Control Systems EE303

Lecture Notes 1

What are Control Systems?

The study and design of automatic Control Systems, a field known as control engineering, has
become important in modern technical society. From devices as simple as a toaster or a toilet, to
complex machines like space shuttles and power steering, control engineering is a part of our
everyday life.

Terms in control engineering

System

A system is a collection, set, or arrangement of elements (Subsystem).

Subsystem

A subsystem is part of a system.

-any system may be considered as a subsystem of a larger system

Element (component)

An element is the smallest part of a system that can be treated as a whole (entity).

Block

A block is a set of elements that can be grouped together, with overall characteristics described
by an input/ output relationship.

Control

Control means to regulate, direct, or govern.

Automatic

Automatic implies self-action without any human intervention

Control System

A control system is a group of physical components arranged to control themselves or another

system
 or

A control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages, commands, directs or
regulates the behaviour of other device(s) or system(s) to achieve desire results.

- In other words the definition of control system can be rewritten as: A control system is a
system, which controls other systems.

Manual Control System

A manual control system is a control system regulated through human intervention

Open loop control system

An open loop control system is a control system in which the control (regulating action) is
independent of the output.

Closed loop control

A closed loop control system is a control system in which the control (regulating) action is
influenced by the output.

Feedback

A system in which the value of some output quantity is controlled by feeding back the value of
the controlled quantity and using it to manipulate the input quantity.

Regulator System

A regulator system is a control system where the reference(input) is normally fixed.

Servomechanism(Follower system)

A servomechanism(Follower system) is a control system where the reference(input) varies

continuously and the system operates so that the output follows the input.

Single input Single output (SISO) System

A Single input- single output (SISO) system is a system where only one parameter is entered as
input and only one parameter represents the output.
• A home heating (or cooling ) system involves a SISO system. A single parameter, the desired
room temperature, is entered as the reference variable and results in only one controlled
(output) variable: actual room temperature.

Multiple Input, Multiple Output (MIMO) System (multivariable control systems)

A Multiple Input, Multiple Output (MIMO) System is a system where several parameters may
be entered as input and output is represented by multiple variables

input output

• A typical home heating system is a SISO system where a single parameter, room temperature
is monitored and controlled. If you add humidity control to the home heating system
(environmental control system) with both temperature and humidity being monitored and
controlled, the system becomes a MIMO type.

• A chemical process plant typically has several reference inputs and requires the control of
several output variables.

Linear system

A linear system is a system where input/output relationships maybe represented by a linear

differential equation

• Ohm’s law assumes a linear relationship between the voltage drop across a resistor and the
current flow through it. It is certainly valid over a wide range of currents and voltages but
does not hold for very high current flows through a metal wire.

Time Invariant System

A time Invariant system is a system described by a differential equation with constant

coefficients

• A spring mass and damper system represents a time-invariant system if the characteristics of
all three components do not change with time

Time Variant Systems

A time variant system is a system described by a differential equation with variable coefficients.

A rocket burning fuel represents a time-variant system. The mass of the rocket does not remain
constant during a flight but changes as fuel is burned. Thus the differential equation describing
the rocket dynamics at the time of liftoff does not properly represent the system after a
significant amount of fuel has been burned.

Controller

A controller is a control system that manages the behavior of another device or system.

Compensator

A Compensator is a control system that regulates another system, usually by conditioning the
input or the output to that system. Compensators are typically employed to correct a single
design flaw, with the intention of affecting other aspects of the design in a minimal manner.

Classical and Modern Control Engineering

There are essentially two methods to approach the problem of designing a new control system:
the Classical Approach, and the Modern Approach.

Classical and Modern control methodologies are named in a misleading way, because the group
of techniques called "Classical" were actually developed later than the techniques labeled
"Modern". However, in terms of developing control systems, Modern methods have been used to
great effect more recently, while the Classical methods have been gradually falling out of favor.
Most recently, it has been shown that Classical and Modern methods can be combined to
highlight their respective strengths and weaknesses.

Classical Methods, which this book will consider first, are methods involving the Laplace
Transform domain. Physical systems are modeled in the so-called "time domain", where the
response of a given system is a function of the various inputs, the previous system values, and
time. As time progresses, the state of the system and its response change. However, time domain
models for systems are frequently modeled using high-order differential equations which can
become impossibly difficult for humans to solve and some of which can even become impossible
for modern computer systems to solve efficiently. To counteract this problem integral transforms,
such as the Laplace Transform and the Fourier Transform, can be employed to change an
Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) in the time domain into a regular algebraic polynomial in
the transform domain. Once a given system has been converted into the transform domain it can
be manipulated with greater ease and analyzed quickly by humans and computers alike.

ODE mathematics, converts the differential equations into a system of lower-order time domain
equations called State Equations, which can then be manipulated using techniques from linear
algebra. This book will consider Modern Methods second. A third distinction that is frequently
made in the realm of control systems is to divide analog methods (classical and modern,
described above) from digital methods. Digital Control Methods were designed to try and
incorporate the emerging power of computer systems into previous control methodologies. A
special transform, known as the Z-Transform, was developed that can adequately describe
digital systems, but at the same time can be converted (with some effort) into the Laplace
domain. Once in the Laplace domain, the digital system can be manipulated and analyzed in a
very similar manner to Classical analog systems. For this reason, this book will not make a hard
and fast distinction between Analog and Digital systems, and instead will attempt to study both
paradigms in parallel.

Branches of Control Engineering

Here we are going to give a brief listing of the various different methodologies within the sphere
of control engineering. Oftentimes, the lines between these methodologies are blurred, or even
erased completely.

Classical Controls

Control methodologies where the ODEs that describe a system are transformed using the Laplace,
Fourier, or Z Transforms, and manipulated in the transform domain.

Modern Controls

Methods where high-order differential equations are broken into a system of first-order equations.
The input, output, and internal states of the system are described by vectors called "state
variables".

Robust Control

Control methodologies where arbitrary outside noise/disturbances are accounted for, as well as
internal inaccuracies caused by the heat of the system itself, and the environment.

Optimal Control

In a system, performance metrics are identified, and arranged into a "cost function". The cost
function is minimized to create an operational system with the lowest cost.

Adaptive Control

In adaptive control, the control changes its response characteristics over time to better control the
system.

Nonlinear Control

The youngest branch of control engineering, nonlinear control encompasses systems that cannot
be described by linear equations or ODEs, and for which there is often very little supporting
theory available.
Game Theory

Game Theory is a close relative of control theory, and especially robust control and optimal
control theories. In game theory, the external disturbances are not considered to be random noise
processes, but instead are considered to be "opponents". Each player has a cost function that they
attempt to minimize, and that their opponents attempt to maximize.

Functioning of a Control System

• All Control systems, whether simple or complex function in a very similar manner.

• The controller(brain of the control system) compares the actual value of the controlled
variable to the desired value and tries to manipulate the process in such a fashion the
controlled variable approaches the desired value.

• Operation of a control system is no different than tasks routinely carried out by humans.
Consider the task of reaching for a glass on a table.

• The objective of the task is fairly simple: the hand has to be moved so that it touches the
glass. The entire process can be summarised as follows:

Reaching for a glass

• Reference input (Objective): Reach for the glass

• Controller (Human brain): look at the glass (feedback) and determine(estimate) the
distance between the hand and the glass.

• Manipulate (final control element): Move the arm toward the glass
 • Feedback (eye): Get a new estimate of the distance between the hand and the glass.

• Loop (repeat): Move the arm until feedback (eye) indicates that the hand has reached the
glass.

Information flow: reaching for a glass

The visual feedback is the single most important part of the whole process. Without visual
feedback (or auditory or any other kind), it is not possible to reach for the glass.

Movement of the human hand is very imprecise. It cannot move through a precise distance on
command (desire), but the use of (visual) feedback allows the hand movement to be very
precisely controlled.

Block Diagrams
A Control System consists of a number of components connected to perform a desired function.
These components vary in nature and may be electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, or mechanical.
Control system theory is not concerned with the physical nature of components and or the type of
energy exchange that may be taking place. Once a component (system or subsystem) is reduced
to a mathematical model, it can be represented as a black box (bock), with the component
operation described by the mathematical function. This process is repeated for all the parts of the
system, so the system is reduced to a number of interconnected black boxes. These
interconnected blocks can be combined into a single block (mathematical expression). This
overall mathematical expression contains all the necessary information about the performance of
the original control system. This greatly simplifies the analysis and design process, where the
signal flow between these components is of most concern. Block diagrams also lend themselves
to easier simulation using operational amplifiers as well as digital computers.

Definition of a block diagram

In a block diagram representation , every component (or subsystem) is represented as a
rectangular block containing one input and one output. All the block are connected by arrows
representing the signal flow path. The operation of the component is described by the
mathematical function enclosed within the block.

Input Output
Function

Example 2.1

An operational amplifier has a voltage gain of 10. Figure 2.2 is a block diagram representation of
this amplifier.

Input Output
10

Figure 2.2

A complete amplifier has a number of passive components associated with it and it also requires
a power supply for operation. The block diagram does not provide that information. Its sole
purpose is to describe the relationship between input and output signals.

Example 2.2

Figure 2.3 represents a differentiator function. This differentiator maybe mechanical, fluidic or
electronic in nature, but this information is not available from the block diagram

Input Output
d/dt

Figure 2.3
Summing point

The summing point is the block used to represent the addition and/or subtraction of signals. It is
shown as a small circle connected to arrows representing signal lines. Incoming lines are further
identified with either a positive or negative sign, indicating the addition or subtraction process.
Output of a summing point is again a signal, shown with an outgoing arrow. No sign is attached
to this outgoing signal. It is also known as a summing junction or summing point.

+
a c

c=a-b

Take off point

A takeoff point is used when a signal needs to be routed to two or more blocks. It can be thought
of as an electrical junction with voltage being sent to all connected terminals. It is represented as
a dot (solid circle) with arrows away from it

a a

b=a

Block diagram representation of an equation

Algebraic equations and mathematical functions can be very conveniently represented using
block diagrams.

a. Y = mx + c

+
x m y
+
c
b. z = 1.2x -10y + 25
25

1.2 +
x z
+ -

y 10

Block Diagram representation of Control Systems

A pictorial diagram of a process generally conveys information about the physical components
used in the process and does not provide information about the interaction of control signals. For
the purpose of analysis it is vital the way control information is being transferred from one
component to another. Once components are replaced by equivalent blocks and these blocks are
connected through signal-flow lines. The pictorial view has been transformed into an equivalent
block diagram.

Figure 2.7 level control system

Figure 2.7 shows the main components of a level control system. Before this pictorial can be
transformed into a block diagram, an understanding of system operation and components
interaction need to be developed. Two basic questions can be asked.

1. What is being controlled?

The main objective of this control system is to maintain (control) the fluid level (controlled
variable) in the tank (process, or plant) at the desired value (set point, or reference).

2. How is it being controlled?

Fluid level in the tank cannot be directly controlled. It can be controlled only by changing
(manipulating) the water flow (manipulated variable) into the tank.

Control system operation

The operator sets the desired level at the controller panel (SP).

The level transducer provides a signal proportional to the actual level in the tank (MV).

The difference between SP and MV generates an error signal (E = SP – MV).

If the error signal is positive, then it indicates to the controller that actual level is lower than
desired level and an actuating signal is generated, which opens the flow control valve (FCE- final
control element) to allow a higher flow rate into the tank. On the other hand, if the actual level is
higher than the desired level, then the valve opening is reduced to inflow rate.

If the control system has been set up (tuned) properly, then the level will reach the desired value.

The control cycle continues to monitor the fluid level, and if it changes due to variation in
outflow rate (which is externally controlled), then the controller will manipulate the flow rate to
maintain the fluid level.

Once a clear-cut understanding of control system operation is developed, a block diagram

representation can be prepared (figure 2.8).
 Figure 2.8 Block diagram representation of a level control system

Transfer functions
In control theory functions called transfer functions are commonly used to characterize the input-
output relationship of components or systems that can be described by linear, time-invariant
differential equations.

Definition: Transfer function

The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant differential equation is defined as the ratio of the
laplace transform of the output(response function) to the laplace transform of the input(driving
function) under the assumption that all the initial conditions are zero.
Output L Output
Transfer function TF = or
Input L Input

Input Output
TF

System

Transfer function of a closed loop system

Closed loop control systems can be divided into two categories, based upon the nature of the
feedback signal.
Forward path

+ E
R EG
C
Input G
- Output
CH

Feedback path

Figure 2.10 Negative feedback closed loop system

Negative feedback closed-loop system

Figure 2.10 shows one of the simplest forms of a negative feedback closed loop control system.
It has one block in the forward path and one block in the feedback path. Practically, all control
systems can be reduced to this simplified form. Block G represents the gain of all the blocks in
the forward path, and block H represents the gain of all the blocks in the feedback path. Our
objective is to reduce this control system to just a single block

The following relationships can be determined from the block diagram:

Feedback signal = output x feedback path gain = CH (2.1)

Error signal E = input – feedback signal = R – CH (2.2)

Output signal C = error signal x forward path gain = EG (2.3)

Substituting the value of the error signal from (2.2) to (2.3)

Output C = (R - CH) x G

C = RG – CGH

C + CGH = RG

C(1 + GH) = RG

𝐶 𝐺
=
𝑅 1 + 𝐺𝐻
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡 𝑕 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1+𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 ×𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝐶 𝐺
𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐹 =
𝑅 1 + 𝐺𝐻

𝐺
R 1 + 𝐺𝐻 C

Figure 2.11 reduced form of a closed loop control system

Some observation can be drawn from this relationship:

The control system transfer function is a property of the system.

The transfer function is dependent only upon its internal structure and components.

The transfer function is independent of the input applied to the System.

When an input signal is applied to a closed loop control system, an output is generated, which is
dependent not only upon the input, but also upon the system transfer function.

Positive feedback closed loop System

Forward path

+ E
R EG
C
Input G
+ Output
CH

Feedback path

Figure 2.12 positive feedback closed-loop system.

Figure 2.12 shows a simple positive feedback closed loop control system. It again has one block
in the forward path and one block in the feedback path. The transfer function of the positive-
feedback closed loop control system can be similarly determined and is given as

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑕 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
1 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝐶 𝐺
=
𝑅 1 − 𝐺𝐻
Output C = closed loop transfer function x input R
 𝐶 𝐺
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐹 =
𝑅 1 − 𝐺𝐻

Comparison of Positive-feedback and Negative-Feedback systems

Negative feedback closed loop system

 The transfer function (CLTF) is generally less than 1.

 The CLTF remains a finite value as long as the denominator is less than zero.
 It is commonly used in control systems.

Positive –feedback closed loop System

 The CLTF tends to be very large as GH (loop gain) approaches 1.

 It is generally restricted to specialized applications, such as oscillators.

Unity Feedback Systems

If feedback gain is unity (H = 1), the control system block diagram can be further simplified
(figure 2.14). In this case, the feedback signal reaching the summing point is the same as the
controlled output. A number of control input analysis techniques are based upon the use of a
unity feedback configuration.

𝐺
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 =
1 + 𝐺𝐻
When the feedback is unity (H = 1)

𝐺
𝑇𝐹 =
1+𝐺

+ E
R C
Input G
- Output
C

Figure 2.14 Unity gain feedback System

Conversion to a Unity feedback system

Any closed-loop system can be converted into an equivalent unity feedback system (Figure 2.15).
The transfer function of a normal negative feedback system with forward gain, G and feedback
gain, H is given as

𝐺𝐻
𝑇𝐹 =
1 + 𝐺𝐻
Multiplying and dividing by feedback gain H gives

1 𝐺
𝑇𝐹 =
𝐻 1 + 𝐺𝐻

1 𝐺′
𝑇𝐹 = 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐺 ′ = 𝐺𝐻
𝐻 1 + 𝐺′

R + E
1/H R’
Input C
G’
- Output

Figure 2.15 Equivalent unity gain feedback system

Block Diagram Simplification

Even a simple closed loop control system may contain a large number of blocks and may involve
multiple feedback (or feedforward) paths. It is necessary to reduce the block diagram to a
simplified form before an overall transfer function can be obtained. The following set of rules
aids in the simplification of block diagrams.

Block Diagram Reduction Rules

Table 1: Block Diagram Reduction Rules

Table 2: Basic rules with block diagram transformation

Exercise 3.9

Consider the system shown in figure 3.9a. Simplify the diagram.

Figure 3.9

Example 3.10

Simplify the following block diagram