Student Manual 1

EnginEEring
WOrKSHOP
I B.TECH
STUDENT LAB MANUAL
2019-20
Date of Issue:
14/12/2013 Prepared by:
Document No:
GNITC / ME/Engg. Workshop Mr. B Durga Prasad
Date of Revision:
Lab Manual/ME Mr. G. Kiran Reddy
12/06/2019
WORKSHOP SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
WORKSHOP:
It is a place where the man, the machine and the tool works together for
manufacturing a product. It is the place where the raw material is converted into a new
product.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Always prefer to use leather shoes.
2. Always wear lab coats (APRONS).
3. Never use loose clothes.
4. Full sleeve shirts should be avoided.
5. Never use neck tie while working.
6. Never mix the Measuring tools with cutting tools.
7. Keep the surroundings clean.
8. Every tool should have a proper place and it should be kept at its proper place after use.
CONTENTS
S.No. Name of the experiment
I MACHINE SHOP
Practice -1 To perform a step turning operation on the given Work piece as per given dimensions.
Practice -2 To perform a taper turning operation on the given work piece as per given dimensions.
II FITTING
Practice -1 To prepare a straight fit by given metal piece as per given dimensions.
Practice -2 To prepare a V-groove fit by given metal piece as per given dimensions.
III CARPENTRY
Practice -1 To prepare cross lap Joint as per given dimensions by given wood piece.
Practice -2 To prepare Dovetail Lap Joint as per given dimensions by given wood piece.
IV HOUSE WIRING
Practice -1 To prepare a wiring to control two lamps in series and parallel by one switch.
Practice -2 To prepare connections to one lamp controlled by two 2-way switches.
V WELDING
Practice -1 To prepare a Butt joint using the given two M.S pieces by arc welding.
Practice -2 To prepare a Lap joint, using the given two M.S pieces by arc welding.
VI CASTING
Practice -1 To prepare a mould cavity for the given single piece pattern.
Practice -2 To prepare a mould cavity for the given split piece pattern.
VII TIN SMITHY
Practice -1 To prepare a rectangular tray from the sheet metal as per the given dimensions.
Practice -2 To prepare a funnel from the given sheet metal as per the given dimensions.
VIII GLASS CUTTING
Practice -1 To prepare straight cutting of a given glass as per given dimensions.
Practice -2 To prepare curve cutting of a given glass as per given dimensions.
Engineering Work Shop Department of Mechanical Engineering
MACHINE SHOP
1. INTRODUCTION TO LATHE
Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the world. It is commonly
known as the mother of all other machine tool. The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a job to
give it the required shape and size. The job is secure1y and rigid1y held in the chuck or in between centres
on the lathe machine and then turn it against a single point cutting tool which wi1l remove meta1 from the
job in the form of chips. Fig.1 shows the working principle of lathe. An engine lathe is the most basic and
simplest form of the lathe. It derives its name from the early lathes, which obtained their power fro from
engines. Besides the simple turning operation as described above, lathe can be used to carry out other
operations also, such as drilling, reaming, boring, taper turning, knurling, screw thread cutting, grinding etc.
Fig. No.1: Working principal of llathe machine
2. CONSTRUCTION OF LATHE MACHINE

Fig. 2 shows the different parts of engine lathe or central lathe. The major parts of lathe machine are
given as under:
1. Bed 2. Head stock 3. Tailstock 4. Carriage 5. Feed mechanism 6. Thread cutting mechanis
mechanism
2.1 Bed:
It is the base or foundation of the lathe. It is a heavy rigid casting made in one piece. In majority of cases
the beds are made of grey cast iron iron-nodular
nodular cast iron, or high strength, wear resistance cast iron. The cast
iron offers the following advantages over other materials
(i) It is self-lubricant:
lubricant: It can be hardened by induction hardening process.
(ii) It has better compressive strength.
(iii) It has excellent shock absorbing capacity.
(iv) It can easily be cast and machined.
It holds or supports all other parts of the lathe. The top of the bed is planned to form guide ways for the
carriage and tailstock. The guide ways are of two types: (a) Flat guide ways; (b) inverted “V” guide ways.
Generally, the combination of both the flat and inverted “V” guide ways is used
2.2 Head stock:

The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a lathe Headstock is mounted
permanently at the left hand side of the leg bed. The headstock houses a hollow spindle and the mechanism
for driving the spindle at multiple speeds.
GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 1

Fig. No 2 : Lathe Diagram

2.3 Tailstock:
Tailstock is located on the inner guide ways at the right side of the bed opposite to the headstock.
The functions of tailstock:

1. It supports the other end of the long w work
ork piece when it is machined between centres.
2. It is useful in holding tools like drills, reamers and taps when performing drilling, reaming and tapping.
3. The dead centre is offset by a small distance from the axis of the lathe to turn tapers by set over method.
4. It is useful in setting the cutting tool at correct height aligning the cutting edge with lathe axis.
2.4 Carriage:
Carriage is located between the headstock and tailstock on the lathe bed guide ways. It can be moved
along the bed either towards or away from the headstock.
It has several parts to support, move and control the cutting tool. The parts of the carriage are:
a) Saddle: slides along the ways;
b) Apron: controls the feed mechanisms;
c) Cross-slide:
slide: controls transverse motion of the tool (toward or away from the operator);
d) Compound rest: adjusts to permit angular tool movement;
e) Tool post: holds the cutting tool.
2.5 Feed Mechanism:

There are several mechanisms to make the carriage and cross slide move automatically and to change the
direction of their movement. Some important mechanisms are:
1. Tumbler gear arrangement
2. Apron Mechanism
3. Lead screw
4. Feed rod
3. SPECIFICATION
FICATION OF LATHE
The size of a lathe is generally specified by the following means:
(a) Swing or maximum diameter that can be rotated over the bed ways
(b) Maximum length of the job that can be held between head stock and tail stock centres
(c) Bed length, which may include head stock length also
(d) Maximum diameter of the bar that can pass through spindle or collect chuck of capstan lathe.
Fig
No 3: Specifications of a lathe

4. LATHE OPERATIONS:
(a) Facing:: The tool is fed radially into the rotating work on one end to create a flat surface on the end.
(b) Taper turning: Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation of the work, the tool is fed at an
angle, thus creating a tapered cylinder or conical shape.
(c) Contour turning: Instead of feeding the tool along a straight line parallel to the axis of rotation as in
turning, the tool follows a contour that is other than straight, thus creating a contoured form in the turned
part.
(d) Form turning: In this operation, someti
sometimes
mes called forming, the tool has a shape that is imparted to the
work by plunging the tool radially into the work.
(e) Chamfering:: The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut an angle on the corner of the cylinder, forming
what is called a ‘‘chamfer.’’
(f) Cut-off: The tool is fed radially in to the rotating work at some location along its length to cut off the end
of the part. This operation is sometimes referred to as parting.
(g) Threading:: A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside surface of the rotating work part in a
direction parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective feed rate, thus creating threads in the cylinder.
(h) Boring: A single-point
point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of rotation, on the inside diameter of an
existing hole in the part.
Fig No.4: Machining operations other than turning that are performed on a lathe
(i) Drilling: Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the rotating work along its axis.
Reaming can be performed in a simila
similar way.
(j) Knurling: This is not a machining operation because it does not involve cutting of material. Instead, it is
a metal forming operation used to produce a regular crosshatched pattern in the work surface.

5. Work holding devices used in a lathe

The work holding devices are used to hold and rotate the work pieces along with the spindle. Different
work holding devices are used according to the shape, length, diameter and weight of the work piece and the
location of turning on the work. They are
1. Chucks 2. Face plate 3. Driving plate 4. Catch plate 5. Carriers 6. Mandrels 7. Centres 8. Rests
1. Chucks
Workpieces of short length, large diameter and irregular shapes, which can not be mounted between centres,
are held quickly and rigidly in chuck.There are different types of chucks namely, Three jaw universal chuck,
Four jaw independent chuck, Magnetic chuck, Collet chuck and Combination chuck.
1.1 Three Jaw self-centering chuck
The three jaws fitted in the three slots may be made to slide at the same time by an equal amount by rotating
any one of the three pinions by a chuck key.This
type of chuck is suitable for holding and rotating
regular shaped workpieces like round or
hexagonal rods about the axis of the lathe.
Workpieces of irregular shapes cannot be held by
this chuck.
The work is held quickly and easily as the three

jaws move at the same time.
1.2 Four Jaw Independent Chuck

There are four jaws in this chuck. Each jaw is moved independently by rotating a screw with the help of a
chuck key. A particular jaw may be moved
according to the shape of the work. Hence this
type of chuck can hold woks of irregular shapes.
But it requires more time to set the work aligned
with the lathe axis. Experienced turners can set
the work about the axis quickly. Concentric
circles are inscribed on the face of the chuck to
enable quick centering of the work piece.
1.3 Magnetic Chuck

The holding power of this chuck is obtained by
the magnetic flux radiating from the
electromagnet placed inside the chuck. Magnets
are adjusted inside the chuck to hold or release
the work. Work pieces made of magnetic material
only are held in this chuck. Very small, thin and
light works which cannot be held in a ordinary
chuck are held in this chuck.

1.4 Collet Chuck

Collet chuck has a cylindrical bushing
known as collet. It is made of spring steel and has
slots cut lengthwise on its circumference. So, it
holds the work with more grip. Collet chucks are
used in capstan lathes and automatic lathes for
holding bar stock in production work.
2. Face plate
Faceplate is used to hold large, heavy and
irregular shaped work pieces which cannot be
conveniently held between centers. It is a
circular disc bored out and threaded to fit to
the nose of the lathe spindle. It is provided
with radial plain and ‘T’ – slots for holding
the work by bolts and clamps.
3. Driving Plate
The driving plate is used to drive a work
piece when it is held between centers. It is a
circular disc screwed to the nose of the lathe
spindle. It is provided with small bolts or pins on
its face. Work pieces fitted inside straight tail
carriers are held and rotated by driving plates.
4. Catch Plate
When a work piece is held between centers, the
catch plate is used to drive it. It is a circular disc
bored and threaded at the centre. Catch plates are
designed with ‘U’ – slots or elliptical slots to
receive the bent tail of the carrier. Positive drive
between the lathe spindle and the workpiece is
effected when the workpiece fitted with the carrier
fits into the slot of the catch plate.
5. Carrier
When a workpiece is held and machined
between centres, carriers are useful in trans-
mitting the driving force of the spindle to the
work by means of driving plates and catch plates.
The work is held inside the eye of the carrier and
tightened by a screw. Carriers are of two types
and they are :
1. Straight tail carrier
2. Bent tail carrier
Straight tail carrier is used to drive the work
by means of the pin provided in the driving plate.
The tail of the bent tail carrier fits into the slot of
the catch plate to drive the work.

6. Mandrel
A previously drilled or bored workpiece is held on a mandrel to be driven in a lathe and machined. There
are centre holes provided on both faces of the mandrel. The live centre and the dead centre fit into the centre
holes. A carrier is attached at the left side of the mandrel. The mandrel gets the drive either through a catch
plate or a driving plate. The workpiece rotates along with the mandrel. There are several types of mandrels
and they are:
1. Plain mandrel
2. Collar mandrel
3. Step mandrel
4. Cone mandrel
5. Gang mandrel
6. Expansion mandrel
6.1 Plain mandrel
The body of the plain mandrel is slightly tapered to provide proper gripping of the workpiece. The taper will
be around 1 to 2mm for a length of 100mm. It is also known as solid mandrel. It is the type mostly
commonly used and has wide application.
6.2 Gang Mandrel

It has a fixed collar at one end and a movable collar at the threaded end. This mandrel is used to hold a set
of hollow workpieces between the two collars by tightening the nut.
6.3 Screwed Mandrel

It is threaded at one end and a collar is attached to it. Workpieces having internal threads are screwed on to it
against the collar for machining.

6.4 Cone Mandrel

It consists of a solid cone attached to one end of the body and a sliding cone, which can be adjusted by
turning a nut at the threaded end. This type is suitable for driving workpieces having different hole
diameters.
7. Centres
Centres are useful in holding the work in a lathe between centres. The shank of a centre has Morse taper
on it and the face is conical in shape. There are two types of centres namely
 Live centre
 Dead centre
The live centre is fitted on the headstock spindle and
rotates with the work. The centre fitted on the tailstock
spindle is called dead centre. It is useful in supporting the
other end of the work. Centres are made of high carbon steel
and hardened and then tempered. So the tip of the centres are
wear resistant. Different types of centres are available accord-
ing to the shape of the work and the operation to be
performed. They are
1. Ball centre
2. Ordinary centre
3. Half centre
4. Tipped centre
5. Pipe centre
6. Revolving cenrte
7. Inserted type centre

8. Rests
A rest is a mechanical device to support a long slender
workpiece when it is turned between centres or by a chuck. It is
placed at some intermediate point to prevent the workpiece from
bending due to its own weight and vibrations setup due to the
cutting force. There are two different types of rests
 Follower rest
 Steady rest
8.1 Steady rest
Steady rest is made of cast iron. It may be made to slide on the
lathe bedways and clamped at any desired position where the
workpiece needs support. It has three jaws. These jaws can be
adjusted according to the diameter of the work. Machining is
done upon the distance starting from the headstock to the point
of support of the rest. One or more steady rests may be used to
support the free end of a long work.
8.2 Follower rest

It consists of a ‘C’ like casting having two adjustable jaws to
support the workpiece. The rest is bolted to the back end of the
carriage. During machining, it supports the work and moves
with the carriage. So, it follows the tool to give continuous
support to the work to be able to machine along the entire length
of the work.
In order to reduce friction between the work and the jaws,

proper lubricant should be used.
DRILLING MACHINE
Introduction: The drilling machine or drill press is one of the most common and useful machine employed
in industry for producing forming and finishing holes in a workpiece. The unit essentially consists of:
1. A spindle which turns the tool (called drill) which can be advanced in the workpiece either automatically
or by hand.
2. A work table which holds the workpiece rigidly in position.

Working principle: The rotating edge of the drill exerts a large force on the workpiece and the hole is
generated. The removal of metal in a drilling
operation is by shearing and extrusion.
Working Principle of Drill machine Sensitive
Drill Machine/Drill Press
Types of Drilling Machines: A wide variety
of drilling machines are available ranging
from the simple portable to highly complex
automatic and numerically controlled
machines are as follows:
1. Portable drilling machine: It is a small
light weight, compact and self contained unit
that can drill holes upto 12.5 rnrn diameter.
The machine is driven by a small electric
motor operating at high speed. The machine is
capable of drilling holes in the workpieces in
any position.
2. Sensitive drill machine/press: This is a
light weight, high speed machine designed for
drilling small holes in light jobs. Generally the
machine has the capacity to rotate drills of 1.5
to 15.5 rnrn at high speed of 20,000 rev/min.
Construction: The machine has only a hand feed mechanism for feeding the tool into the workpiece. This
enables the operator to feel how the drill is cutting and accordingly he can control the down feed pressure.
Sensitive drill presses are manufactured in bench or floor models, i.e., the base of machine may be mounted
on a bench or floor.
The main operating parts of a sensitive machine/drill press are Base, Column, Table, and Drill Head.
1. Base: The base is a heavy casting that supports the machine structure; it provides rigid mounting for the
column and stability for the machine. The base is usually provided with holes and slots which help to Bolt
the base to a table or bench and allow the work-holding device or the workpiece to be fastened to the base.
2. Column: The column is a vertical post that Column holds the worktable and the head containing the
driving mechanism. The column may be of round or box section.
3. Table: The table, either rectangular or round. Drill machine/press in shape supports the workpiece and is
carried by the vertical column. The surface of the table is 90-degree to the column and it can be raised,
lowered and swiveled around it. The table can be clamp/hold the required the workpiece. Slots are provided
in most tables to allow the jigs, fixtures or large workpieces to be securely fixed directly to the table.
4. Drilling Head: The drilling head, mounted close to the top of the column, houses the driving arrangement
and variable speed pulleys. These units transmit rotary motion at different speeds to the drill spindle. The
hand feed lever is used to control the vertical movement of the spindle sleeve and the cutting tool.
The system is called the sensitive drilling machine/press as the operator is able to sense the progress of drill
with hand-faced.

Practice No: 01 Step Turning
AIM: To perform a step turning operation on the given Work piece as per given dimensions.
Machine Tools Required: Engine Lathe
Materials Required: Mild Steel rod of size: Diameter 30mm and length 100 mm.
Tools Required:
S.NO Tool Name Specification S.NO Tool Name Specification
1. Single point cutting tool HSS 3” 2. Steel rule 12”
3. Vernier callipers 12” 4. Marking gauge 10”
5. Try square 6” X 4” 6. Hammer ½ lb
7. Centre punch 4”
Machining Operations to be performed:

1. Facing,
2. Plain Turning,
3. Step Turning.
Procedure:
1. Select the work piece of suitable dimensions.
2. Load the work piece in to the chuck tightly.
3. Mark the required dimensions using marking gauge.
4. Fix the single point cutting tool in to the tool post.
5. Perform the facing operation of each side to reduce in length and tool alignment.
6. Perform the turning operation to reduce the diameter further until it forms a step of needed diameter
(dimensions).
Precautions:
1. Do not start the machine without removing the chuck key from the chuck.
2. The feed and cutting speed is to be maintained at constant level.
3. Avoid too much depth of cut at a time.
4. Do not change the gears while machine is running.
Result:

Practice No: 03 Drilling
Aim: To perform a drilling operation on give

given wood piece as per given dimensions.
Machine Tool Required: Radial Drilling Machine

Tools Required:
1. Twist Drill 10mm 2. Steel rule 12”
3. Height gauge 12” 4. Marking gauge 10”
5. Centre Punch 4” 6. Hammer ½ lb
6. Try square 6” X 4”
Material: wood of size: _________

Procedure:
1) Mark the required dimension with the help o height gauge
2) Mark the point where the holes are to be drilled.
3) Punch the marked points with help of hammer.
4) Fix the jobs in the machine firmly.
5) Fix the drill bits in the drill chuck.
6) Position
on the point where drilling of hole is required.
7) Drill the holes at required points.
8) Position the drill bit and perform the operation.
Precautions:
1. Work must be firmly tightened in the vice.
2. While drilling, drill bit must be fitted firmly in the drill chuck.
3. Use the correct RPM, Use slow feed rates
4. Use coolants, soluble oils or emulsions etc. for smooth drilling.
Result:

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Name some work holding devices of a lathe.
2. What are the various types of chucks used in a lathe
3. Write the equation for the angle of taper in taper turning operation.
4. State any three applications of lathe
5. Define Tool life.
6. List the name of the tools in a lathe machine shop
7. State any four applications of Drilling machine.
8. What is the use of outside calliper?
9. What is the use of inside calliper?

FITTING
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster rate, but, there are occasions when components
are processed at the bench. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to replace or repair component which
must be fit accurately with another component on reassembly. This involves a certain amount of hand
fitting. The assembly of machine tools, jigs, gauges, etc, involves certain amount of bench work. The
accuracy of work done depends upon the experience and skill of the fitter. The term ‘bench work’ refers
to the production of components by hand on the bench, where as fitting deals which the assembly of
mating parts, through removal of metal, to obtain the required fit. Both the bench work and fitting
requires the use of number of simple hand tools and considerable manual efforts. The operations in the
above works consist of filing, chipping, scraping, sawing drilling, and tapping.
1.2. HOLDING TOOLS

1.2.1. Bench vice
The bench vice is a work holding device. It is the most commonly used vice in a fitting shop. The bench
vice is shown in Figure
It is fixed to the bench with bolts and nuts. The vice body consists of two main parts, fixed jaw and
movable jaw. When the vice handle is turned in a clockwise direction, the sliding jaw forces the work
against the fixed jaw. Jaw plates are made of hardened steel. Serrations on the jaws ensure a good grip.
Jaw caps made of soft material are used to protect finished surfaces, gripped in the vice. The size of the
vice is specified by the length of the jaws. The vice body is made of cast Iron which is strong in
compression, weak in tension and so fractures under shocks and therefore should never be hammered.
1.2.2. V‐block
V‐block is rectangular or square block with a V‐groove on one or both sides opposite to each other. The
angle of the ‘V’ is usually 900. V‐block with a clamp is used to hold cylindrical work securely, during
layout of measurement, for measuring operations or for drilling for this the bar is faced longitudinally in
the V‐Groove and the screw of V‐clamp is tightened. This grip the rod is firm with its axis parallel to
the axis of the v‐groove.
1.2.3. C‐Clamp
This is used to hold work against an angle plate or v‐block or any other surface, when gripping
is required. Its fixed jaw is shaped like English alphabet ‘C’ and the movable jaw is round in shape and
directly fitted to the threaded screw at the end .The working principle of this clamp is the same as that
of the bench vice.

1.3. MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS

2.2.1Surface plate
The surface plate is machined to fine limits and is used for testing the flatness of the work piece. It is
also used for marking out small box and is more precious than the marking table. The degree of the
finished depends upon whether it is designed for bench work in a fitting shop or for using in an
inspection room; the surface plate is made of Cast Iron, hardened Steel or Granite stone. It is specified
by length, width, height and grade. Handles are provided on two opposite sides, to carry it while
shifting from one place to another
1.3.1. Try square

It is measuring and marking tool for 900 angle .In practice, it is used for checking the squareness of
many types of small works when extreme accuracy is not required .The blade of the Try square is made
of hardened steel and the stock of cast Iron or steel. The size of the Try square is specified by the length
of the blade.

1.3.2. Scriber
A Scriber is a slender steel tool, used to scribe or mark lines on metal work pieces. It is made of
hardened and tempered High Carbon Steel. The Tip of the scriber is generally ground at 12o to 15o. It is
generally available in lengths, ranging from 125mm to 250mm .It has two pointed ends the bent end is
used for marking lines where the straight end cannot reach.
1.3.3. Odd leg Caliper

This is also called ‘Jenny Caliper’ or Hermaphrodite. This is used for marking parallel liners from a
finished edge and also for locating the center of round bars; it has one leg pointed like a divider and the
other leg bent like a caliper. It is specified by the length of the leg up to the hinge point.
1.3.4. Divider
It is basically similar to the calipers except that its legs are kept straight and pointed at the measuring
edge. This is used for marking circles, arcs laying out perpendicular lines, by setting lines. It is made of
case hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. Its size is specified by the length
of the leg.
1.3.5. Punches
These are used for making indentations on the scribed lines, to make them visible clearly. These are
made of high carbon steel. A punch is specified by its length and diameter (say as 150’ 12.5mm). It
consists of a cylindrical knurled body, which is plain for some length at the top of it. At the other end, it
is ground to a point. The tapered point of the punch is hardened over a length of 20 to 30mm.Dot punch
is used to lightly indent along the layout lines, to locate center of holes and to provide a small center
mark for divider point, etc. for this purpose, the punch is ground to a conical point having 60° included
angle. Center punch is similar to the dot punch, except that it is ground to a conical point having 90°
included angle. It is used to mark the location of the holes to be drilled.

1.3.6. Calipers
They are indirect measuring tools used to measure or transfer linear dimensions. These are used with
the help of a steel Rule to check inside and outside measurements. These are made of Case hardened
mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. While using, but the legs of the caliper are set
against the surface of the work, whether inside or outside and the distance between the legs is measured
with the help of a scale and the same can be transferred to another desired place. These are specified by
the length of the leg. In the case of outside caliper, the legs are bent inwards and in the case of inside
caliper, the legs bent outwards.
1.3.7. Vernier Calipers

These are used for measuring outside as well as inside dimensions accurately. It may also be used as a
depth gauge. It has two jaws. One jaw is formed at one end of its main scale and the other jaw is made
part of a vernier scale

1.3.8. Vernier Height Gauge

The Vernier Height gauge clamped with a scriber. It is used for Lay out work and offset scriber is used
when it is required to take measurement from the surface, on which the gauge is standing. The accuracy
and working principle of this gauge are the same as those of the vernier calipers. Its size is specified by
the maximum height that can be measured by it. It is made of Nickel‐Chromium Steel.
1.4. CUTTING TOOLS

1.4.1. Hack Saw
The Hack Saw is used for cutting metal by hand. It consists of a frame, which holds a thin blade, firmly
in position. Hacksaw blade is specified by the number of teeth for centimeter. Hacksaw blades have a
number of teeth ranging from 5 to 15 per centimeter (cm). Blades having lesser number of teeth per cm
are used for cutting soft materials like aluminum, brass and bronze. Blades having larger number of teeth
per centimeter are used for cutting hard materials like steel and cast Iron.
Hacksaw blades are classified as (i) All hard and (ii) flexible type. The all hard blades are made of
H.S.S, hardened and tempered throughout to retain their cutting edges longer. These are used to cut hard
metals. These blades are hard and brittle and can break easily by twisting and forcing them into the work
while sawing. Flexible blades are made of H.S.S or low alloy steel but only the teeth are hardened and
the rest of the blade is soft and flexible. These are suitable for use by un‐skilled or semi‐skilled persons.
The teeth of the hacksaw blade are staggered, as shown in figure and known as a ‘set of teeth’. These
make slots wider than the blade thickness, preventing the blade from jamming.
1.4.2. Chisels
Chisels are used for removing surplus metal or for cutting thin sheets. These tools are made from 0.9%
to 1.0% carbon steel of octagonal or hexagonal section. Chisels are annealed, hardened and tempered to
produce a tough shank and hard cutting edge. Annealing relieves the internal stresses in a metal. The
cutting angle of the chisel for general purpose is about 60°.
1.4.3. Twist Drill

Twist drills are used for making holes. These are made of High speed steel. Both straight and taper
shank twist drills are used. The parallel shank twist drill can be held in an ordinary self – centering drill
check. The tapper shank twist drill fits into a corresponding tapered bore provided in the drilling
machine spindle

1.4.4. Taps and Tap wrenches

A tap is a hardened and steel tool, used for cutting internal thread in a drill hole. Hand Taps are usually
supplied in sets of three in each diameter and thread size. Each set consists of a tapper tap, intermediate
tap and plug or bottoming tap. Taps are made of high carbon steel or high speed steel.
1.4.5. Dies and die‐holders

Dies are the cutting tools used for making external thread. Dies are made either solid or split type. They
are fixed in a die stock for holding and adjusting the die gap. They are made of Steel or High Carbon
Steel.
1.5. FINISHING TOOLS

1.5.1. Reamers
Reaming is an operation of sizing and finishing a drilled hole, with the help of a cutting tool called
reamer having a number of cutting edges. For this, a hole is first drilled, the size of which is slightly
smaller than the finished size and then a hand reamer or machine reamer is used for finishing the hole to
the correct size. Hand Reamer is made of High Carbon Steel and has left‐hand spiral flutes so that, it is
prevented from screwing into the whole during operation. The Shank end of the reamer is made straight
so that it can be held in a tap wrench. It is operated by hand, with a tap wrench fitted on the square end

of the reamer and with the work piece held in the vice. The body of the reamer is given a slight tapper at
its working end, for its easy entry into the whole during operation, it is rotated only in clock wise
direction and also while removing it from the whole.
1.5.2. Files
Filing is one of the methods of removing small amounts of material from the surface of a metal part. A
file is hardened steel too, having small parallel rows of cutting edges or teeth on its surfaces. On the
faces, the teeth are usually diagonal to the edge. One end of the file is shaped to fit into a wooden
handle. The figure shows various parts of a hand file. The hand file is parallel in width and tapering
slightly in thickness, towards the tip. It is provided with double cut teeth. On the faces, single cut on one
edge and no teeth on the other edge, which is known as a safe edge.
Files are classified according to their shape, cutting teeth and pitch or grade of the teeth. The
figure shows the various types of files based on their shape.

1.5.3. Ball‐ Peen Hammer

Ball‐ Peen Hammers are named, depending upon their shape and material and specified by their weight.
A ball peen hammer has a flat face which is used for general work and a ball end, particularly used for
riveting.
1.5.4. Cross‐Peen Hammer

It is similar to ball peen hammer, except the shape of the peen. This is used for chipping, riveting,
bending and stretching metals and hammering inside the curves and shoulders.
1.5.5. Straight‐Peen Hammer

This is similar to cross peen hammer, but its peen is in‐line with the hammer handle. It is used for
swaging, riveting in restricted places and stretching metals.

1.5.6. Screw driver

A screw driver is designed to turn screws. The blade is made of steel and is available in different lengths and
diameters. The grinding of the tip to the correct shape is very important.
A star screw driver is specially designed to fit the head of star screws. The end of the blade is fluted instead
of flattened. The screw driver is specified by the length of the metal part from handle to the tip.
1.5.7. Spanners
A spanner or wrench is a tool for turning nuts and bolts. It is usually made of forged steel. There are
many kinds of spanners. They are named according to the application. The size of the spanner denotes
the size of the bolt on which it can work.
1.6. SAFE PRACTICE

The following are some of the safe and correct work practices in bench work and fitting shop, with respect to
the tools used
1. Keep hands and tools wiped clean and free of dirt, oil and grease. Dry tools are safer to use than
slippery tools.
2. Do not carry sharp tools on pockets.
3. Wear leather shoes and not sandals.
4. Don’t wear loose clothes.
5. Do no keep working tools at the edge of the table.

6. Position the work piece such that the cut to be made is close to the vice. This practice
prevents springing, saw breakage and personal injury.
7. Apply force only on the forward (cutting) stroke and relieve the force on the return stroke
while sawing and filing.
8. Do not hold the work piece in hand while cutting.
9. Use the file with a properly fitted tight handle.
10. After filing, remove the burrs from the edges of the work, to prevent cuts to the fingers.
11. Do not use vice as an anvil.
12. While sawing, keep the blade straight; otherwise it will break
13. Do not use a file without handle.
14. Clean the vice after use.

Practice No: 01 Straight Fit
AIM: To prepare a straight fit by given metal piece as per given dimensions.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: M.S Flat of 80 x 40 x 5 mm
TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Fitting Vice 150 mm 2. Surface plate 2ft X 2ft
3. Scriber 6” 4. Hack-saw 12”
5. Rough file 12” 6. Smooth file 12”
7. Height gauge 12” 8. Try Square 6” X 4”
9. Dot punch 4”
PROCEDURE:
1. The given MS flat plate is checked for dimensions.

2. One side is filled with rough file and checked for true ness by try square.
3. An adjacent edge is also filed such that it is square to the first end and checked with the try
square
4. Marking operation is to be done as per the dimensions
5. Using dot punch, dots are made along the marking lines
6. The excess material is cut by hack saw & after removing the waste material and planes the edges
for correctness.
7. If the material is still remained then remove by filing by smooth file.
8. Then the completed is straight fit.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not keep the tools at the edge of the workbench.

2. Never remove the chips with hand, use always a brush to remove chips.
3. Care should be taken for undercut of the work piece.
RESULT:

Practice No: 02 V-Groove Fit
AIM: To prepare a V-groove fit by given metal piece as per given dimensions.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: M.S Flat of 80 x 40 x 5 mm
TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Fitting Vice 150 mm 2. Surface plate 2ft X 2ft
3. Scriber 6” 4. Hack-saw 12”
5. Rough file 12” 6. Smooth file 12”
7. Height gauge 12” 8. Try Square 6” X 4”
9. Dot punch 4”
PROCEDURE:
1. The given MS flat plate is checked for dimensions.

2. One side is filled with rough file and checked for trueness by try square.
3. An adjacent edge is also filed such that it is square to the first end and checked with the try
square
4. Marking operation is to be done as per the dimensions
5. Using dot punch, dots are made along the marking lines
6. The excess material is cut by hack saw & after removing the waste material and planes the edges
for correctness.
8. Then the completed is a V-groove fit.

PRECAUTIONS:

2. Never remove the chips with hand, use always a brush to remove chips.
3. Care should be taken for undercut of the work piece.
RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Define fitting.
2. State the factors on which the method of filing depends up on the method of filing depends
upon.
3. How to specify the files?
4. What are the types of filing methods?
5. Name the cutting tools used in fitting shop.
6. What is the use of Pliers?
7. Name three types of peen hammers.
8. When is cross-filing is used.
9. State the various grades of files.
10. State the use of straight filing.
11. What are the various types of scrapers?

CARPENTRY
1. INTRODUCTION:
Carpentry deals with the processing of wood to obtaining desired shapes and sizes. The
process dealing with the technique of making wooden pattern is called pattern making.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF CARPENTRY TOOLS:
1. Marking and Measuring Tools

2. Cutting and Planning Tools
3. Drilling and boring tools
4. Striking tools
5. Holdings tools
2.1. MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS
Steel rule Marking knife
Steel tape Marking gauge
Folding rule Mortise gauge
Try square Wing compass
Bevel square Divider
Mitre square Trammel
2.2. CUTTING AND PLANNING TOOLS:
SAWS:
1. Cross cut saw (Hand saw)

2. Rip saw
3. Tenon saw
CHISELS:
1. Firmer chisel
2. Dovetail chisel
3. Mortise chisel
4. Outside chisel
5. Inside chisel
PLANNING TOOLS:
1. Wooden jack plane

2. Metal jack plane
3. Smooth plane

2.3. DRILLING AND BORING TOOLS
1. Gimlet
2. Ratchet brace
3. Hand Drill
4. Auger
2.4. STRIKING TOOLS:
1. Warrington Hammer
2. Claw Hammer
3. Mallet
4. Straight Peen Hammer
2.5. HOLDING TOOLS:
1. Bench Vice
2. Sash Cramp
3. G-Cramp
4. C-Clamp
2.6. MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS:
1. Screwdriver
2. Wood Rasp file
3. Pincer
3. MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS:
Marking is one of the most important features of wood work and success of completing a job
accurately depends on accuracy of marking and measuring.
3.1. Steel rule: It is used for marking and measuring linear dimensions. It is specified by its
length.
3.2. Steel tape: The steel tape is used for measuring longer dimensions. They are available in
different sizes ranging from 0.6 to 2.5 m. It is flexible can be coiled and pressed in a case.

3.3. Folding rule: Four-fold box wood rule is made of four pieces of each 15 cm length. They
are hinged in such a way that they can be folded. It is adapted to carpentry upto 60 cm
length.
3.4. Try square : The try square is used for testing flatness of surface marking parallel lines
and also for marking and testing of right angles. It has a steel blade fitted at right angles in
wooden or cast iron stock. It is available in various sizes ranging from 100 to 300 mm.
3.5. Mitre square: It is used for marking and testing 450. It consists of a steel blade fitted in a
wooden or metal stock at an inclination of 450 with horizontal.
3.6. Bevel square: It is used for marking and testing of any angle between 00 to 1800. It has a
slotted blade and stock. The blade can be fixed at any position by means of a screw.

3.7. Marking knife: All dimensional lines marked with pencil are cut with marking knife. It
has a chisel edge at one end and sharp point at other end. It is made of steel and generally
used with a try square.
3.8. Marking gauge: The marking gauge is commonly used when absolute accuracy is
required. It has a stem with a sharp pin at one end. It is used to cut line along the grains and
parallel to an edge. The distance can be adjusted by sliding the stock (head) on a stem. This
can be achieved by thumbscrew.
3.9. Mortise gauge: It has two sharp pins, one is fixed to the stem and other to a brass slide,
which can be secured at any position by a screw. It is used to cut two parallel lines in a
single stroke. It is particularly adapted for marking in mortise and Tenon joints.
3.10. Wing Compass: It is made of steel and consists of two pointed legs. The legs secured in
position by means of a setscrew and quadrant. It is used for marking equal dimensions and
marking arcs and circles on the plane surfaces of the wood.
3.11. Divider: It consists of two pointed legs, the points are hardened and tempered to prevent
wear. It is used for transferring the sizes and scribing curves or circles on wooden surface.

3.12. Trammel: It is used for drawing very large circles and arcs which are beyond the scope of
a compass. It consists of a wooden beam on which the two pins are located and the
distance between them can be adjusted by means of thumb screws.
4. CUTTING AND PLANNING TOOLS:
Cutting tools are used for cutting timber to approximate size, cutting excess wood to obtain
desired shape and accuracy. Planning tools are intended to make smooth and accurate surface.
4.1. SAWS:
4.1.1 Cross cut saw: It is used for cutting the wood across the grains. (Hand saw) Its teeth are
pointed. The pitch of the teeth is about 2.5 to 3.0 mm and the blade length is about 600 mm.
Its teeth have less ‘set’ than the rip saw.
4.1.2 Ripsaw: It is used for cutting the wood along the grains. Its teeth have chisel edge the pitch
of the teeth is about 5 to 8 mm and the length of the blade is about 700 mm. The process of
cutting the wood along the grains is called ripping . Because of high flexibility of the blade
and less number of cutting points per cm. (i.e. high pitch) it is not suitable for cutting across
the grains.
4.1.3 Tenon saw: Tenon saw or back saw is used for cutting small work. It is mostly adapted in
joint work. It has a brass or steel back which strengthens the blade, but it restricts the depth
of cut. Its fine teeth (6 to 8 teeth/cm) and stiff back permits the smooth, accurate cutting for
marking joints. The saw is available in available in different length ranging from 250 to 400
mm. Inside chisel: It is beveled inside and it is used for making curved profiles.
4.2 PLANING TOOLS:

Planing tools are for reducing to its final and for smoothing the surface.
4.2.2 Wooden jack plane: It consists of a wooden body or stock in which blade or stock in which
blade or cutter in fastened at an angle of 450 to the sole. The plane iron (blade or cutter) and
the cap iron (back iron) are assembled and assembly is inserted in the mouth of plane along
with the wedge. The back iron supports the cutting edge and also breaks the shavings so that
they curl away from the blade. The blade can be set for taking deeper or shallower cuts. The
length of the jack plane is about 350 to 425 mm. The blade is made of high carbon steel and
has a width of 50 to 75 mm. Its cutting edge is tempered and ground to an angle of 25 to 300
and it is slightly curved (convex).
4.2.3 Metal jack plane: Its body is made of gray cast iron, and it is provided with a wooden
handle at the back and a wooden knob at the front for holding with both the hands. A fine
screw is used for adjusting the depth of cut i.e. the thickness of shaving removed, and a
lever is used for lateral adjustment of the blade. It is very durable and gives better finish.

4.3 CHISLES: Chisels are used for cutting excess wood in shaping and joint making.
4.1.2 Firmer chisel: The firmer chisel is capable of doing heavy work and is used for jointing
and shaping the wood, with or without mallet. The chisel blade is made of rectangular
section with beveled edge length of the blade is about 125 mm and the width of the edge
varies from 3 to 50 mm
4.3.2 Dovetail chisel: It is similar to firmer chisel but sides are beveled so that it can cut sharp
corners. It is used for cutting sockets where the angles is less than a right-angle.
4.3.3 Mortise chisel: These chisels are robust, and can withstand heavy blows. It has a thick
stock and narrow cutting edge. It is used for cutting mortises, and its width is ground to
exact size of mortise to be cut.
4.3.4 Outside chisel: It is bevel on outside and it is used for making hollows.
5 DRILLING AND BORING TOOLS:

These tools are used for drilling and making holes in wooden jobs.
5.1 Gimlet: It is hand operated tool used for making small holes for screws. It has a spiral flutes
with screw like point.
5.2 Hand drill: It is used for drilling small holes. A straight shank drill is used with this tool. It is
small, light in weight. The bit is clamped in the chuck at its end.

5.3 Auger: It is used for producing long deep holes. It is a steel bar with an eye at the top in which
a handle is fitted. The bottom end is provided with a screw point.
6 STRIKING TOOLS:
Striking tools are used to drive in nails and to operate chisels.
6.1 Warrington hammer: It is mostly used for bench work and light work. It is made of cast steel
with tempered face and peen. The wooden handle fits in the eye and steel wedge is driven into
form a rigid joint.
6.2 Claw hammer: It is a dual purpose hammer. It has a hammer face which is used to drive in
nails, and claw at the other end for pulling out nails from the wood. It is designated by its
weigh and it varies from 375 to 675 grams.
6.3 Mallet: It is used for operating the chisels and gauges. It is made of hard wood and is provided
with handle. The striking faces are made flat, and may be round or rectangular in cross-
section.

7 HOLDING TOOLS:
The vice and cramp are used to hold work while some operations are carried out.
7.1 Bench vice: It is made of gray cast iron or steel, and it has two jaws one of which is fixed to
the side of a bench and the other is movable. The faces of jaws are lined with hard wood to
prevent damage of work surface. It is used for holding the work for planning sawing and
chiseling on the bench.
7.2 Sash cramp: It is used for holding wide work such as box of frame constructions and jointed
boards. It consists of a steel bar fitted with two jaws, one of which is movable by a screw and
other is fixed into one of the spaced holes by a fastening pin.
7.3 G-Cramp: It is used for holding small work on the bench. It consists of a Frame with a jaw at
one end, and movable jaw, which is operated by a screw and a thumbnut, at the other end.
8 MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS:
8.1 Screwdriver: These are used for driving the screws on wood or unscrewing them from wood.
The size is specified by the length of the blade.

8.2 Wood rasp File:: It is exclusively used for finishing the wood surface. It has sharp cutting
teeth, and it is used for finishing small curved surfaces.
8.3 Pincer:: It is used for pulling out the nails and is more efficient the claw hammer.

Practice No: 01 Cross Lap Joint
AIM: To prepare cross lap Joint as per given dimensions by given wood piece.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: Soft wood 300 x 50 x 30 mm.
TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Carpenters Vice 9” 2. Steel Rule 12”
3. Marking gauge 10” 4. Metal Jack Plane 9”
5. Firmer Chisel 6” 6. Mallet 400gm
7. Wood Rasp File 10” 8. Try Square 6” X 4”
9. Cross cut saw 18”
PROCEDURE:
1. The given wood is checked for dimensions.

2. One side is planed with metal jackplane and checked for trueness by try square.
3. The four sides are also planned.
4. The excess material is cut by cross cut saw.
5. Now the portions for lapping portion are marked.
6. After sawing remove the waste material by firmer chisel.
7. If the material is still remained in 2 or 3 mm, then remove by filing by wood rasp file.
8. Then the completed is Cross Lap Joint.

PRECAUTIONS:

2. Do not keep the plane horizontal in idle mode.
3. Care must be taken while sawing operation.
RESULT:

Practice No: 02 Dovetail Lap Joint
AIM: To prepare Dovetail Lap Joint as per given dimensions by given wood piece.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: Soft Wood 300 x 50 x 30 mm.
TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Carpenters Vice 9” 2. Steel Rule 12”
3. Marking gauge 10” 4. Metal Jack Plane 9”
5. Firmer Chisel 6” 6. Mallet 400gm
7. Wood Rasp File 10” 8. Try Square 6” X 4”
9. Cross cut saw 18”
PROCEDURE:
1. The given wood is checked for dimensions.

2. One side is planed with metal jackplane and checked for trueness by try square.
3. The four sides are also planned.
4. The excess material is cut by cross cut saw.
5. Now the portions for lapping portion are marked.
6. After sawing remove the waste material by firmer chisel.
7. If the material is still remained in 2 or 3 mm, then remove by filing by wood rasp file.
8. Then the completed is Dovetail Joint.

PRECAUTIONS:

2. Do not keep the plane horizontal in idle mode.
3. Care must be taken while sawing operation.
RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is Timber?
2. Name four types of tools used in carpentry shop.
3. State differences between Try Square and Mitre Square?
4. Name two types of Holding Tools used in Carpentry Shop.
5. Name a few types of Timber and give example.
6. What is the use of a Try Square?
7. State the uses of Mitre Square and Bevel Square.
8. What is the need of Sprite Level?
9. What is the need of carpentry vice?
10. Name the various joinery materials used in carpentry?
11. What do you understand by the term: Mortising and Tenoning.
12. Mention any two uses of Mortise and Tenon Joints.
13. State any two uses of Mitre faced Bridle Joint.
14. Name the tools used for clamping small work pieces.

HOUSE WIRING
1.0 INTRODUCTION:
Electrical wiring is defined as a system of electrical conductor, components and apparatus
for conveying electric power from the source to the point of use. Power is supplied domestic
installation through a phase and a neutral forming a single phase A.C 230 V two wire system.
For industrial establishment, power is supplied through three-phase wire system to
give 440 V. The neutral is earthed at the distribution substation of the supply. When supplied
to domestic utilities, phase is fed to a kilowatt meter and then to a distribution panel. The
panel distribution passes along with circuits.
1.1 Elements of House Wiring:
1.1.1 Fuses and circuit breakers: These are devices designed to provide protection to a circuit
against excess current.
1.1.2 Electric Switch: This is a device that makes and breaks or changes the course of electric circuit
1.1.3 Plug: It is a device carrying two or three metallic contacts in the form of pins, intended for
engaging with corresponding socket contacts and arranged for attachment to appliances such as
radio, T.V fan etc.,
1.1.4 Socket out let: It is a device carrying two or three contact designed for engagement with
corresponding plug pins and arranged for connection to fixed wiring.
1.1.5 Lamp Holder: Lamp Holder is designed to hold lamps and connect there in the circuit.
1.1.6 Main Switch: This is a switch intended to connect or cut off the supply of the electricity to the
whole of insulation. It contains one or more fuses.


1.2 COMMON HOUSE WIRING CONNECTIONS

One lamp controlled by a one –way switch: Figure shows the wiring diagram for a lamp
controlled by a one-way switch. This is the normal connection one comes across in house wiring. a
Two lamps connected in series or parallel by a one-way switch:
Two lamps may be connected by one –way switch in parallel for bright glow or in series for dull
glow.
One lamp controlled by 2 two-way switches
It is sometimes desirable to control a lamp from two different places. One may come across this
situation with staircase, long corridors or hall containing two entrances etc.
Combination pliers: It is made of steel and its size is given according to its length. It has a cutter for cutting
the wires. It is also named because of its multi-purpose, such as cutting, twisting of wires and holding round
and flat jobs. They are either insulated or uninsulated. An insulated to work on live conductors where it
prevents the current from leaking to the human body.

Nose Pliers: Flat and round nose pliers (long or short) are used for holding work. Flat nose pliers are used
for holding flat objects like hexagonal nuts. Etc., at places where other pliers are unable to reach round nose
pliers are used for making hooks and lops of thin wires. They are also used for tightening and loosening
small nuts in narrow places like long holes, they have also a cutter on one side for cutting the thin wires.
Screw driver: It has three parts, namely the handle, blade and working edge. The handle is either made of
hard steel its working edge is tempered. It is used for tightening and loosening the screws.
Electrician knife: It is tool used for removing the insulation from the wires. It has two folding blades one
for removing the insulation and the other for cleaning the wires. Its size is measured by the length of the
cutting blade.
Test lamp: A test holder with a lamp is called a test lamp. It is used for testing the supply.
Pocker: it is long sharp toll used for making pilot holes in wood before fixing and tightening of wood.

Rawl plug tool and bit: It has two parts, namely the tool bit and tool holder. The tool bit is made of carbon
steel and the holder is made of mild steel. It is used for making holes in brick and concrete walls or ceilings.
Its size depends upon the number, as the number increases; the thickness of the bit as well as the plug also
increases.
Ball peen hammer: There are different types of hammers used for different purposes. The purpose of ball
peen hammer is generally used in electrical trades. The size of hammer is generally used in electrical trades.
The size of hammer is usually indicated by its weight.
Electric soldering iron: It is used for soldering wires to commutator segments and small joints with solder
it consists of pointed oval copper bit fixed to an iron rod which is heated by an electric element only.
LIST OF TOOLS IN THE TOOL KIT BOX FOR HOUSE WIRING PRACTICE
S. NO. ITEM QUANTITY
1 Insulated handle screw driver (200mm) 1 No.
2 Insulated handle screw driver (150mm) 1 No.
3 Insulated handle pocker (100mm) 1 No.
4 Connector screw driver 1 No.
5 Insulated handle combination plier 1 No.
6 Insulated handle flat nose plier 1 No.
7 Neon line tester 1 No.



Practice No: 01 Series and Parallel Connection
Aim: To prepare a wiring to control two lamps connected in series and parallel by one switch.
Tools required:

1. Screw driver 12” 2. Tester 4”
3. Bulb holders - 4. Switch One way
5. Pocker 6” 6. Bulbs 60w
7. Wire cutter 5” 8. Nose plier 5”
9. Cutting plier 8” 10. Ball peen hammer ¼ lb
Circuit diagram:
Sequence of Operations:
1. The outline of the wiring diagram is marked on the wooden wiring board.
2. Clips are nailed to the board, following the wire diagram.
3. Wires are stretched and clamped with the clips.
4. Wires are connected to the holder and the switch as shown in above diagram, which are then
screwed on the board.
5. Bulbs are fitted to the holders.
6. The wiring connections are tested by giving power supply.
Precautions:
1. Never remove a plug from an outlet by pulling the cord. Always pull by the plug.
2. Whenever there is power failure, put off the power supply to all equipment in order to prevent
spontaneous recovery.
3. Put on mains only after ascertaining completion of correct wiring.
Result:

Practice No: 02 2-Ways Switch
Aim: To prepare connections to one lamp controlled by two 2-way switches.
Tools required:

1. Screw driver 12” 2. Tester 4”
3. Bulb holders - 4. Switch Two way
5. Pocker 6” 6. Bulbs 60w
7. Wire cutter 5” 8. Nose plier 5”
9. Cutting plier 8” 10. Ball peen hammer ¼ lb
Circuit diagram:
Sequence of Operations:
1. The outline of the wiring diagram is marked on the wooden wiring board.
2. Clips are nailed to the board, following the wire diagram.
3. Wires are stretched and clamped with the clips.
4. Wires are connected to the holder and the switch as shown in above diagram, which are then
screwed on the board.
5. Bulbs are fitted to the holders.
6. The wiring connections are tested by giving power supply.
Precautions:
1. Never remove a plug from an outlet by pulling the cord. Always pull by the plug.
2. Whenever there is power failure, put off the power supply to all equipment in order to prevent
spontaneous recovery.
3. Put on mains only after ascertaining completion of correct wiring.
Result:

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. State the difference between D.C. and A.C.
2. State the difference between D.C. and A.C. circuits.
3. In an A.C. circuit, which power has higher value- Apparent or Real Power?
4. What is transformer?
5. What is the function of Fuse wire?
6. Name the materials used in fuse wire.
7. Why does fuse blow- out?
8. Why tungsten metal is used for filament of incandescent lamp?
9. Why is the choke used with tube light?
10. What is current?
11. What is voltage?
12. What is power?
13. What is resistance?
14. What is conductor?
15. What is semi- conductor?

WELDING
Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different
metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. The
fusion of metal takes place by means of heat. The heat may be generated either from combustion of gases,
electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical reaction.
Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the components. It is
therefore usually accompanied by post weld heat treatment for most of the critical components. The welding
is widely used as a fabrication and repairing process in industries. Some of the typical applications of
welding include the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels, automobile bodies, off-shore platform, bridges,
welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives, etc.
Most of the metals and alloys can be welded by one type of welding process or the other. However,
some are easier to weld than others. To compare this ease in welding term ‘weldability’ is often used. The
weldability may be defined as property of a metal which indicates the ease with which it can be welded with
other similar or dissimilar metals.
Elements of welding process used with common welding joints such as base metal, fusion zone,
weld face, root face, root opening toe and root are depicted in Figure.

Edge preparations
For welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals are prepared first. Different edge preparations
may be used for welding butt joints, which are given in Figure.
Welding joints
Some common welding joints are shown in Figure. Welding joints are of generally of two major
kinds namely lap joint and butt joint. The main types are described as under.
1. Lap weld joint

Single-Lap Joint
This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the plate,

is not recommended for most work. The single lap has very
little resistance to bending. It can be used satisfactorily for
joining two cylinders that fit inside one another.
Double-Lap Joint
This is stronger than the single-lap joint but has the

disadvantage that it requires twice as much welding.
Tee Fillet Weld
This type of joint, although widely used, should not be
employed if an alternative design is possible.
2. Butt weld joint

a. Single-V Butt Weld
It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the V depends upon the technique being used,
the plates being spaced approximately 3.2 mm.
b. Double-V Butt Weld
It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding can be performed on both sides of the plate.
The top V angle is either 60° or 80°, while the bottom angle is 80°, depending on the technique being
used.
Welding Positions
As shown in Fig. 17.4, there are four types of welding positions, which are given as:
a. Flat or down hand position
b. Horizontal position
c. Vertical position
d. Overhead position
Flat or Down-hand Welding Position
The flat position or down hand position is one in which the welding is performed from the upper
side of the joint and the face of the weld is approximately horizontal.
Horizontal Welding Position
In horizontal position, the plane of the work piece is vertical and the deposited weld head is
horizontal. This position of welding is most commonly used in welding vessels and reservoirs.

Vertical Welding Position
In vertical position, the plane of the work-piece is vertical and the weld is deposited upon a vertical
surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this position due to the effect of the force of gravity on
the molten metal.
Overhead Welding Position

The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the vertical position. Here the
pull of gravity against the molten metal is much greater.
ARC WELDING PROCESSES
The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a work-piece or between two
electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is called an arc welding process. The basic principle of arc
welding is shown in Figure1. However the basic elements involved in arc welding process are shown in
Figure2. Most of these processes use some shielding gas while others employ coatings or fluxes to prevent
the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere.
11) Channel for cable
1) Switch box. protection.
2) Secondary terminals 12) Welding cable.
3) Welding machine. 13) Chipping hammer.
4) Current reading scale. 14) Wire brush.
5) Current regulating hand 15) Earth clamp.
wheel. 16) Welding table
6) Leather apron. (metallic).
7) Asbestos hand gloves. 17) Job.
8) Protective glasses strap
9) Electrode holder.
10) Hand shield
Fig2.The basic elements of arc welding
Fig1.The basic principle of arc welding
Arc Welding Equipment
Arc welding equipment, setup and related tools and accessories are shown in Figure. However some
common tools of arc welding are shown separately through Figure. Few of the important components of arc
welding setup are described as under.

1. Arc welding power source
Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric arc welding, each having
its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually obtained from generators driven by electric motor
or if no electricity is available by internal combustion engines. For AC welding supply, transformers are
predominantly used for almost all Arc-welding where mains electricity supply is available. They have to step
down the usual supply voltage (200-400 volts) to the normal open circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts). The
following factors influence the selection of a power source:
a. Type of electrodes to be used and metals to be welded
b. Available power source (AC or DC)
c. Required output
d. Duty cycle
e. Efficiency
f. Initial costs and running costs
g. Available floor space
h. Versatility of equipment
2. Welding cables
Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source through the electrode
holder, the arc, the work piece and back to the welding power source. These are insulated copper or
aluminium cables.
3. Electrode holder
Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and conducting current to it. These are
usually matched to the size of the lead, which in turn matched to the amperage output of the arc welder.
Electrode holders are available in sizes that range from 150 to 500 Amps.
Fig. Electrode Holder

4. Welding Electrodes
An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without coatings. An arc is set up between
electrode and work piece. Welding electrodes are classified into following types-
(i) Consumable Electrodes
(a) Bare Electrodes
(b) Coated Electrodes
(ii) Non-consumable Electrodes
(a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes
(b) Tungsten Electrodes
Fig. Parts of a electrode

Consumable electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this electrode starts
melting when arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece. Thus consumable electrode itself acts as a
filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire without any flux coating on them. Coated
electrodes have flux coating which starts melting as soon as an electric arc is struck. This coating on melting
performs many functions like prevention of joint from atmospheric contamination, arc stabilizers etc.

Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon, pure tungsten
or alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But practically, the electrode length
goes on decreasing with the passage of time, because of oxidation and vaporization of the electrode material
during welding. The materials of non-consumable electrodes are usually copper coated carbon or graphite,
pure tungsten, throated or zirconiated tungsten.
5. Hand Screen
Hand screen used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.
6. Chipping hammer
Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by striking.
7. Wire brush
Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.
Fig. Earth Clamp Fig. Chipping Hammer Fig. Wire Brush
8. Protective clothing
Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to keep away the exposure of direct heat to the
body.
Safety Recommendations for ARC Welding
The beginner in the field of arc welding must go through and become familiar with these general
safety recommendations which are given as under.
1. The body or the frame of the welding machine shall be efficiently earthed. Pipe lines containing gases or
inflammable liquids or conduits carrying electrical conductors shall not be used for a ground return
circuit All earth connections shall be mechanically strong and electrically adequate for the required
current.
2. Welding arc in addition to being very is a source of infra-red and ultra-violet light also; consequently the
operator must use either helmet or a hand-shield fitted with a special filter glass to protect eyes
3. Excess ultra-violet light can cause an effect similar to sunburn on the skin of the welder
4. The welder’s body and clothing are protected from radiation and burns caused by sparks and flying
globules of molten metal with the help of the following:
5. Gloves protect the hands of a welder.
6. Leather or asbestos apron is very useful to protect welder’s clothes and his trunk and thighs while seated
he is doing welding.
7. For overhead welding, some form of protection for the head is required
8. Leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the needful.

9. Leather jackets and 1ather leggings are also available as clothes for body protection.
10. Welding equipment shall be inspected periodically and maintained in safe working order at all times.
11. Arc welding machines should be of suitable quality.
12. All parts of welding set shall be suitably enclosed and protected to meet the usual service conditions.
GAS WELDING
Gas welding derives the heat from the combustions of fuel gas such as acetylene in
combination with oxygen. The process is a fusion welding process where in the joint is completely
melted to obtain the fusion. The heat produced by the combustion of the gas is sufficient to melt any
metal and as such is universally applicable. The fuel gas is generally use is acetylene because of the
high
gh temperature generated in the fame. This process is called acetylene welding.
The oxygen requirement is different for various fuel gases for complete combustion. In all
the oxy fuel gas welding processes, the combustion takes place in two stages. For the oxy –
acetylene welding, the following reactions take place in this zone.
C2 H2 + 2 O2 2CO + H2 + 448 KJ/mol of acetylene.
The carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen produced in the first stage further combine with
the atmospheric oxygen and give rise tto
o the outer bluish flame, with the following reaction.
4CO + 2 H2 3O2 4 CO2 + 2 H2O + 812 kJ/mol (35.77 MJ/m3)
Different Types of Oxy-Acetylene

Acetylene Flames
A certain amount of oxygen is for complete combustion of fuel gases. When the oxygen
supply varies, the flame appearance obtained would also vary. Fig(a) shows the ideal condition, i.e.,
the complete combustion, called neutral flame. In neutral flame all the acetylene present is
completely burned and thus all the available heat in the acetylene is releas
released.
ed. Thus, this is the most
desirable flame to be used in oxy
oxy-acetylene welding.
However, it is also possible to provide more or less oxygen than that theoretically required
for complete combustion. When less oxygen is provided, part of the combustible matt matter is left as it
is and it results in a reducing or carburizing flame as shown in Fig. This flame is similar to the

neutral flame, only with the addition of a third phase in between the outer blue flame and the inner
white cone as shown in Fig. It is calle
calledd ‘intermediate flame feather’ which is reddish in colour. The
length of the flame feather is an indication of the excess acetylene present. Since unburnt carbon
present, goes into the weld metal pool, the metal appears to boil. This excess carbon causes tthe steel
to become extremely hard brittle.
When oxygen is in excess, it is called the oxidizing flame whose appearance is shown in
Fig. The flame is similar to the neutral flame with the exception that the inner white cone is
somewhat small, giving rise too higher tip temperatures (33000C). There is an excess amount of
oxygen present in the flame which badly oxidizes the weld metal. Because of the burning of the
noise, this flame would be useful for welding nonferrous alloys such as copper base alloys and zzinc
base alloys. The presence of oxygen in the oxidizing flame causes an oxide film to form quickly
which provides a protective cover over the base metal pool.

Practice No: 01 Butt Joint
Aim: To prepare a Butt joint using the given two M.S pieces by arc welding.
Material Required: Mild steel plate of size 50X50X5 mm – 2 No’s
Welding Electrodes: M.S electrodes 3.1 mm X350 mm
Welding Equipment: Air cooled transformer

Voltage-80 to 600 V 3 phase supply, amps up to 350
Tools and Accessories required:

1. Rough files 12” 2. Smooth files 12”
3. Electrode MS 3.15mm 4. Electrode holder 8”
5. Ground clamp 8” 6. Protractor 5”
7. Tongs Flat 8. Face shield -
9. Chipping hammer ¼ lb
Sequence of operations:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square leveling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning
Procedure:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, they are separated slightly for better
penetration of the weld.
3. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to be a proper value.
4. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
5. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and holding the two pieces together;
first run of the weld is done to fill the root gap.
6. Second run of the weld is done with proper weaving and with uniform movement. During the
process of welding, the electrode is kept at 150 to 250 from vertical and in the direction of welding.
7. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
8. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not leave hot rejected electrode stubs, steel scrap, or tools on the floor or around the welding
equipment.
2. Always wear a proper face shield and proper welding gloves
3. Ground the workpiece to a good electrical (earth) ground.
4. Do not touch electrode if in contact with the work or ground.
DRAWING:
Result:

Practice No: 02 Lap Joint
Aim: To prepare a Lap joint, using the given two M.S pieces by arc welding.
Material Supplied: Mild steel plate of size 50X50X5 mm – 2 No’s
Welding Electrodes: M.S electrodes 3.1 mm X350 mm
Welding Equipment: Air cooled transformer

Voltage-80 to 600 V, 3-ɸ supply, Current up to 350Amps
Tools and Accessories required:

1. Rough files 12” 2. Smooth files 12”
3. Electrode MS 3.15mm 4. Electrode holder 8”
5. Ground clamp 8” 6. Protractor 5”
7. Tongs Flat 8. Face shield -
9. Chipping hammer ¼ lb
Sequence of operations:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square levelling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning
Procedure:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the two pieces overlapped one over the
other as shown in drawing.
3. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to be a proper value.
4. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
5. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and the work pieces are tack-welded at
both the ends and at the centre of the joint.
6. The alignment of the lap joint is checked and the tack-welded pieces are required.
7. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
8. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not leave hot rejected electrode stubs, steel scrap, or tools on the floor or around the welding
equipment.
2. Always wear a proper face
ce shield and proper welding gloves
3. Ground the workpiece to a good electrical (earth) ground.
4. Do not touch electrode if in contact with the work or ground
ground.
DRAWING:
Result:

Viva Questions
1. Define the terms: Base metal, Filler metal and Weldability of metals.
2. State the advantages of welding.
3. List different equipment and tools used in a welding shop.
4. Name various types of Gas Welding.
5. Name the materials used for coating on electrodes.
6. What is the use of Flux?
7. What is Arc welding?
8. What is an Electrode?
9. What are the welding defects?
10. Define the terms: Lap Joints, Butt joints, corner joint and T- Joint.

CASTING
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Casting is the process of making metal/alloy component parts of desired shapes by pouring the
molten metal into a prepared mould and then allowing them to cool and solidify. A pattern may be defined
as a model of anything which is used to prepare moulds. A mould is a container which may be formed by
placing the pattern in damp sand. It is a cavity made of sand or metal having similar shape and size to that of
the actual casting. Molding is the process of making moulds.
Foundry has been shaping the metals since the earliest days of civilization. A wide variety of sizes
and shapes of simple and intricate nature can be produced in foundry shop. In general, we say another name
of the foundry, as casting. But, in actual, foundry is a place where castings are produced. The foundry shop
involves the various operations like pattern making, sand preparation, moulding, melting of metals, pouring
in moulds, cooling, shake-out, fettling, heat treatment, finishing and inspection.
Moulds are classified as temporary and permanent. Temporary moulds are made of refractory sand
and other binding materials and may be produced either through hand moulding or machine moulding,
whereas permanent moulds are made of ferrous metals and alloys, i.e., cast iron, steel, etc.
1.2. STEPS INVOLVED IN MAKING A CASTING
1. Make the pattern out of the wood, metal or plastic.

2. In case of sand casting, select, test and prepare the necessary sand mixture for mould and core
making.
3. With the help of patterns, prepare the moulds and necessary cores.
A mould is a container having a void or cavity of the shape to be cast.
A core is a body which is employed to produce a cavity in the casting.
4. Melt the metal/alloy to be cast.
5. Pour the molten metal/alloy into the mould and remove the casting from the mould after the metal
solidifies.
6. Clean and finish the casting.
7. Test and inspect the casting.
8. Remove the defects, if any.
9. Relieve the casting stresses by heat treatment.
10. Again inspect the casting.
11. The casting is ready for shipping.
1.3. MOULDING SAND
In foundry, sand is the principal material used for casting. The principal constituents of moulding
sand are:
Silica sand: Silica sand is the major portion of the moulding sand (80% to 82%). It can withstand very high
temperatures and it imparts refractoriness, chemical resistivity and permeability to the sand. This sand is
found in nature on the bottoms and bank of rivers, lakes and large bodies of water.
Binder: The purpose of adding a binder to the moulding sand is to impart the sufficient strength and
cohesiveness. However, it produces an adverse effect on the permeability of the sand mould. Binders are of
the following two types:

Organic binders: Organic binders find their specific use in core making. Examples are: dextrin, linseed oil,
molasses, pitch, cereal binders and resins like phenol and urea formaldehyde.
Inorganic binders: The common binders are clay, sodium silicate and Portland cement. Out of all these,
clay binders are commonly used. Clay consists of two ingredients- fine slit and true clay. Fine slit is a sort of
foreign matter or mineral deposit and has no bonding power. True clay imparts the necessary bonding
strength to the mould sand. The following types of clays are commonly used: Bentonite, kaolinite clay and
limonite. Out of all these, Bentonite is widely used. Its deposits are found in Bihar, Rajasthan and Kashmir.
Additives: Additives are those materials which are added to the moulding sand to enhance the existing
properties of sand. The commonly used additives are: Sea coal, Pitch and Asphalt, Silica flour, Graphite,
Wood Flour, Corn flour and Dextrin and Molasses.
Water: The clay content added to foundry sand will not give the required strength and bond until a suitable
quantity of water is added to it. Quantity of water varies from 2% to 8%. An incorrect amount of water
added to the moulding sand decreases the strength and flow ability.
1.4. CLASSIFICATION OF MOULDING SAND

The moulding sand may be classified as follows:
Natural sand: Natural sand, also known as green sand, is either available in river beds or dug from pits.
They possess an appreciable amount of clay (acts as a binder) and moisture. Most of the moulding is done
with green sand. It is a mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30% clay, having total amount of water 6 to 8%.
Green sand moulds are used for pouring the molten metal, immediately after preparing the moulds. Green
sand moulds are cheaper and take less time to prepare. Green sand is used for simple, small and medium size
castings.
Synthetic sand: It is artificial sand prepared by adding clay, water and other materials to silica sand, to
achieve the desired strength and bonding properties, which are not possessed by natural sands. These sands
have better casting properties like permeability and refractoriness and are suitable for making heavy
castings.
Dry sand: Dry sand moulds are obtained after drying or baking green sand moulds. The sand in this
condition is called dry sand. Dry sand has more strength, rigidity and thermal stability as compared to green
sand. These moulds are used for large and heavy castings.
Parting sand: Parting sand is clay free sand and consists of dried silica sand, sea sand or burnt sand. It is
used to keep the green sand from striking to the pattern and also to prevent the cope and drag from clinging.
Core sand: Core sand is the silica sand mixed with core oil and other additives. It is also called oil sand. It is
used for making cores.
1.5. PROPERTIES OD MOULDING SAND
Porosity or permeability: When molten metal is poured into a mould, gases and steam will be formed. The
sand mould should have sufficient porosity to allow the gases and steam to pass through it. If they are not
removed, casting defects such as blow holes will be formed.
Plasticity (Flowability): It is the property of the moulding sand by virtue of which, it flows to all the
corners around the pattern in the mould, when rammed. Only due to this property, the moulding sand gets
the shape of the pattern in the mould.

Refractoriness: It is the property of the moulding sand, to resist high temperature, without undergoing any
changes.
Adhesiveness: Sticking of the sand particles to another body is known as adhesiveness. The moulding sand
sticks to the side of the cope and drag parts of the moulding box.
Cohesiveness: It is the property by which the sand particles stick to each other. Coarse-grained sand
particles give better cohesiveness than spherical grained sand particles.
 Collapsibility: It is the property of the moulding sand, by which the mould should disintegrate with
minimum force after the casting, has solidified.
1.6. PATTERNS
A pattern is a model or the replica of the desired casting, which when packed in a suitable material,
produces a cavity called the mould. When this mould (cavity) is filled with molten metal, it produces a
desired casting after solidification.
1.7. PATTERN MATERIALS
The following factors assist in selecting proper pattern material:
1. Quantity, quality and intricacy of castings that are to be produced

2. Nature of casting process and type of moulding process
3. Possibility changes in design.
The following are the good characteristics of a good pattern material:
1. Ability to take good surface finish

2. Stability in dimensions in all weathers
3. Permissibility to work, shape and join easily
4. Strong, hard and durability.
Patterns may be constructed out of the following materials. The different materials have their own
advantages, limitations and the field of applications.
1.7.1. Wood: It is the widely used material for pattern making.

1.7.2 Metal: Metal patterns are cast from wooden pattern. This wooden pattern is called ‘Master Pattern’.
‘Mahogany” is the most commonly wood used for master pattern. Cast iron, steel, aluminium and its alloy,
brass, etc., are the metals commonly used for pattern making.
1.7.3 Plastic: Though thermo-setting plastics are becoming more popular now-a-days, but both
thermosetting and thermoplastic materials are used for pattern work. The commonly used plastics are:
Polyester resin, epoxy resin and polystyrene.
1.7.4 laster: Plaster of Paris or gypsum cement can also be used as a pattern material, as it can be easily cast
into intricate shapes.
1.7.5 Wax: The waxes commonly chosen are paraffin wax, shellac wax, bees wax and ceresin wax.
Additives which act polymerizing agents and stabilizers are also added.

1.8. TYPES OF PATTERNS

The following types of patterns are commonly used:
1.8.1. Single or solid piece pattern: It is the simplest type of pattern (Fig. 4.1). It is made without joints,
parting or any loose piece in its construction. This pattern is not attached to a frame or plate so it is also
called loose pattern. These are inexpensive. These are used for making large casting of simple shapes.
Fig. 4.1 Single piece pattern Fig. 4.2 Split pattern
1.8.2. Split or two piece pattern: Split patterns are recommended for intricate castings, where removal of
the pattern from the mould is difficult. Two halves of the patterns are put together by dowel pins. If the two
pieces are similar in size and shape, it is called a split pattern; otherwise, it is known as a two-piece pattern.
The upper and lower parts of the split pattern are accommodated in the cope and drag parts of the mould
respectively (Fig. 4.2).
1.8.3. Loose piece pattern: When a pattern cannot be withdrawn from the mould due to its complexity,
loose pieces are provided to facilitate this. The loose pieces or parts are attached to the main body of the
pattern with dowel pins (Fig. 4.3). However, only two moulding boxes arerequired for making a mould in
this case.
Fig. 4.3 Loose piece pattern
1.8.4. Multi-piece pattern: Sometimes the patterns are made in three or more parts due to their
complexity in shape. These patterns are called multi-piece pattern (Fig. 4.4). The make-up parts of the
pattern are held together with dowel pins. The number of moulding boxes required will be equal to the
number of pieces of the pattern.
Fig. 4.4 Multi-piece pattern

1.8.5. Match plate pattern: These patterns are made in two pieces; one piece mounted on one side and the
other on other side of the plate, called match-plate (Fig. 4.5). The plate may carry only one pattern or a
group of patterns mounted in the same way on its two sides. These patterns are preferred for producing small
castings on mass scale. They produce accurate castings and at faster rate. The plate may be of wood, steel,
magnesium or aluminum.
Fig. 4.5 Match plate pattern Fig. 4.6 Gated pattern
1.8.6. Gated pattern: For mass production of small castings, gated patterns are recommended. In gated
pattern, a single sand mould carries a number of cavities (Fig. 4.6). Patterns for these castings are connected
to each other by means of gate formers which provide suitable gates for easy passage of flowing metal. A
single runner can be used for feeding all these cavities. This enables a considerable saving in moulding time
and a uniform feeding of molten metal.
1.8.7. Core box: A core box is a pattern, made of either wood or metal, into which sand is packed to form
the core. Wood is commonly used for making a core box; but metal boxes are used when cores are to be
made in large numbers. Specially prepared core sand box is used in making cores. Fig. 4.7 shows a core box.
Fig. 4.7 Core box
1.9. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

The common hand tools used in foundry work are as under:
1.9.1. Shovel: It consists of broad steel blade with a wooden handle. It is used for mixing and tempering
the sand and then transferring the mixture in some container. Fig. 4.8 shows a shovel.
Fig. 4.8 Shovel Fig. 4.9 Trowel
Fig. 4.10 Strike off bar

1.9.2. Trowel: It consists of a metal blade fitted into a wooden handle (Fig. 4.9). It is used for finishing
flat surfaces and corners inside a mould.
1.9.3. Strike off bar: It is a flat wooden or metallic bar, as shown in Fig. 4.10. It is used to strike off the
excess sand from the mould after ramming, to provide a level surface.
1.9.4. Hand riddle: It is used to remove the lumps and foreign particles from the sand. It consists of a
wooden frame fitted with a screen of standard wire mesh at the bottom (Fig. 4.11). It is also known as sieve.
Fig. 4.11 Hand riddle Fig. 4.12 Vent wire
1.9.5. Vent wire: After ramming and removing excess sand, it is used to make small holes in the sand
mould to allow the exit of gases and steam during casting. Fig. 4.12 shows a vent wire.
1.9.6. Slicks: It is a small double ended tool having a flat on one end and spoon on the other (Fig. 4.13). It
is used for mending and finishing small surfaces of the mould.
Fig. 4.13 Slick
1.9.7. 4.9.7 Lifters: Lifters are used for removing loose sand from the mould cavity. They are also used
for patching deep sections of a mould. Fig. 4.14 shows a lifter.
Fig. 4.14 Lifter
1.9.8. 4.9.8 Rammers: These are used for packing or ramming the sand around the pattern. One of its
ends, called the peen end, is wedge shaped and is used for packing sand in spaces, pockets and corners, in
the early stages of ramming. The other end, called the butt end, has a flat surface and is used for compacting
the sand towards the end of moulding (Fig. 4.15).
Fig. 4.16 Swab Fig. 4.17 Sprue pin Fig. 4.15 Rammer
Fig. 4.18 Draw spike

1.9.9. Swab: It is a small brush having long hemp fibres (Fig. 4.16). It is used to provide a small amount of
water around the edge of the pattern in the sand before the pattern is rapped for removing it from the mould.
1.9.10. Sprue or runner pin: It is a tapered wooden pin used to make a hole in the cope through which the
molten metal is poured into the mould. A Sprue pin is shown in Fig. 4.16.
1.9.11. Draw spike: It is a tapered steel rod having a loop or ring at its one end and sharp point at the other
(Fig. 4.17). It is used to tap and draw patterns from the mould.
1.9.12. Draw screws and rapping plate: It is a long mild steel rod with a ring in one end and threaded at
the other, there is a plate known as rapping plate consisting of several tapped holes (Fig. 4.18). Rapping
plate and draw screw are used to facilitate rapping and lifting of the pattern from the mould. The moulder
places a draw spike in the rapping hole and raps it to loosen the pattern, then fixes draw screws into the
screw hole on the plate.
Fig. 4.18 Draw screws and rapping plate
1.9.13. Bellow: It is used to blow loose particles of sand from the pattern and the mould cavity. A hand
blower is shown in Fig. 4.19.
Fig. 4.19 Bellow
1.9.14. Smoothers and corner slicks: These are used to repair and finish the round and square corners,
round and flat surfaces and edges etc. According to their use and shape, they are given different names as
shown in Fig. 4.20.
Fig. 4.20 Smoothers
1.9.15. Clamps: Clamps are made of steel and are used for holding and clamping the moulding boxes
firmly together during pouring (Fig. 4.21).
Fig. 4.21 Clamps

1.9.16. Moulding boxes or flasks: The boxes used in sand moulding may be made of wood, cast iron or
steel. It is a container in which sand is packed and rammed. In moulding sand, there is a cavity in which
molten metal is poured. Moulding boxes consists of two or more parts. The upper part is called cope. The
lower part is called drag and intermediate parts are called cheeks. These are provided with suitable clamps to
help in locating the right position during casting. Fig. 4.22 shows a moulding box.
Fig. 4.22 Moulding box
1.9.17. CRUCIBLE:
A crucible is a pot that is used to keep metals for melting in a furnace. Furnace crucibles are designed to
withstand the highest temperatures encountered in the metal casting works. The crucible should essentially
be made of materials with a much higher melting point than that of the materials to be melted. The crucible
materials should also have good strength even when extremely hot.
Furnace crucibles come in a variety of metal constructions, such as clay-graphite, silicon-carbide, and more.
These materials can resist the extreme temperatures in typical foundry operations. Silicon carbide has the
additional benefit of being a highly durable material. Some common shapes for crucibles include “A” shape
and bilge shape.
It has been found that the "A Shape" crucibles are slightly rough around the edges. Their surface
finishes are slightly coarse and there are dents and dings in the rims and body. These crucibles don't have as
finished an appearance as the bilge types, however because of their lower price, many people prefer “A” type
crucibles. The roughness does not affect the performance in any way.
Never stuffed a crucible with a cold metal

Never filled the crucibles with a cold metal, such as aluminium– as there are strong chances that the
metal will expand and crack the container. Also make sure to never allow the metal to solidify in the bottom
of crucible, for the same cause.

Crucibles should properly be tested for cracks prior to each application. Replace the cracked
crucibles with new ones. According to some hobby foundry professionals, a good ceramic crucible will
"ring" when hit with a soft hammer while a damaged one will "clunk". Some people prefer a visual
inspection.
Keep the crucibles in a dry place and pre-heat them and the metal to be melted as the furnace heats
up. A little bit of moisture can cause the crucible to crack on heating.
Usage Tips
1. The crucibles should be handled with care using properly fitting tongs. Tongs are lifting tools that are
used to protect crucibles from damage or failure.
2. Prior to heating, a plate of cardboard can be placed between the base of furnace and the crucible. The
cardboard will burn off, thereby leaving a layer of carbon in between and protect the crucible from
bonding to the furnace bottom.
3. It is better to use different crucibles for different types of metals to avoid contamination. Also make sure
to completely empty the crucible after each use as the metal left to solidify may expand on re-heating,
which may destroy the crucible.
4. The crucibles should be "tempered" before usage. Heat the empty crucible to a temperature of about 500
deg F. and hold it for 20 minutes. Then work the crucible to red heat. Turn off the heat and leave the
crucible to cool slowly. This process takes off any moisture in the crucible. The crucible is now ready for
use.
5. Place the material very loosely into the crucible. Do not pack the crucible, as the material will expand on
heating and may damage the ceramic. When the material has been melted, carefully load more material
into the puddle for melting (Warning - In the case, any moisture is present on the new material, steam
explosion may occur). This time again, does not tightly pack in the metal. Keep adding the material into
the container until the required quantity has been melted.

Practice No: 01 Single Piece Pattern
AIM: To prepare a mould cavity for the given single piece pattern.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: Molding sand (Bentonite + silica +coal dust)
TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Ramming rod ½ lb 2. Spike rod 6”
3. Gate cutter 6” 4. Mallet 400 gm
5. Vent rod “ 6. Bellows -
7. Shovel - 8. Riddle -
PROCEDURE:
1. The given pattern is checked for the correctness

2. Place the first half of the pattern in the inverted drag box and fill with moulding sand.
3. Prepare the cope box also in the similar way.
4. Sprinkle parting sand over the top face of the drag box.
5. Place the runner and riser in the appropriate places in the mould box before pouring the sand.
6. Then by using vent rod keep the vent holes to allow the casing gases to escape.
7. Now the pattern is removed from the mould box which will give the mould cavity.
8. After cavity is prepared, prepare Sprue and also cut the gates by using gate cutter.
9. Finally place the cope box over the drag box for the completion of the experiment.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not keep the tools at the edge of the work-bed.

2. Do not over ram the moulding sand
RESULT:

Practice No: 02 Split Piece Pattern
AIM:: To prepare a mould cavity for the given split pattern.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: Molding sand (Bentonite + silica +coal dust)
TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Ramming rod ½ lb 2. Spike rod 6”
3. Gate cutter 6” 4. Mallet 400 gm
5. Vent rod “ 6. Bellows -
7. Shovel - 8. Riddle -
PROCEDURE:
1. The given pattern is checked for the correctness

2. Place the first half of the pattern in the inverted drag box and fill with moulding sand.
3. Prepare the cope box also in the similar way by placing the other half of the pattern.
4. Sprinkle parting sand over the top face of the drag box.
5. Place the runner and riser
iser in the appropriate places in the mould box before pouring the sand.
6. Then by using vent rod keep the vent holes to allow the casing gases to escape.
7. Now the two pieces of the pattern are removed from the mould box which will give the mould
cavity.
8. Afterr cavity is prepared, prepare sprue and also cut the gates by using gate cutter.
9. Finally place the cope box over the drag box for the completion of the experiment.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not keep the tools at the edge of the work

work-bed.
2. Do not over ram the moulding sand.
RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is casting?
2. What is foundry shop?
3. Mention types of Pattern?
4. State the difference between Dry Sand Mould and Green Sand Mould.
5. State the methods of drying of Dry Sand Mould.
6. Where do we use stepped cone pulley?
7. Define the terms : pattern and casting.
8. What are the materials used for making patterns?
9. State the use of Bellow.
10. List out the properties of sand.

TIN SMITHY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The metal plank having less than 2 mm thick is called sheet metal. Sheet metal work deals with
the production of components in wide variety of shapes and sizes from sheet metal with aid of tools
or machines metals used in sheet metal work variety of metal shop the characteristics and used of
some of the important metals used in sheet metal work are described below.
1. Galvanized iron: It is a sheet of soft steel, which is coated with zinc. Zinc resists corrosion
and improves the appearance of metal galvanized iron is one of the least expensive metals
and is used for making pans, buckets, ducts, gutters, tanks, boxes etc.
2. Black iron: It is uncoated sheet of metal with bluish-black appearance. It corrodes rapidly is
not extensively used due to difficulties of soldering the block iron sheet are used for the
parts that are to be painted.
3. Tin plate: Tin plate is an iron or steel coated with pure tin. It has very bright silver
appearance and is used for food containers, cans and pans.
4. Stainless Steels: It is an alloy steel possessing corrosion resistance. General type stainless
steel contains 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel. This steel is commonly known as
18-8 stainless steel. These are available various sizes and thickness. It is widely used for
food containers, dairy equipment.
5. Copper: It has reddish color and posses good malleability, ductility and resistance to
atmospheric corrosion.
6. Aluminium: Sheet aluminum is never pure aluminum and it is always allowed with small
quantities of copper silicon, magnesium and iron.
1.1 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Some of the tools used in fitting are also used in sheet metal work. Certain additional tools
used by sheet metal worker are described.
Snips: Hand shears or snips are used to cut sheet metal. Although there are many types, the sheet
metal workers generally use straight snips and curved snips.
Straight snips: Straight snips have straight blades and are used for cutting along the straight lines
and for trimming edges.

Curved snips: Curved snips has a curved blade and used for cutting circles and irregular shapes.
Bench shears: Bench shear is used for cutting thicker sheets. It is the lower fixed blade is firmly
secured by bracket at the bottom. The movable blade is pivoted at the rear end, the hand operating
lever is attached to the front end of movable blade a link mechanism.
Stakes: Stakes are made of steel and forged in a variety of shapes and sizes. Its working face is
machined and polished to facilitate various operations such as bending, seaming or forming.
Bench shears
The following types of Stakes are most generally used.
Double seaming: These stakes has two horns and it is used to make double seam for vessels.
Blow horn: These stakes has two horn tapering horns and it is used to forming or seaming funnels.
Break horn: These stakes has a square tapered horn on one side and a round tapered horn on
opposite side. It is used for shaping round and square surfaces, bending edges and making corners.
Conductor stake: These stakes has two cylindrical horns having different diameters. It is used for
forming pipes and cylindrical pieces.
Funnel stake: It is used for forming conical shapes and for making wire rings.
Hatchet stake: It has a horizontal sharp straight edge and can be used for making straight,
Sharp bends and for folding and bending edges.

Hand hammers and mallets: The sheet metal worker uses a wide variety of hammers and
Mallet for forming shapes by different operation. The most commonly used hammers are follows.
Straight –peen hammer: It has a peen end similar to its bottom size round shape and its top side is
straight point. Square, slightly curved face and its peen is tapered it is used for riveting.
Cross peen hammers: It has a square, flat face and its tapered on one side it is used for setting
down the edges for making a double seam.
Mallet: Mallet is generally made of wood or plastic. It is used whenever slight blows are required.
Wooden mallet does not damage the surface.

Wire Gauge: The thickness of sheet metal is referred in numbers known as standard wire gauge
(SWG). The gaps in the circumference of the gauge are used to check the gauge number as shown
below.
Sheet Metal Joints: Various types of joints are used in sheet metal work to suit the varying
requirements. Some commonly used sheet metal joints and folded edges are shown below. These
are self secured joints, formed by joining together two pieces of sheet metal and using the metal
itself to form the joint.
1.2 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

1. Never carry tools in pockets.
2. Do not try to hold the sheets with bare hands.
3. Do not remove any guards on squaring shear.
4. Care should be exercised when working on squaring shears. Be sure that the fingers are
away from the shearing blade.
5. Never use a soldering iron a loose handle.
6. Never touch a soldering iron to see its hotness. The safest method is to touch the iron to
solder. The melting of solder indicates the correct temperature.
7. Be careful when cutting out a pattern. Remove scrap metal to avoid injuries.

Practice No: 01 Rectangular Tray
AIM: To prepare a rectangular tray from the sheet metal as per the given dimensions.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: G.I sheet of 100mm x 150 mm
TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Straight snips 10” 2. Curved snips 10”
3. Cross peen hammer ¼ mm 4. Mallet 400 gm
5. Steel rule 12” 6. Tool Bench 6ft X 4ft
7. Protractor 5” 8. Try Square 6” X 4”
PROCEDURE:
1. The given size of the sheet metal sheet is cut & checked for dimensions.
2. Prepare a template as per the given dimensions directly on the sheet metal only.
3. Cut according to the development of the surface i.e., template, with the help of snip notching
operations
4. The sheet metal is bent along the marked lines by striking with a mallet on proper stake.
5. The edge of the sheet metal is folded to strengthen the edge and eliminate the sharp edges.
6. Finally seaming operation is completed to obtain the given shape of the job.
8. Then the completed is rectangular tray joint.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Remove scrap metal to avoid injuries.

2. Care must be taken while cutting operation.
3. Never carry the tools in pockets.
RESULT:

Practice No: 02 Funnel
AIM: To prepare a funnel from the given sheet metal as per the given dimensions.
MATERIAL REQUIRED: G.I sheet of 100mm x 150mm
TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Straight snips 10” 2. Curved snips 10”
3. Cross peen hammer ¼ mm 4. Mallet 400 gm
5. Steel rule 12” 6. Tool Bench 6ft X 4ft
7. Protractor 5” 8. Try Square 6” X 4”
PROCEDURE:
1. The given size of the sheet metal sheet is cut & checked for dimensions.
2. Prepare a template as per the given dimensions directly on the sheet metal only.
3. Cut according to the development of the surface i.e., template, with the help of snip notching
operations
4. The sheet metal is bent along the marked lines by striking with a mallet on proper stake.
5. The edge of the sheet metal is folded to strengthen the edge and eliminate the sharp edges.
6. Finally seaming operation is completed to obtain the given shape of the job.
8. Then the completed is D-Funnel joint.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Remove scrap metal to avoid injuries.
2. Care must be taken while cutting operation.
3. Never carry the tools in pockets.
RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Mention any five applications of sheet metal work?
2. State any four commonly used sheet metals in practice.
3. Mention the types of tools used in sheet metal work?
4. What are the methods of development used in practice?
5. What is a stake? State its use.
6. Mention types of measuring tools?
7. What is sheet metal?
8. What is G.I. sheet?
9. What is sheet metal gauge and standard wire gauge?
10. Mention types of snips?

GLASS CUTTING
INTRODUCTION
Glass is an amorphous material that lacks a long range periodic crystalline structure. Glasses can be
formed through several methods but the most common method involves heating raw materials into a molten
liquid and then rapidly cooling the liquid in such a way that the atoms remain in a randomly arranged atomic
state.
When using the melting/cooling method to form glass, the process often begins as a mixture of
several critical raw material powders. These powder mixtures are composed of many different components,
with each playing an important role. In most glasses, the compositions are engineered to include network
formers, fluxing agents, property modifiers, fining agents, and colorants. The chemical formulation dictates
the physical properties and characteristics of the formed glass.
Fig: 2D representation of glass
These raw materials are then heated to a sufficient melting temperature so that a homogeneous
viscous liquid is formed. At this point, depending on the manufacturing technique, the molten glass can be
manipulated and shaped into the desired glass form. The chemical formulation can be altered to meet
different performance specifications or to improve manufacturability.
Manufacture of glass
Glass is a mixture having no definite boiling of freezing points. It is also called a super cooled liquid.
Chemically, most glasses are silicates. It is transparent and not affected by chemicals. It can be moulded into
any shape. The ingredients for making glass are:-
1. Limestone (CaCO3),
2. Soda ash (Na2CO3), and
3. Sand (SiO2)
The manufacture of glass involves the following steps:
1. Limestone, sand and soda ash are mixed and poured into a tank furnace. Tank furnace looks like a small
swimming pool. It is very hot (about 17000C). It is shallow at one end and deep at the other.
2. The raw material moves slowly towards the deeper end. Silica melts at a very high temperature. In order to
lower its melting point, soda ash is added. Thus, energy is saved and a low cost is incurred in the glass-
making process.

3. Due to the presence of limestone, glass becomes insoluble in water.
4. As the raw material melts, a clear jelly-like substance is formed; this takes about a week’s time.
5. During this time bubbles of CO2 gas escape and some of the raw material slowly changes into a mixture of
silicates.
6. The following reactions take place inside the furnace.
7. The clear jelly-like substance on cooling sets to form glass. This is known as soda-lime glass.
Engineering Properties of Glass
1. Transparency
2. Strength
3. Workability
4. Transmittance
5. U value
6. Recycle property
COLORING OF GLASS
Tinted glass is nothing but colored glass. A color producing ingredients is mixed to the normal glass mix to
produce colored glass which does not affect other properties of glass. Different color producing ingredients
are tabulated below
Colouring ion Colour
Iron oxide Green
Sulphur Blue
Manganese dioxide Black
Cobalt Blue
Chromium Dark green
Titanium Yellowish brown
Uranium Yellow

Three Most Common Commercial Glass Types and Their Applications
Glass compositions are engineered to exhibit different physical, chemical, and optical properties. Different
applications demand specific types of glass and manufacturing processes. In commercial glass
manufacturing, several glass compositions are commonly used. We’ll briefly highlight three of the most
common commercial glass compositions, their properties, and typical applications.
1. Borosilicate Glasses
In harsh, demanding applications, borosilicate glasses are commonly used for their superior durability.
They have good thermal shock resistance and can withstand extreme thermal cycling with minimal effect.
For instance, Pyrex, a commercial borosilicate composition created by Corning, Inc., is commonly used for
baking at home or performing experiments in the lab. It can go from cooking in the oven to air cooling on the
counter without damage. This is due to the low coefficient of thermal expansion which allows the glass to
develop fewer internal stresses during the heating and cooling processes that cause cracking or breaking.
In industrial or transportation environments, glass is frequently exposed to harsh chemicals like jet fuel,
hydraulic fluid, acids, photo initiators, saline solutions, and petroleum products. Even persistent exposure to
water can cause damage to some glasses. Borosilicate glasses have shown an ability to resist both moisture
and chemical attack and will continue to perform as expected despite long exposures to water and chemicals.
Because of this, these glass compositions are commonly used for laboratory glassware, sight glass within
industrial equipment, transformer bushings, explosion-proof lighting, and exterior aircraft lenses.
Borosilicate glass structure Soda lime glass structure Phosphate glass structure

2. Soda-lime Silica Glasses

Open a refrigerator and take a look at the containers and jars within, most likely they are made with
soda-lime silica glass. This family of glasses encompasses many of the glass compositions used to create
food and beverage containers, decorative tableware and accessories, and windows. Soda-lime silica glass
compositions account for nearly 90% of the glass manufactured in the world.
Its prevalence is due to the fact that it’s relatively inexpensive to manufacture; the materials are common
and when combined, they can be melted at a lower temperature than many other glass compositions. Also,
the manufacturing processes have been refined, optimized, and automated over the last century to improve
through-put for mass production of these glasses.
However, soda-lime silica glasses are typically not as durable as other glasses, including borosilicate
compositions. They tend to be prone to thermal shock failure and can degrade in chemically corrosive
environments. However, through additional manufacturing like chemical and thermal strengthening, the
durability and strength can be improved.
3. Phosphate Glasses
Phosphate glasses are mainly composed of the network former P2O5 where the previously mentioned
glasses use SiO2 or B2O3 as the primary glass network formers. These glasses feature a high resistance to
hydrofluoric acid, but otherwise they have a relatively low resistance to chemical corrosion. The
compositions can be made more resistant to the chemicals and the environment by engineering the
composition for the specific applications.
Phosphate glasses are well suited for doping with various colorants, including transition metal ions and
rare earth oxides. This ability results in glasses that exhibit unique and desirable transmission spectrum.
These colored glasses have found their niche in various medical, military, and scientific applications.
Bioactive glass, which is the material of choice to promote bone growth in the medical industry, is also a
phosphate based glass composition.
GLASS CUTTER
A glass cutter is a tool used to make a shallow score in one

surface of a piece of glass that is to be broken in two pieces. The
scoring makes a split in the surface of the glass which encourages
the glass to break along the score. Regular, annealed glass can be
broken apart this way but not tempered glass as the latter tends to
shatter rather than breaking cleanly into two pieces.
A glass cutter may use a diamond to create the split, but more commonly a small cutting wheel made
of hardened steel or tungsten carbide 4–6 mm in diameter with a V-shaped profile called a "hone angle" is
used. The greater the hone angles of the wheel, the sharper the angle of the V and the thicker the piece of
glass it is designed to cut. The hone angle on most hand-held glass cutters is 120°, though wheels are made
as sharp as 154° for cutting glass as thick as 0.5 inches (13 mm). Their main drawback is that wheels with
sharper hone angles will become dull more quickly than their more obtuse counterparts. The effective cutting
of glass also requires a small amount of oil (kerosene is often used) and some glass cutters contain a
reservoir of this oil which both lubricates the wheel and prevents it from becoming too hot: as the wheel
scores, friction between it and the glass surface briefly generates intense heat, and oil dissipates this
efficiently. When properly lubricated a steel wheel can give a long period of satisfactory service. However,

tungsten carbide wheels have been proven to have a significantly longer life than steel wheels and offer
greater and more reproducible penetration in scoring as well as easier opening of the scored glass.
Glass cutters are manufactured with wheels of varying diameters. One of the most popular has a
diameter of 5.5 mm (7 32 in). The ratio between the arc of the wheel and the pressure applied with the tool has
an important bearing on the degree of penetration. Average hand pressure with this size wheel often gives
good results. For a duller wheel on soft glass a larger wheel (e.g., 6 mm (1 4 in) will require no change in
hand pressure. A smaller wheel (3 mm (1 8 in)) is appropriate for cutting patterns and curves since a smaller
wheel can follow curved lines without dragging.
The sheet of glass is typically lubricated along the cutting line with light oil. The cutter is then
pressed firmly against the surface of glass and a line is briskly scribed to form a "score" or "cut". The glass is
now weakened along this line and the panel is ready to be split. Running pliers may then be used to "run" or
"open" to the split.
General purpose glass is mostly made by the float glass process and is obtainable in thicknesses from
1.5 to 25 mm (1 16 to 1 in). Thin float glass tends to cut easily with a sharp cutter. Thicker glass such as
10 mm (3 8 in)) float glass is significantly more difficult to cut and break; glass with textured or patterned
surfaces may demand specialized methods for scoring and opening the cuts.
Types of glass cutters commonly used are
Carbide wheel glass cutter Diamond pointer glass cutter

Parts of operations
Part-1 Preparation
Set up your work area. You'll need a large flat
surface, preferably one that is slightly soft and
won't scratch your glass. Work in an area that is
easy to clean.
Avoid working over carpet because of the risk of
getting glass shards on the floor if the glass breaks.
For their own safety keep pets and children away
from your workspace and materials.
Part-2 Scoring the Glass
Apply pressure to the glass and you pull the cutter along the surface, rolling on the small carbide
wheel. Listen for a smooth sound like ripping
silk. A gritty sound means that you are pushing
too hard or that you did not oil your cutter. The
less sound you make, the better your score will
be.
If you push too hard (a very common mistake),
your cut gets "hot," meaning that it snaps and
pops.
You are aiming to get a uniform score. If you are
pressing too hard in one spot and perfectly in
another, the glass will not break the way that you want it to. Microscopic imperfections in your score
will cause your cut to go askew.
Part-3 Breaking and Smoothing
Grasp each side of the cut carefully in your

hands. Hold the glass as if you were trying to break a
potato chip in half with two hands.
Apply minor pressure from the wrist to break the
glass along your score. Your elbows do not move.
Simply twist your wrists (your right wrist will turn
clockwise and your left will turn counter clockwise).
Use fine sandpaper or a sharpening stone to
remove the sharp edge. This edge will be where the
vertical edge meets the horizontal surfaces. Not only
does sanding reduce the chances of your being cut, but
sanded glass is less likely to chip along the edges and
has some added strength.

Practice No: 01 Straight Cutting

Aim: To prepare straight cutting of a given glass as per given dimensions.
Material required: Soda lime glass
Tools required:

1. Glass cutter Carbide wheel 2. C -clamp 4”
3. Steel rule 12” 4. Marker -
5. Sandpaper - 6. Cloth -
7. Oil kerosene 8. Try Square 6” X 4”
Procedure:
1) Clean the glass surface in the area where you plan to make cuts
2) Measure and mark where you want to score on the glass with a marker.
3) Dip the cutter in the oil and grasp it like a pencil.
4) Apply pressure to the glass and you pull the cutter along the surface, rolling on the small carbide wheel.
5) Run the cutter smoothly from one edge to the other
6) Grasp each side of the cut carefully in your hands.
7) Apply minor pressure from the wrist to break the glass along your score.
8) Use fine sandpaper or a sharpening stone to remove the sharp edge.
Precautions:
1) Avoid working over carpet because of the risk of getting glass shards on the floor if the glass breaks.
2) Make sure to look at the wheel and make sure it is lined up the way you want the glass to cut.
3) Do not run back and forth over the line if you miss a spot.
Result:

PRACTICE NO-2 – CURVE CUTTING

Aim: To prepare curve cutting of a given glass as per given dimensions.
Material required: Soda lime glass
Tools required:

1. Glass cutter Carbide wheel 2. C -clamp 4”
3. Steel rule 12” 4. Marker -
5. Sandpaper - 6. Cloth -
7. Oil kerosene 8. Try Square 6” X 4”
Procedure:
1. Clean the glass surface in the area where you plan to make cuts
2. Measure and mark where you want to score on the glass with a marker.
3. Dip the cutter in the oil and grasp it like a pencil.
4. Apply pressure to the glass and you pull the cutter along the surface, rolling on the small carbide wheel.
5. Run the cutter smoothly from one edge to the other
6. Grasp each side of the cut carefully in your hands.
7. Apply minor pressure from the wrist to break the glass along your score.
8. Use fine sandpaper or a sharpening stone to remove the sharp edge.
Precautions:
1. Avoid working over carpet because of the risk of getting glass shards on the floor if the glass breaks.
2. Make sure to look at the wheel and make sure it is lined up the way you want the glass to cut.
3. Do not run back and forth over the line if you miss a spot.
Result:

Viva Questions
1. Explain glass?
2. Classify different Characteristics of Glass?
3. Classify three common used glass?
4. Classify some common additives and the colors they produce to glass?
5. Explain soda lime silica glass?
6. Explain Borosilicate glass?
7. Explain Phosphate glass?
8. Applications of soda lime silicate glass?
9. Applications of Borosilicate glass?
10. Applications of Borosilicate glass?
11. Classify two commonly used glass cutters?

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EnginEEring

1. Always prefer to use leather shoes.

2. Always wear lab coats (APRONS).

3. Never use loose clothes.

4. Full sleeve shirts should be avoided.

5. Never use neck tie while working.

6. Never mix the Measuring tools with cutting tools.

7. Keep the surroundings clean.

Fig. No.1: Working principal of llathe machine

2. CONSTRUCTION OF LATHE MACHINE

2.2 Head stock:

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 1

Fig. No 2 : Lathe Diagram

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 2

The functions of tailstock:

2.5 Feed Mechanism:

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 3

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 4

5. Work holding devices used in a lathe

1.1 Three Jaw self-centering chuck

The work is held quickly and easily as the three

1.2 Four Jaw Independent Chuck

1.3 Magnetic Chuck

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 5

1.4 Collet Chuck

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 6

6.2 Gang Mandrel

6.3 Screwed Mandrel

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 7

6.4 Cone Mandrel

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 8

8.2 Follower rest

In order to reduce friction between the work and the jaws,

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 9

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 10

Practice No: 01 Step Turning

Machining Operations to be performed:

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 11

Practice No: 03 Drilling

Aim: To perform a drilling operation on give

Machine Tool Required: Radial Drilling Machine

Material: wood of size: _________

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 12

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 13

1.2. HOLDING TOOLS

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 14

1.3. MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS

1.3.1. Try square

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 15

1.3.3. Odd leg Caliper

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 16

1.3.7. Vernier Calipers

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 17

1.3.8. Vernier Height Gauge

1.4. CUTTING TOOLS

1.4.3. Twist Drill

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 19

1.4.4. Taps and Tap wrenches

1.4.5. Dies and die‐holders

1.5. FINISHING TOOLS

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 20

figure shows the various types of files based on their shape.

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 21

1.5.3. Ball‐ Peen Hammer