FEEDBACK

AND CONTROL
SYSTEMS

REZEL A. STO. TOMAS, ECE 1

Chapter 1
Introduction to feedback control systems
1.1 Control Systems
A system is an arrangement, set, or collection of things connected or related in such a manner as to form an entirety or
whole. It can also be an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner as to form and/or
act as an entire unit.

The word control is usually taken to mean regulate, direct, or command.

Consequently, a control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner as to
command, direct, or regulate itself or another system. As illustrated in Figure 1.1, control system consists of subsystems
and processes (or plants) assembled for the purpose of obtaining a desired output with desired performance, given a
specified input.

With interest for analysis or design purposes, control systems include not only those manufactured by humans, but those
that normally exist in nature, and control systems with both manufactured and natural components.

Figure 1.1 Simplified description of a control system

The input is the stimulus, excitation or command applied to a control system, typically from an external energy source,
usually in order to produce a specified response from the control system.

The output is the actual response obtained from a control system. It may or may not be equal to the specified response
implied by the input.

1.2 Examples of control systems:

Example 1: An electric switch is a manufactured control system, controlling the flow of electricity. By definition, the
apparatus or person flipping the switch is not a part of this control system.
Flipping the switch may be considered as the input that can be in one of two states, on or off. The flow or non-flow (two
states) of electricity is the output.
The electric switch is one of the simplest control systems.

Example 2: The simple act of pointing at an object with a finger requires a biological control system consisting chiefly of
the eyes, the arm, hand and finger, and the brain. The input is the precise direction of the object (moving or not) with
respect to some reference, and the output is the actual pointed direction with respect to the same reference.

Example 3: The control system consisting of a person driving an automobile has components which are clearly both
manufactured and biological. The driver wants to keep the automobile in the appropriate lane of the roadway. He or she
accomplishes this by constantly watching the direction of the automobile with respect to the direction of the road. In this
case, the direction or heading of the road, represented by the painted guide line or lines on either side of the lane may
be considered as the input. The heading of the automobile is the output of the system. The driver controls this output by
constantly measuring it with his or her eyes and brain, and correcting it with his or her hands on the steering wheel. The
major components of this control system are the driver’s hands, eyes and brain, and the vehicle.
Example 4: Consider an elevator moving from first to fourth floor. When the fourth-floor button is pressed on the first
floor, the elevator rises to the fourth floor with a speed and floor-leveling accuracy designed for passenger comfort. The
push of the fourth-floor button is an input that represents our desired output.
Because of control systems, elevators carry us quickly to our destination, automatically stopping at the right floor.

REZEL A. STO. TOMAS, ECE 2

1.3 System Configurations
Open-Loop Systems
An open-loop control system is one in which the control action is independent of the output.

A generic open-loop system is shown in Figure 1.2(a).

The input transducer converts the form of the input to that used by the controller.

The controller drives a process or a plant.

The input is sometimes called the reference, while the output can be called the controlled variable.

Other signals, such as disturbances, are shown added to the controller and process outputs via summing junctions, which
yield the algebraic sum of their input signals using associated signs.

It is important to note that, open-loop systems do not monitor or correct for disturbances and are simply commanded by
the input; however, they are simpler and less expensive than closed-loop systems.

Example 5: Toasters are open-loop systems, as anyone with burnt toast can attest. The controlled variable (output) of a
toaster is the color of the toast. The device is designed with the assumption that the toast will be darker the longer it is
subjected to heat. The toaster does not measure the color of the toast; it does not correct for the fact that the toast is
rye, white, or sourdough, nor does it correct for the fact that toast comes in different thicknesses.

Other examples of open-loop systems are mechanical systems consisting of a mass, spring, and damper with a constant
force positioning the mass. The greater the force, the greater the displacement. Again, the system position will change
with a disturbance, such as an additional force, and the system will not detect or correct for the disturbance.

Figure 1.2 Block diagrams of control systems: (a) open-loop system; (b) closed-loop system

Closed-Loop(Feedback Control) Systems

A closed-loop control system is one in which the control action is somehow dependent on the output. It is illustrated in
Figure 1.2(b). An output transducer, or sensor, measures the output response and converts it into the form used by the
controller.

The first summing junction algebraically adds the signal from the input to the signal from the output, which arrives via the
feedback path. Actuating signal results when the output signal is subtracted from the input signal. However, in systems
where both the input and output transducers have unity gain (that is, the transducer amplifies its input by 1), the actuating
signal’s value is equal to the actual difference between the input and the output. Under this condition, the actuating signal
is called the error.

REZEL A. STO. TOMAS, ECE 3

Unlike open-loop systems, closed-loop systems may overcome sensitivity to disturbances and inability to correct for these
disturbances.

Closed-loop systems monitor the output and compare it to the input. If an error is detected, the system corrects the
output and hence corrects the effects of disturbances.

Example 6: An autopilot mechanism and the airplane it controls is a closed-loop (feedback) control system. Its purpose is
to maintain a specified airplane heading, despite atmospheric changes. It performs this task by continuously measuring
the actual airplane heading, and automatically adjusting the airplane control surfaces (rudder, ailerons, etc.) so as to bring
the actual airplane heading into correspondence with the specified heading. The human pilot or operator who presets the
autopilot is not part of the control system.

Feedback is that property of a closed-loop system which permits the output (or some other controlled variable) to be
compared with the input to the system (or an input to some other internally situated component or subsystem) so that
the appropriate control action may be formed as some function of the output and input.

Characteristics of feedback:
The presence of feedback typically imparts the following properties to a system.
1. Increased accuracy.
2. Tendency toward oscillation or instability.
3. Reduced sensitivity of the ratio of output to input to variations in system parameters and other characteristics.
4. Reduced effects of nonlinearities.
5. Reduced effects of external disturbances or noise.
6. Increased bandwidth. The bandwidth of a system is a frequency response measure of how well the system responds to
(or filters) variations (or frequencies) in the input signal.

1.3 Analog and Digital Control Systems

The signals in a control system, for example, the input and the output waveforms, are typically functions of some
independent variable, usually time, denoted t.

A signal dependent on a continuum of values of the independent variable t is called a continuous-time signal or, more
generally, a continuous-data signal or (less frequently) an analog signal.

A signal defined at, or of interest at, only discrete (distinct) instants of the independent variable t (upon which it depends)
is called a discrete-time, a discrete-data, a sampled-data, or a digital signal.

Control systems can be classified according to the types of signals they process: continuous-time (analog), discrete-time
(digital), or a combination of both (hybrid).

Continuous-time control systems, also called continuous-data control systems, or analog control systems, contain or
process only continuous-time (analog) signals and components.

Discrete-time control systems, also called discrete-data control systems, or sampled-data control systems, have discrete-
time signals or components at one or more points in the system.

1.4 Analysis and Design Objectives

Analysis is the process by which a system’s performance is determined, that is, to determine if the system’s transient
response and steady-state error meet the desired specifications.

Design is the process by which a system’s performance is created or changed. If a system’s transient response and steady-
state error do not meet the specifications, we change parameters or add additional components to meet the
specifications.

Control systems analysis and design focuses on three primary objectives:

1. Producing the desired transient response
Transient response is important because it affects the speed of the system and influences human patience and
comfort, not to mention mechanical stress.

2. Reducing steady-state errors

Steady-state response determines the accuracy of the control system; it governs how closely the output matches the
desired response.

REZEL A. STO. TOMAS, ECE 4

 Steady-state errors affects the accuracy of the steady-state response. Hence, we define steady-state errors
quantitatively, analyze a system’s steady-state error, and then design corrective action to reduce the steady-state
error.

3. Achieving stability
A system must be stable in order to produce the proper transient and steady-state response.
The total response of a system is the sum of the natural response and the forced response.
Natural response describes the way the system dissipates or acquires energy. The form or nature of this response is
dependent only on the system, not the input. On the other hand, the form or nature of the forced response is
dependent on the input.
For a control system to be useful, the natural response must (1) eventually approach zero, thus leaving only the forced
response, or (2) oscillate. In some systems, the natural response is so much greater than the forced response that the
system is no longer controlled. This condition, called instability, could lead to self-destruction of the physical device if
limit stops are not part of the design.

1.5 The Design Process

The design of a control system follows these steps:
Step 1 Determine a physical system and specifications from requirements.

Step 2 Draw a functional block diagram.

Step 3 Represent the physical system as a schematic.

Step 4 Use the schematic to obtain a mathematical model, such as a block diagram.

Step 5 Reduce the block diagram.

Step 6 Analyze and design the system to meet specified requirements and specifications that include stability,
transient response, and steady-state performance.
Table 1.1 shows test waveforms used in control systems.

REZEL A. STO. TOMAS, ECE 5

Control System Models or Representations:
To solve a control systems problem, we must put the specifications or description of the system configuration and its
components into a form amenable to analysis or design.

Three basic representations (models) of components and systems are used extensively in the study of control systems:
1. Mathematical models, in the form of differential equations, difference equations, and/or other mathematical
relations, for example, Laplace- and z-transforms
2. Block diagrams
3. Signal flow graphs

REZEL A. STO. TOMAS, ECE 6

Chapter 2
Control Systems Terminology
Block Diagrams: Fundamentals
A block diagram is a shorthand, pictorial representation of the cause-and-effect relationship between the input and
output of a physical system. It provides a convenient and useful method for characterizing the ‘functional relationships
among the various components of a control system. System components are alternatively called elements of the system.
The simplest form of the block diagram is the single block, with one input and one output, as shown in Fig. 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Single block

Block Diagrams of Continuous (Analog) Feedback Control Systems

The basic configuration of a simple closed-loop (feedback) control system with a single input and a single output
(abbreviated SISO) is illustrated in Fig. 2.2(similar to Figure 1.2(b)) for a system with continuous signals only.

Figure 2.2

Terminology of the Closed-Loop Block Diagram

The plant (or process, or controlled system) g2 is the system, subsystem, process, or object controlled by the feedback
control system.

The controlled output c is the output variable of the plant, under the control of the feedback control system.

The forward path is the transmission path from the summing point to the controlled output c.

The feedforward (control) elements g1 are the components of the forward path that generate the control signal u or m
applied to the plant. Note: Feedforward elements typically include controller(s), compensator(s) (or equalization
elements), and/or amplifiers.

The control signal u (or manipulated variable m) is the output signal of the feedforward elements g1 applied as input to
the plant g2.

The feedback path is the transmission path from the controlled output c back to the summing point.

REZEL A. STO. TOMAS, ECE 7

The feedback elements h establish the functional relationship between the controlled output c and the primary feedback
signal b. Note: Feedback elements typically include sensors of the controlled output c, compensators, and/or controller
elements.
The reference input r is an external signal applied to the feedback control system, usually at the first summing point, in
order to command a specified action of the plant. It usually represents ideal (or desired) plant output behavior.

The primary feedback signal b is a function of the controlled output c, algebraically summed with the reference input r to
obtain the actuating (error) signal e, that is, 𝑟 ± 𝑏 = 𝑒. Note: An open-loop system has no primary feedback signal.

The actuating (or error) signal is the reference input signal r plus or minus the primary feedback signal b. The control
action is generated by the actuating (error) signal in a feedback control system. Note: In an open-loop system, which has
no feedback, the actuating signal is equal to r.

Negative feedback means the summing point is a subtractor, that is, 𝑒 = 𝑟 − 𝑏.

Positive feedback means the summing point is an adder, that is, 𝑒 = 𝑟 + 𝑏.

Supplementary Terminology
A transducer is a device that converts one energy form into another.
For example, one of the most common transducers in control systems applications is the potentiorneter, which converts
mechanical position into an electrical voltage (Fig. 2.3).

Figure 2.3

The command v is an input signal, usually equal to the reference input r. But when the energy form of the command v is
not the same as that of the primary feedback b, a transducer is required between the command v and the reference input
r as shown in Fig. 2.4(a).

Figure 2.4

When the feedback element consists of a transducer, and a transducer is required at the input, that part of the control
system illustrated in Fig. 2.4 (b) is called the error detector.

A stimulus, or test input, is any externally (exogenously) introduced input signal affecting the controlled output c. Note:
The reference input r is an example of a stimulus, but it is not the only kind of stimulus.

A disturbance n (or noise input) is an undesired stimulus or input signal affecting the value of the controlled output c. It
may enter the plant with u or m, as shown in the block diagram of Fig. 2.2, or at the first summing point, or via another
intermediate point.

The time response of a system, subsystem, or element is the output as a function of time, usually following application of
a prescribed input under specified operating conditions.

REZEL A. STO. TOMAS, ECE 8

A multivariable system is one with more than one input (multi-input, MI-), more than one output (multi-output, -MO), or
both (multi-input-multi-output, MIMO).
The term controller in a feedback control system is often associated with the elements of the forward path, between the
actuating (error) signal e and the control variable u. But it also sometimes includes the summing point, the feedback
elements, or both, and some authors use the term controller and compensator synonymously.

Problems:
1. Draw a block diagram for the closed-loop automatic toaster. Assume each heating element supplies the same amount
of heat to both sides of the bread, and toast quality can be determined by its color. A simplified schematic diagram of
one possible way to apply the feedback principle to a toaster is shown in Fig. P2.1. Only one side of the toaster is
illustrated. The toaster is initially calibrated for a desired toast quality by means of the color adjustment knob. This
setting never needs readjustment unless the toast quality criterion changes. When the switch is closed, the bread is
toasted until the color detector “sees” the desired color. Then the switch is automatically opened by means of the
feedback linkage, which may be electrical or mechanical.

Figure P2.1

Answer:

2. In a nuclear power generating plant, heat from a reactor is used to generate steam for turbines. The rate of the fission
reaction determines the amount of heat generated, and this rate is controlled by rods inserted into the radioactive
core. The rods regulate the flow of neutrons. If the rods are lowered into the core, the rate of fission will diminish; if
the rods are raised, the fission rate will increase. By automatically controlling the position of the rods, the amount of
heat generated by the reactor can be regulated. Draw a functional block diagram for the nuclear reactor control
system shown in Figure P2.2. Show all blocks and signals.

REZEL A. STO. TOMAS, ECE 9

 Figure P2.2 Control of a nuclear reactor

Answer:

3. We can build a control system that will automatically adjust a motorcycle’s radio volume as the noise generated by
the motorcycle changes. The noise generated by the motorcycle increases with speed. As the noise increases, the
system increases the volume of the radio. Assume that the amount of noise can be represented by a voltage generated
by the speedometer cable, and the volume of the radio is controlled by a dc voltage (Hogan, 1988). If the dc voltage
represents the desired volume disturbed by the motorcycle noise, draw the functional block diagram of the automatic
volume control system, showing the input transducer, the volume control circuit, and the speed transducer as blocks.
Also show the following signals: the desired volume as an input, the actual volume as an output, and voltages
representing speed, desired volume, and actual volume.
Answer:

REZEL A. STO. TOMAS, ECE 10