but infrequent gassing of the battery to prevent or reverse electrolyte stratification is
required in most lead acid batteries in a process referred to as "boost" charging.
Sulfation of the battery. At low states of charge, large lead sulfate crystals may grow on the lead
electrode as opposed to the finely grained material which is normally produced on the electrodes.
Lead sulphate is an insulating material.
Spillage of the sulfuric acid. If sulfuric acid leaks from the battery housing it poses a serious
safety risk. Gelling or immobilizing the liquid sulfuric acid reduces the possibility of sulfuric
acid spills.
Freezing of the battery at low discharge levels. If the battery is at a low discharge level following
the conversion of the whole electrolyte to water, then the freezing point of the electrolyte also
drops.
Loss of active material from the electrodes. The loss of active material from the electrodes can
occur via several processes. One process that can cause a permanent loss of capacity is the
flaking off of the active material due to volumetric changes between xxx and lead sulphate. In
addition, xxx. Improper charging conditions and gassing can cause shedding of active material
from the electrodes, leading to a permanent loss in capacity.
Depending on which one of the above problems is of most concern for a particular application,
appropriate modifications to the basic battery configuration improve battery performance. For
renewable energy applications, the above problems will impact the depth of discharge, the
battery lifetime and the maintenance requirements. The changes to the battery typically involve
modification in one of the three basic areas:
 changes to the electrode composition and geometry

 changes to the electrolyte solution
 modifications to the battery housing or terminals to prevent or reduce the escape of
generated hydrogen gas.
Corrosion of terminals
Corrosion consists of a set or reduction/oxidation regions in which both the reactions take place
at the same electrode. For a battery system, corrosion leads to several detrimental effects. One
effect is that it converts a metallic electrode to a metal oxide.
Self-Discharge
All chemical reactions proceed in both the forward and reverse direction. In order for the reverse
reaction to proceed, the reactants must gain enough energy to overcome the electrochemical
difference between the reactants and the products and also the overvoltage. Usually in battery
systems, the probability of the reverse reaction occurring is small, since there are few molecules
with a large enough energy. Although small, however, there are some particles that do have
sufficient energy. In a charged battery, a process exists by which the battery can be discharged
even in the absence of a load connected to the battery. The amount a battery discharges upon
standing is known as self-discharge. Self-discharge increases as temperature increases because a
greater fraction of products will have enough energy for the reaction to proceed in the reverse
direction.
An ideal set of chemical reactions for a battery would be one in which there is a large chemical
potential which releases a large number of electrons, has a low overvoltage, spontaneously
proceeds in only one direction and is the only chemical reaction which can occur. However, in
practice, there are several effects that degrade battery performance, due to unwanted chemical
reactions, to effects such as the change in phase of volume of the reactants or products and also
to the physical movement of reactants and products within the battery.
Change in form of materials

While undergoing chemical reactions, many materials undergo a change either in phase, or if
they stay in the same phase, the volume, density of the material may be altered by the chemical
reaction. Finally, the materials used in the battery, primarily the anode and cathode, may change
their crystallinity or surface structure, which will in turn affect the reactions in the battery. Many
components in redox reactions undergo a change in phase during either oxidation or reduction.
For example, in the lead acid battery, sulfate ions changes from being in solid form (as lead
sulfate) to being in solutions (as sulfuric acid). If the lead sulfate recrystallizes anywhere but the
anode or cathode, then this material is lost to the battery system. During charging, only materials
connected to the anode and cathode can participate in electron exchange, and therefore if the
material is not touching the anode or cathode, then it can no longer be recharged. The formation
of a gaseous phase in a battery also presents special problems. First of all, the gaseous phase will
usually have a larger volume that the initial reactants, thus giving rise to a change in pressure in
the battery. Secondly, if the intended products are in the gaseous change, they must be confined
to the anode and cathode, or they will not be able to be charged.
A change in volume will also usually be detrimental in battery operation.

Modifications to the electrolyte
A standard "flooded" lead acid battery has the electrodes immersed in liquid sulfuric acid.
Several modifications to the electrolyte are used to improve battery performance in one of
several areas. The key parameters of the electrolyte which control the performance of the battery
are the volume and concentration of the electrolyte and forming a 'captive' electrolyte.
Electrolyte Volume and Concentration

Changes in the volume of the electrolyte can be used to improve the robustness of a battery.
Increasing the volume of an electrolyte makes the battery less sensitive to water losses, and
hence makes regular maintenance less critical. Adding to the volume of the battery will also
increase its weigth and reduce the energy density of the battery.
Captive Electrolyte Lead Acid Batteries

In 'captive' electrolyte batteries, the sulfuric acid is immobilised by either 'gelling' the sulfuric
acid or by using an 'absorptive glass mat'. Both have lower gassing compared to a flooded lead
acid battery and are consequently often found in "maintenance-free" sealed lead acid batteries.
Gelling. In a "gelled" lead acid battery, the electrolyte may be immobilized by gelling the
sulfuric acid using silica gel. The gelled electrolyte has an advantage in that gassing is reduced,
and consequently, the batteries are low-maintenance. In addition, stratification of the electrolyte
does not occur with gelled batteries and therefore boost charging is not required, and because the
electrolyte is gelled, the chances of spilling sulfuric acid are also reduced. However, in order to
further reduce gassing, these "gel-cell" batteries also typically use lead calcium plates, making
them unsuited to deep discharge applications. A further drawback is that the charging conditions
of a gelled lead acid battery must be more carefully controlled to prevent overcharging and
damage to the battery.
Absorbative Glass Matting. A second technology which can be used to immobilize the sulfuric
acid is "absorptive glass mat" or AGM batteries. In an AGM battery, the sulfuric acid is absorbed
in a fiberglass mat which is placed between the electrodes plates. AGM batteries have numerous
advantages including the ability to be deeply discharged without affecting lifetime, allowing high
rates of charge/discharges and an extended temperature range for operation. The key
disadvantage with these batteries is their need for more carefully controlled charging regimes
and their higher initial cost.
Voltage of lead acid battery upon charging.
The charging reaction converts the lead sulfate at the negative electrode to lead. At the positive
terminal the reaction converts the lead to lead oxide. As a by-product of this reaction, hydrogen
is evolved. During the first part of the charging cycle, the conversion of lead sulfate to lead and
lead oxide is the dominant reaction. However, as charging proceeds and most of the lead sulfate
is converted to either lead or lead dioxide, the charging current electrolyzes the water from the
electrolyte and both hydrogen and oxygen gas are evolved, a process known as the "gassing" of
the battery. If current is being provided to the battery faster than lead sulfate can be converted,
then gassing begins before all the lead sulfate is converted, that is, before the battery is fully
charged. Gassing introduces several problems into a lead acid battery. Not only does the gassing
of the battery raise safety concerns, due to the explosive nature of the hydrogen produced, but
gassing also reduces the water in the battery, which must be manually replaced, introducing a
maintenance component into the system. In addition, gassing may cause the shedding of active
material from the electrolyte, thereby permanently reducing battery capacity. For these reasons,
the battery should not regularly be charged above the voltage which causes gassing. The gassing
voltage changes with the charge rate.
Lead sulphate is an insulator, and therefore the way in which lead sulfate forms on the electrodes
determined how easily the battery can be discharged.
Know About the Steps of Battery

Manufacturing Process
Lead-Acid Battery
Battery is an essential requirement to start electrically operating equipments, especially
in electrically operated vehicles. And also, in case of mains failures or interruptions in
power supply, a standby or backup power is necessary for critical applications.
Therefore a battery provides the necessary power to startup as well as standby
depending on the type of application. Some of the applications of the batteries include
automobiles, railways, airlines, defense, telecommunication, power stations, industries,
and so on. The battery manufacturing process of each company has its own special
technical patented and
Manufacturing Process of Car

Batteries
Ordinary as battery may look, its manufacturing process could be quite complicated. In
this post, we’ll show you how a battery is produced from the very beginning with the
example of the finished vehicle battery. Hope you could know more about the power
source after reading it.
How was a cell of battery born?
The cell is the smallest unit of a battery system. A collection of batteries form a module,
and then the collection of these modules form a battery pack. This is the basic structure
of the vehicle power battery.
Pulping of active materials – mixing
Mixing process is to stir the active material into a slurry by a vacuum mixer. This is the
first process of battery production. The quality control of this process will directly affect
the quality of the battery and the qualified rate of the finished product.
Applying the stirred slurry to the copper foil – coating
The process is to apply the slurry that has been stirred after the previous operation to a
4000-meter-long copper foil at a speed of 24 feet per minute. The copper foil before
coating is only 6 microns thick.
Pressing and splitting the cathode material on the copper foil – cold pressing and
pre-cutting
In the milling workshop, the roller is used to press the pole piece to where the positive
and negative electrodes are attached, and the cold-pressed pole pieces are cut as per
the size of the battery to be produced.
Cutting out the positive and negative electrodes on the battery – die cutting and
slitting
The die cutting process is to form a conductive electrode tab for a battery cell by a die
cutting machine. The polar tab is the metal conductor derived from the positive and
negative poles in the cell. The slitting process is to cut the battery pole piece by a cutter.
Finishing the prototype of the battery cell – winding

Combining the positive electrode sheet, the negative electrode sheet and the separator
of the battery into a bare cell in a winding manner.
Removing moisture and injecting electrolyte – baking and injecting
Moisture is the enemy of the battery system. The battery baking process is to make the
water inside the battery up to the standard and ensure that the battery has good
performance throughout the life cycle. The injection is to inject electrolyte into the cell.
The process of cell activation – formation
The formation is a process of activating the cell after the injection, and chemical
reaction s inside the cell, by charging and discharging, form a SEI film (the electrolyte
and the anode material react on the solid-liquid phase, so a passivization film is
formed). The process also includes the second injection of electrolyte, weighing,
welding of the injection port and gas tightness testing after the cell is activated.
. Battery pack production process
A single battery cell cannot be used directly. Only when a lot of cells are combined,
together with protective circuits and shells, can they be used directly. This is the so-
called battery module.
Feeding
The battery cell is transmitted to the setting position, and the robot automatically grabs it
and send it to the mold assembly line.
Plasma cleaning process
Cleaning the surface of each cell. Ion cleaning is used here to ensure that contaminants
in the process are not attached to the bottom of the cell.
Gluing for the cell

Before the cell is assembled, the surface needs to be glued. This is how the battery is
fixed, insulated and dissipate the heat.
Welding of end plate and the side plate
The battery modules are mostly made of aluminum end plates and side plates, which
are later laminated and welded by robots.
Assembling of wire Harness isolation board
After the welding monitoring system accurately locates the welding position, the material
barcode of the wire harness isolation plate is bound to Manufacturing Execution
System, and a separate encoding is generated for traceability. After the coding, the
harness isolation board is automatically loaded into the module by the robots.
Completing the serial-parallel connection of the battery – laser welding
Through automatic laser welding, the connection between the pole and the connecting
piece is completed, and thus the battery serial parallel is possible
An important test before shipping – offline test
Check the full performance of the module before it goes off the production line, including
module voltage/resistance, battery cell voltage, withstand voltage tests, and insulation
resistance test.
. Battery pack’s ultimate test – battery pack safety test
In fact, from the initial design stage, electric vehicles have to adopt various methods to
ensure maximum safety. However, the perfect design has to be tested by practice.
Fire test
In terms of safety performance, the standard in China is external combustion for 130
seconds, and the battery can’t be lit up or explode.
Vibration test
Vibration test is used to simulate the bumpy road conditions of battery packs in actual
use. It is used to test whether the vibration of battery packs can cause the parts of
battery products with poor quality to loosen or even cause the shell to break down.
Impact test
Similar to vibration test, impact test is used to test the mechanical stability of battery
pack. It simulates the impact of instantaneous bump on battery pack structure when a
vehicle passes through a road barrier.
Squeeze test
As for the pass standard of extrusion testing, the battery can’t catch fire or explode.
If you are interested in learning more about batteries, please feel free to contact us or
leave a comment. We’d be very happy to hear from you
secret processes, which are not bound to be revealed to masses.
Introduction to Lead-Acid Batteries

Therefore, this article is intended to give a brief idea of lead acid battery manufacturing process. A
lead-acid battery is commonly used in automobile applications and UPS systems. These batteries
provide sufficient energy to start engines, and are maintenance free, and durable. Mainly 98 percent
of these batteries are recyclable, and therefore, they minimize environmental impact while being
disposed off.
Battery Inner Structure
The lead battery is manufactured by using lead alloy ingots and lead oxide It comprises
two chemically dissimilar leads based plates immersed in sulphuric acid solution. The
positive plate is made up of lead dioxide PbO2 and the negative plate with pure lead. The
nominal electric potential between these two plates is 2 volts when these plates are
immersed in dilute sulfuric acid. This potential is universal for all lead acid batteries.
Therefore, a 12 volt lead acid battery is made up of six cells that are connected in series
are enclosed in a durable plastic casing, as shown in the figure.
The capacity of the battery depends on the amount of lead dioxide on the positive plate;
sulfuric acid present in the battery; and, the amount of spongy lead on the negative plate.
During discharging process, the suphate ions in the electrolyte interact with the positive
and negative plates and form lead sulfate on them. This result in the reduction of specific
gravity of the electrolyte in proportion to the charge delivered to the load.
During the charging process, the cycle is reversed, that is, lead sulphate and water are
converted to lead, lead oxide and electrolyte of sulphuric acid by an external charging
source. This process is reversible, which means lead acid battery can be discharged or
recharged many times. The chemical formulas of charging and discharging process of
the lead acid batteries is given above.
Main Parts of the Battery
The main parts of the battery are plates, i.e., anode and cathode plates, separators,
electrolyte or sulphuric acid, case, cell connectors and terminals, as shown in the above
figure.
Manufacturing Steps of Lead-Acid Batteries
Batteries are manufactured using careful maintenance of equipments in an automated

controlled environment. The Manufacturing processes can be divided into several
stages like Oxide and grid production process, pasting and curing, assembly process,
formation, filling, charge-discharge process, final assembly, inspection and dispatch.
These manuf
Lead Acid Battery: Construction,

Working, Charging
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Lead-Acid Battery Construction
The lead-acid battery is the most commonly used type of storage battery and is well-
known for its application in automobiles. The battery is made up of several cells, each of
which consists of lead plates immersed in an electrolyte of dilute sulfuric acid. The voltage
per cell is typically 2 V to 2.2 V. For a 6 V battery, three cells are connected in series, and
for a 12 V battery, six cells are series-connected.
The construction of a lead-acid automobile type battery is illustrated in Figure 1. The
electrodes are lead-antimony alloy plates with a pattern of recesses so that they are in
the form of grids [see Figure 1 (a)].
Plates
Lead oxide (termed active material) is pressed into the recesses of the plates. Each
electrode consists of several plates connected in parallel with porous rubber separators
in between, as illustrated in Figure 1 (b). This arrangement and the shape of the plates
give the largest possible electrode surface area within the size limitations of the battery.
Fig.1: Lead-Acid Battery Plates Arrangement

Rubber Case
The complete 12 V battery, illustrated in Figure 1 (c), has an outer case of hard rubber.
The case is divided into six sections for the six separate cells. Projections are provided
on the inside at the bottom of the case to support the plates. These projections ensure
that the lower edges of the plates are normally well above the level of an active material
that falls to the bottom of a cell. Such material can short out the positive and negative
plates and render a cell useless.
Fig.1 (c): Complete Lead Acid Battery
Filler Cap
Every cell has a threaded ﬁller cap with a small hole in its center. The ﬁller caps provide
access for adding electrolyte, and the holes allow gases to be vented to the atmosphere.
acturing steps are briefly explained below.
Battery Manufacturing Process

1. Oxide and Grid Production Process
Lead Oxide Production
Lead oxide is obtained by masses of lead from melting furnaces either by Milling
or Barton Pot process methods. In the milling process, the tumbling action
generated by the rotating mill on solid lead generates heat and then the surface of
the lead gets oxidized. The surface layers of the oxide are removed while the lead
particles roll in the drum. In Barton Pot process a fine stream of lead droplets is
produced by blowing air on molten lead. These droplets are reacted with oxygen
and produce lead oxide.
 Casting and stamping methods are generally used for making battery grids. In
casting method, the lead alloy slabs are melted in melting pot and this molted lead
is poured into the patterns of battery grids whereas stamping operation produces
on battery grids based on stamping on lead sheets. When these grids are cooled
after casting operation, these are passed to trimming machine where rough edges
and casting gates are trimmed.
Grid Casting Process
2. Pasting and Curing


Battery Plates After Pasting and Curing
Manufacturers consider the pasting material as a trade secret,and therefore not

reveal this to public. However, this paste material in general is made with oxide of
lead, red lead, litharge, water and dilutes sulphuric acid. These pastes are used to
fill the grids, i.e., positive and negative grids; but, for both, the pastes are not
exactly filled with the same material, some expander materials are added for
making negative paste.
 The paste is then forced or pressed on the interstices of the grids by a machine or
by hand, and then these are turned as plates. These pasted plates are cured in
ovens under certain conditions of temperature near 32 degree centigrade for about
48 hours, with humidity nearing about 90 percent and are finally allowed to dry
condition at ambient temperatures.
3. Assembling the Elements
 In this process, all the parts are assembled into a battery case and covered with
the plastic moulds plastic molding plant. This step involves the formation of
positive and negative plate stacks, insertion of separators, inter-cell connector and
plate burning. In this step positive and negative plates are formed like groups which
are strapped to a suitable rack, slipped together and a separator is inserted in-
between them. This separator is made up of non-conductive material such as
paper, plastic or a glass fiber.
Battery Plates Stacking
 During the burning operation each positive and negative plate tab is welded to lead
to produce an element and these are then welded to respective positive and
negative posts on the battery’s case top. After keeping this element in the jar or
case, sealing compound is applied to make the space leak proof between the
battery jar and cover.
Assembling the Elements of Battery
4. Filling and Formation
 After the assembling, battery jar is filled with required amount of electrolyte through
a filling or vent tube. Then, it is ready for initial charging, which may require several
hours of charging depending on the battery size. Low charging rate is generally
employed that may be nearly one day to several days. This charge formation may
either be dry or wet. In a dry-formation method, batteries are shipped as dry after
the positive and negative elements are fully charged or formed and dried in tanks
or as an individual plates and are connected to positive and negative terminals of
the battery.
Filling Battery with Electrolyte
 In a wet-formation method, a battery undergoes initial charging for several hours

after plates are immersed in an electrolyte battery case. And, in some cases, this
acid is dumped and fresh acid is added after forming it.
Formation Process
5. Charging and Discharging
Charging and Discharging Process
After the formation, batteries are subjected to high-rate discharge test for short
duration to rule out any defects before sending them out to the final charge. After
discharging and recharging batteries for several times to attain best working
condition, these are inspected and tested with some measuring instruments.
 Then finally these are recharged for certain backup hours and sent to the next
level where additional connections, labeling and caps are inserted to battery with
sealed-cotton packing. At last, these are dispatched to ordered places.
This is all about the lead-acid battery manufacturing process carried out in several battery
production industries. We hope that the given content might have been helpful for the
readers. Furthermore, for any information like electronic circuits for charging batteries,
battery capacity selection and battery safety methods you can contact us by commenting
below.
Use and maintenance[

Excess heat is a main cause of battery failures, as when the electrolyte evaporates due to high
temperatures, decreasing the effective surface area of the plates exposed to the electrolyte, and
leading to sulfation. Grid corrosion rates increase with temperature.[25][26] Also low temperatures can
lead to battery failure.[27]
If the battery is discharged to the point where it can't start the engine, the engine can be jump
started via an external source of power. Once running, the engine can recharge the battery, if the
alternator and charging system are undamaged.[28]
Corrosion at the battery terminals can prevent a car from starting due to electrical resistance, which
can be prevented by the proper application of dielectric grease.[29][30]
Sulfation is when the electrodes become coated with a hard layer of lead sulfate, which weakens the
battery. Sulfation can happen when battery is not fully charged and remains discharged.[31] Sulfated
batteries should be charged slowly to prevent damage.[32]
SLI batteries (starting, lighting, and ignition) are not designed for deep discharge, and their life is
reduced when subjected to this.[33]
Starting batteries have plates designed for increased surface area and thus high instant current
capability, whereas marine (hybrid) and deep cycle types will have thicker plates and more room at
the bottom of the plates for spent plate material to gather before shorting the cell.
Car batteries using lead-antimony plates require regular topping-up with pure water to replace water
lost due to electrolysis and evaporation. By changing the alloying element to calcium, more recent
designs have reduced the rate of water loss. Modern car batteries have reduced maintenance
requirements, and may not provide caps for addition of water to the cells. Such batteries include
extra electrolyte above the plates to allow for losses during the battery life.
Some battery manufacturers include a built-in hydrometer to show the state of charge of the battery.
A positive (red) jumper cable connected to battery post. An optional hydrometer window is visible by the single
jumper clamp. The black negative jumper clamp is not shown.
The primary wear-out mechanism is the shedding of active material from the battery plates, which
accumulates at the bottom of the cells and which may eventually short-circuit the plates. This can be
substantially reduced by enclosing one set of plates in plastic separator bags, made from a
permeable material. This allows the electrolyte and ions to pass through but keeps the sludge build
up from bridging the plates. The sludge largely consists of lead sulfate, which is produced at both
electrodes.
Environmental impact[
Battery recycling of automotive batteries reduces the need for resources required for the
manufacture of new batteries, diverts toxic lead from landfills, and prevents the risk of improper
disposal. Once a lead–acid battery ceases to hold a charge, it is deemed a used lead-acid battery
(ULAB), which is classified as hazardous waste under the Basel Convention. The 12-volt car battery
is the most recycled product in the world, according to the United States Environmental Protection
Agency. In the U.S. alone, about 100 million auto batteries a year are replaced, and 99 percent of
them are turned in for recycling.[34] However, the recycling may be done incorrectly in unregulated
environments. As part of global waste trade, ULABs are shipped from industrialized countries to
developing countries for disassembly and recuperation of the contents. About 97 percent of the lead
can be recovered. Pure Earth estimates that over 12 million Third-World people are affected by lead
contamination from ULAB processing.[35]
Battery Basics
A battery converts energy stored in the chemical bonds of a material into electrical energy via a
set of oxidation/reduction (commonly abbreviated to redox) reactions. Redox reactions are
chemical reactions in which an electron is either required or produced by the chemical reaction.
For primary batteries, this is a one-way process – the chemical energy is converted to electrical
energy, but the process is not reversible and electrical energy cannot be converted to chemical
energy. This means that a primary battery cannot be recharged. Examples of primary batteries
are alkaline consumer batteries used in flashlights, etc. In a secondary battery, the conversion
process between electrical and chemical energy is reversible, – chemical energy is converted to
electrical energy, and electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy, allowing the battery
to be recharged. For photovoltaic systems, all batteries used must be rechargeable or secondary
batteries. Common examples of secondary batteries are lead acid batteries and lithium-ion
batteries used in higher power consumer electronic equipment such as computer laptops,
camcorders, mobile phones, and some digital cameras.
Function and Use of Storage

Storage is used in PV systems to increase the amount of time that the PV system can be used to
power a load. Batteries are the most common type of storage in a PV systems. However, in
specific types of systems or applications, other storage components can also be used. For
example, in water pumping systems, the amount of battery storage can be greatly reduced or
eliminated if extra water is pumped and stored in a water tank for use in cloudy periods.
In stand alone electricity generating systems, some form of storage is needed unless the load is
exactly matched to the time during which the sun is shining. (Such an exact match is rare and
limited to a few types of systems - for example powering a fan for cooling or in some cases
water pumping for irrigation). In stand alone systems, storage is needed not only to power loads
at night, but also allow a load to operate during cloudy weather. The number of days of storage
needed depends on the weather pattern at a particular location, with cloudier locations needing
more storage. In systems with a large amount of storage, and additional utility of the storage
system is that is can buffer the system against periods of low insolation, such as in winter. For
example, in telecommunications systems that require high reliability, a large battery bank can
allow high reliability without requiring the PV array to be sized to meet the worst possible
insolation conditions. In general, the larger the amount of storage included, the less sensitive the
system will be to periods of low insolation, and the more reliable the power availability will be.
The figure below shows how the power availability increase with increasing storage.
Battery state of charge over a year showing the battery discharge overnight, during cloudy
weather and seasonal variations
In systems connected to the utility grid electricity supply, storage is typically not needed. PV
power is used when the sun is shining, and at night or during periods of cloudy weather, the grid
provides the electricity. However, even in grid-connected systems, storage can be included, not
to increase the reliability of having power as in a stand-alone system but rather to increase the
value of the PV-generated electricity. In the load seen by many utility companies, an air
conditioning load occurring on summer afternoons increases the overall load that the utility must
supply. These peaks in the load are significantly more expensive to supply power for. Since the
power output from PV is typically largest during summer months, the output from the PV system
can well-matched to the peak load of the generated electricity is stored for a few hours. The use
of storage for this application is called peak shifting and is shown in the figure below.
Functions of Batteries
Batteries are a common feature in most types of PV systems that are not connected to the utility
grid. In addition to providing storage, batteries can also be used for several other functions:
Storage. Batteries store energy being produced by a given generating source, and when this
source is unavailable this energy can be used by the load. The inclusion of storage in any energy
generating system will increase the availability of the energy.
Start-up current. Batteries can provide higher currents to the load than the array alone can
provide. This is especially useful if a particular load has a high current draw on start-up. Many
motors initially have a high current requirement.
Power conditioning.Batteries can function as power conditioning. Two cases where this feature
is used is in directly coupled systems, such as water pumping, and in uninterruptable power
supplies.
In addition to the different mode of operation, batteries in photovoltaic systems also must meet
several other criteria. As reliability and low maintenance are desirable in photovoltaic systems,
the batteries must also have a long lifetime. Further, since batteries will often be a substantial
fraction of the total cost of a PV system, cost is a significant factor in batteries for PV systems.
In general, batteries manufactured for other applications are not well suited to photovoltaic
energy applications. The key characteristics of a battery in a renewable energy system are:
 efficiency of the battery

 how battery capacity and lifetime is affected by deep cycling and extended states of low
charge
 the initial and ongoing battery costs
 the maintenance requirements of the battery.
Electrolysis of Water
In battery solutions in which a component of the electrolyte is water (such as in lead acid
batteries), the possibility of electrolysis water must be taken into account when charging a
battery. The electrolysis of water, which is breaking water into oxygen and hydrogen.
According to the standard potentials, the voltage of this reaction is 1.23V. However, the
activation overpotential of this reaction is large, and hence it does not proceed at a significant
rate (and can therefore be neglected in battery charging or discharging) until voltages on the
order of 2.2V are reached in the battery. During high charging rates, the charging voltage may
exceed this voltage, and hence two reactions will proceed in such a battery: one the charging of
the battery and the second the electrolysis of water. As the electrolysis of water gives of
hydrogen and oxygen, both of which are gases, the battery is said to be gassing. The electrolysis
of water has several impacts on the battery. Firstly, it leads to water loss in the battery, which
must be replaced. Further, the evolution of hydrogen gas forms a potential safety hazard if
released in an improperly ventilated area, or can overpressure the battery case. Both of these
issues may be minimized or circumvented by preventing the gases, the battery is said to be
gassing. The electrolysis of water has several impacts on the battery. Firstly, it leads to water loss
in the battery, which must be replaced. Further, the evolution of hydrogen gas forms a potential
safety hazard if released in an improperly ventilated area, or can overpressure the battery case.
Both of these issues may be minimized or circumvented by preventing the gases, particularly the
hydrogen from escaping from the battery. Batteries using this approach are called sealed or
recombinant batteries. Despite the potential maintenance and safety problems associated with
gassing, it may also have beneficial impacts. For example, in lead-acid batteries gassing can be
used to mix the electrolyte, thus preventing regions of higher sulfuric acid concentration (which
is denser) from sinking to the bottom (an effect called stratification).
The electrolysis of water is affected by the presence of small amounts of impurities in the lead
acid batteries, and hence batteries with additives to the lead (for mechanical strength or other
practical purposes) can experience significantly different gassing voltages. Further, since the
activation energy is temperature dependent, the voltage at which gassing of a battery changes
with the battery temperature and on the details of the battery components.
Uses of batteries in PV systems

While the primary function of a storage system is to provide power when sunlight is not
available, hence increasing the fraction of time the photovoltaic system provides electricity, the
addition of batteries has numerous other advantages which mean that the batteries can be used
for multiple purposes. For small systems consisting of one or two photovoltaic modules, batteries
can act as a load-matching system. Alternately, in photovoltaic systems which contain a load
with a large initial current draw (such as experienced by an inductive load, typically represented
by a motor), the batteries can be used to provide initial start-up current. In grid-connected
systems, battery storage can be used for peak shifting, in which the power generated by the sun is
stored for several hours in order to better match when the peak load occurs.
How to Diagnose a Bad

Car Battery
Do you suspect you have a bad car battery? There’s a difference between a battery that
just got drained down too low, and a battery that can no longer hold a charge. But how do
you know? You don’t want to buy a new battery if you don’t have to! This article
explains exactly how to tell if your battery is bad or just needs a charge!
What you’ll need:
 voltmeter or cigarette lighter car battery tester
 wire brush
 sandpaper
 battery corrosion inhibitor
 anti-corrosion felt washers
 New Battery (hopefully not…)

Okay, let’s get started!
If you make purchases through links in this guide, I may earn a commission which
doesn’t cost you anything extra but helps me with hosting fees and also allows me to keep
banner ads off this site. Thank you.
Testing a Car Battery

To begin with, let’s assume your car won’t start and you are suspecting the problem is
with the battery because you have already ruled out the alternator or starter. This was the
case I had with my Honda Accord. The engine would “turn over,” but the cranking would
slow down, and the car would not start. I could jump-start the car in order to get it going,
and then it would run fine until the next time I had shut it off and went to start it again.
The battery was about 6 years old (so possibly near the end of its life), but I wanted to
verify whether the battery was actually bad or not. And whether I would have to replace
it…
Note: A car battery will last for 3 years. With many batteries lasting anywhere from 3-6
years.
Measure the Battery Voltage
The first thing to do is measure the voltage of the battery. It is important to note that the
voltage of the battery can’t tell us for sure if the battery is good or bad, but it can tell us if
the battery is low on voltage or not.
Ultimately we will need more information than just the battery voltage to tell us if the
battery is bad. You will need to know the battery’s ability to deliver amperage to the
starter motor. That being said, voltage can be a good start for diagnosing!
A fully charged car battery will have a voltage of 12.6 volts when the car is off. A
completely dead battery will have a voltage of 12.0 volts or below. A car battery voltage
should be between 13.7 and 14.7 volts when the car is running, indicating that alternator
is charging the battery and it can sustain the voltage.
The following table gives some approximate voltages associated with various charge
levels.
Charge Level (%) Battery Voltage (V)
100% > 12.6 volts
75% 12.5 volts
50% 12.3 volts
25% 12.1 volts
0% < 12.0 volts
Make sure the car is off, then go ahead and pop the hood.
Note: If you don’t have a voltmeter, or don’t want to have to go under the hood, use
a cigarette-lighter tester. These are really handy units you can keep plugged in all the
time in the cabin of your car. It allows you to measure and assess the strength of your
battery without popping the hood, or even getting out of the car!
Take your voltmeter and put it on the DC voltage setting (20 volt range). Press the
negative probe to the negative (-) post of the battery and the positive probe to the positive
(+) battery post.
In this case, the car won’t start, and the battery is reading an slightly low voltage of 12.31
v, which corresponds to a battery at about 50% charge. It is possible that there is a
problem with the battery connections.
Clean the Battery Connections
The next step is to clean the battery clamp connections. For a severely corroded battery,
you may want to remove the battery and neutralize the corrosion.
Start by removing the negative battery clamp. This Honda Accord required a 10mm
socket.
TIP: If there is a spark between the negative battery post and the clamp when you touch
it to the post, this is a strong indication that something in the car is still drawing voltage
from the battery. If this is the case, investigate what is drawing voltage, such as a dome
light or the key not turning completely ‘off’. This could be the culprit that is draining
your battery!
Then remove the positive battery clamp. Tuck these away so that they don’t accidentally
come into contact with the battery post again while you are cleaning them.
Take a wire brush and use it to scrape off the corrosion and build up on both battery
posts.
Note: Don’t touch both battery posts at the same time with any conductive object as it
will short the battery and cause a spark.
This is a photo of a well-cleaned battery post.

Next, scrape any corrosion, rust or build-up off of the battery clamp. This could be
inhibiting the connection to the battery. Use a screwdriver or similar tool to scrape off the
build-up.
Use some sandpaper to get the rest of the corrosion off and score the surface a bit for a
nice connection.
Note: Use gloves or wash your hands after performing these steps.
The following photo shows a cleaned battery clamp.

If you have some available, use some battery corrosion inhibitor and spray it on the
battery post.
This is a photo of the battery post dosed with anti-corrosion spray.

Next, put on some anti-corrosion felt washers.
Then put the positive battery clamp back on.

Tighten up the battery clamp. For this Honda Accord it was a 10mm socket.
Put on and tighten up the negative battery terminal clamp.

This is the battery after the posts and clamps have been cleaned up and reconnected.
I then jump started the car and drove it for 45 minutes or so. I then checked the the
battery voltage while the car was running. Recall that car battery voltage should be
between 13.7 and 14.7 volts when the car is running, indicating that alternator is charging
the battery and it can sustain the voltage.
In this case, the voltage was 14.39 volts, perfectly in range, indicating that the alternator
and battery connections appear to be okay.
I then turned off the car and immediately attempted to start it. The car turned over a
couple times then slowly ground to a halt. This is the classic case of a car battery that can
no longer hold a charge. So I took this as the final nail in the coffin that I had to replace
the battery.
I went to a Fleet Farm and traded in the old battery and bought a new one. After putting it
in the car, I decided to check the voltage just for the fun of it.
As you can see below, the voltage of the battery was actually lower than the bad battery!
12.26v vs 12.31v…
With the car running, the voltage was 14.37 volts (compared to 14.39v!).
This is a good lesson that looking only at voltage is not a true indicator as to whether the
battery is good or not…
For reference, here I list the voltages with the vehicle both off and running for several
different vehicles. In this case, the “good” designation indicates that the vehicle is
starting and operating normally. The “bad” designation refers to the values of the Accord
referenced in this article. Notice that the voltages vary greatly. Another indicator that
voltage is not necessarily the only parameter that matters when determining the condition
of a car battery.
Battery Battery Age Voltage Voltage

Year Vehicle
Condition (months) (Vehicle Off) (Running)
Honda
2004 Good 3 12.26 14.37
Accord
Dodge W-
1977 Good 4 12.54 14.52
200
Toyota
2006 Good — 12.50 14.26
Sienna
Toyota
2004 Good 63 12.35 14.00
Corolla
Honda
2004 Bad 68 12.31 14.39
Accord
So, these were the tests I went through to determine that the battery was bad and needed
to be replaced…
Conclusion
To recap, these were the deciding or contributing factors in determining that the battery
was bad:
1. The engine would “turn over,” but the cranking would slow down, and the car
would not start.
2. Cleaning the battery posts and connections and reconnecting them then charging
the battery did not help.
3. The voltage of the battery with the car off was at about 50% charge (12.3 v).
4. The voltage of the battery with the car running was 14.39 volts, indicating that the
alternator was working.
5. After driving the vehicle on the highway for 45 minutes, then turning it off and
attempting to re-start it, the engine turned over several times then ground to a halt
and did not start.
Thanks for reading this post! I appreciate you as a reader, it really means a lot! Is there
anything I missed? Have you had a similar experience; how did you determine the battery
had finally given up the ghost? Let me know in the comments section at the end of the
page!
Thanks!
Richard
Do you suspect you have a bad car battery? There’s a difference between a battery that
just got drained down too low, and a battery that can no longer hold a charge. But how do
you know? You don’t want to buy a new battery if you don’t have to! This article
explains exactly how to tell if your battery is bad or just needs a charge!
What you’ll need:
 voltmeter or cigarette lighter car battery tester
 wire brush
 sand paper
 battery corrosion inhibitor
 anti-corrosion felt washers
 New Battery (hopefully not…)
In this case, the car won’t start, and the battery is reading an slightly low voltage of 12.31
v, which corresponds to a battery at about 50% charge. It is possible that there is a
problem with the battery connections.
Clean the Battery Connections
The next step is to clean the battery clamp connections. For a severely corroded battery,
you may want to remove the battery and neutralize the corrosion.
Start by removing the negative battery clamp. This Honda Accord required a 10mm
socket.
TIP: If there is a spark between the negative battery post and the clamp when you touch
it to the post, this is a strong indication that something in the car is still drawing voltage
from the battery. If this is the case, investigate what is drawing voltage, such as a dome
light or the key not turning completely ‘off’. This could be the culprit that is draining
your battery!
Then remove the positive battery clamp. Tuck these away so that they don’t accidentally
come into contact with the battery post again while you are cleaning them.
Take a wire brush and use it to scrape off the corrosion and build up on both battery
posts.
Note: Don’t touch both battery posts at the same time with any conductive object as it
will short the battery and cause a spark.
This is a photo of a well-cleaned battery post.
Next, scrape any corrosion, rust or build-up off of the battery clamp. This could be
inhibiting the connection to the battery. Use a screwdriver or similar tool to scrape off the
build-up.
Use some sandpaper to get the rest of the corrosion off and score the surface a bit for a
nice connection.
Note: Use gloves or wash your hands after performing these steps.
The following photo shows a cleaned battery clamp.
If you have some available, use some battery corrosion inhibitor and spray it on the
battery post.
This is a photo of the battery post dosed with anti-corrosion spray.
Next, put on some anti-corrosion felt washers.

Then put the positive battery clamp back on.
Tighten up the battery clamp. For this Honda Accord it was a 10mm socket.
Put on and tighten up the negative battery terminal clamp.
This is the battery after the posts and clamps have been cleaned up and reconnected.
I then jump started the car and drove it for 45 minutes or so. I then checked the the
battery voltage while the car was running. Recall that car battery voltage should be
between 13.7 and 14.7 volts when the car is running, indicating that alternator is charging
the battery and it can sustain the voltage.
In this case, the voltage was 14.39 volts, perfectly in range, indicating that the alternator
and battery connections appear to be okay.
I then turned off the car and immediately attempted to start it. The car turned over a
couple times then slowly ground to a halt. This is the classic case of a car battery that can
no longer hold a charge. So I took this as the final nail in the coffin that I had to replace
the battery.
I went to a Fleet Farm and traded in the old battery and bought a new one. After putting it
in the car, I decided to check the voltage just for the fun of it.
As you can see below, the voltage of the battery was actually lower than the bad battery!
12.26v vs 12.31v…
With the car running, the voltage was 14.37 volts (compared to 14.39v!).
This is a good lesson that looking only at voltage is not a true indicator as to whether the
battery is good or not…
For reference, here I list the voltages with the vehicle both off and running for several
different vehicles. In this case, the “good” designation indicates that the vehicle is
starting and operating normally. The “bad” designation refers to the values of the Accord
referenced in this article. Notice that the voltages vary greatly. Another indicator that
voltage is not necessarily the only parameter that matters when determining the condition
of a car battery.
Battery Battery Age Voltage Voltage

Year Vehicle
Condition (months) (Vehicle Off) (Running)
Honda
2004 Good 3 12.26 14.37
Accord
Dodge W-
1977 Good 4 12.54 14.52
200
Toyota
2006 Good — 12.50 14.26
Sienna
Toyota
2004 Good 63 12.35 14.00
Corolla
Honda
2004 Bad 68 12.31 14.39
Accord
So, these were the tests I went through to determine that the battery was bad and needed
to be replaced…
Conclusion
To recap, these were the deciding or contributing factors in determining that the battery
was bad:
1. The engine would “turn over,” but the cranking would slow down, and the car
would not start.
2. Cleaning the battery posts and connections and reconnecting them then charging
the battery did not help.
3. The voltage of the battery with the car off was at about 50% charge (12.3 v).
4. The voltage of the battery with the car running was 14.39 volts, indicating that the
alternator was working.
5. After driving the vehicle on the highway for 45 minutes, then turning it off and
attempting to re-start it, the engine turned over several times then ground to a halt
and did not start.

Automotive battery functions and types

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BAHIR DAR POLY TECHNIC COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOYIVE TECHNOLOGY

ASSESSMENT OF LEAD ACID BATTEREY

A typical 12 V, 40 Ah lead-acid car battery

Functions of a Car Battery

It is important to note that a battery’s available power increases in warmer temperatures

4. Works With The Alternator to Power Electronics

Battery in modern cars

Electric and hybrid cars ]

Amp hours (Ah)[]

Cranking amperages (CCA, CA, MCA, HCA)[

Lead Acid Batteries

Operation of Lead Acid Batteries

The overall chemical reaction is:

At the negative terminal the charge and discharge reactions are:

At the positive terminal the charge and discharge reactions are:

Characteristics of Lead Acid Batteries

Figure: Relationship between battery capacity, temperature and discharge rate.

 the charging/discharging regime which the battery has experienced

Figure: Impact of charging regime of battery capacity.

 changes to the electrode composition and geometry

Special Considerations for Lead Acid

Specific Gravity (SG)

Special Considerations for Gelled, Sealed Lead Acid Batteries

 they can be deep cycled while retaining battery life

Failure Modes for Lead Acid Batteries

The gradual decline in capacity may be worsened by inappropriate operation, particularly by

 the battery terminals are not corroded

Regular Inspection and Maintenance

Use the following as a guide when examining your battery:

Add distilled water to the lead-acid battery

1. Check the battery water level with a level indicator

3. Install an automatic battery water filler system

Before attempting to charge a battery with an external battery charger, it is important to

● Keep open flames and sparks away from the battery.

● Keep vent caps in place.

● Follow the battery charger manufacturer’s instructions to avoid overheating.

Selecting the Correct Charger

Lead-acid batteries should be charged in 3 stages; constant current (boost), constant

Charging Voltage (for manual chargers)

Auxiliary Charge Voltage by Battery Type

Type Absorption Charging Float Charging

Charging Current (for manual chargers)

● Discharged (flat) Batteries

Early Warning Signs

Battery Disposal and Recycling

Electrode Materials and Configuration

Types of Lead Acid Batteries

Batteries for PV or remote area power supplies (RAPS)

Lead Acid Battery Types – 5 common battery types

Potential Problems with Lead Acid Batteries

 changes to the electrode composition and geometry

Change in form of materials

A change in volume will also usually be detrimental in battery operation.

Electrolyte Volume and Concentration

Captive Electrolyte Lead Acid Batteries

Voltage of lead acid battery upon charging.

Know About the Steps of Battery

Manufacturing Process of Car

Pulping of active materials – mixing

Applying the stirred slurry to the copper foil – coating

Finishing the prototype of the battery cell – winding

Removing moisture and injecting electrolyte – baking and injecting