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A History of Water Distribution Systems and their Optimisation

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 224 © IWA Publishing 2015 Water Science & Technology: Water Supply | 15.2 | 2015

A history of water distribution systems and their

optimisation
Helena Mala-Jetmarova, Andrew Barton and Adil Bagirov

ABSTRACT
Helena Mala-Jetmarova (corresponding author)
Water distribution systems have a very long and rich history dating back to the third
Andrew Barton
millennium B.C. Advances in water supply and distribution were followed in parallel by Adil Bagirov
Faculty of Science and Technology,
discoveries and inventions in other related fields. Therefore, it is the aim of this paper to Federation University Australia,
Mt Helen Campus,
review both the history of water distribution systems and those related fields in order to University Drive,
Ballarat,
present a coherent summary of the complex multi-stranded discipline of water engineering.
Victoria 3350,
Related fields reviewed in this paper include devices for raising water and water pumps, water Australia
E-mail: helenamalajetmarova@students.
quality and water treatment, hydraulics, network analysis, and optimisation of water federation.edu.au

distribution systems. The review is brief and concise and allows the reader to quickly gain
an understanding of the history and advancements of water distribution systems and analysis.
Furthermore, the paper gives details of other existing publications where more information
can be found.
Key words | history, hydraulics, optimisation, water distribution systems, water pumps,
water quality

INTRODUCTION

Water distribution systems (WDSs) have an interesting Water distribution systems

and ancient history, which consists of not only steady
advancements, but also deep declines. Undeniably, devel-
opments in WDSs and other engineering sciences
emerged with the progress of nations, and stagnated or
even retrogressed when nations declined. Ewbank ()
states that ‘science and the arts are renovating the consti-
tution of society [ … ]. Historians will hereafter trace in
them the rise and fall of nations; for power and pre-emi-
nence will depend upon new discoveries in
applications of science.’ Correspondingly, understanding
the history of a particular engineering science is impor-
tant in order to realise the broader linkages by which
the science developed. This paper presents a coherent his-
tory of such developments in WDSs inclusive of devices
for raising water and water pumps, water quality and
water treatment, hydraulics, network analysis, and optim-
isation of WDSs.
doi: 10.2166/ws.2014.115
The history of water distribution is very ancient in develop-
ment. Indeed, urban WDSs date back to the Bronze Age
(circa 3200–1100 B.C.), with ‘several astonishing examples’
from the mid-third millennium B.C. (Mays et al. ).
These include, for example, a system of hundreds of wells
supplying water to domestic demands, and private and
public baths (Mays et al. ). Crouch (), who documen-
and ted water management in ancient Greece, revealed that the
very first piped water supplies including pressure pipes had
been known as early as the second millennium B.C. It is
documented that ancient Minoan and Greek civilisations
had urban water reticulation, sewerage and drainage sys-
tems, with wells, cisterns, tanks, reservoirs, dams, channels
and water pipes made of terracotta (clay) and lead
(Crouch ; Angelakis et al. ; Mays et al. ). More-
over, the ancient Greeks constructed ‘long-distance water
 225 H. Mala-Jetmarova et al. | History of water distribution systems and their optimisation Water Science & Technology: Water Supply | 15.2 | 2015

supply lines with tunnels and bridges’ referred to as aque-

ducts, which are dated back to the eighth to sixth century
B.C. (Crouch ).
Greek technologies were subsequently inherited by the
Romans (circa 100 B.C. to 500 A.D.), who developed them
further and implemented them at an enlarged scale (Mays
et al. ; Angelakis et al. ). In particular, Roman aque-
ducts, which carried water from a source to the Roman
cities, could extend over more than 100 km in length (Viol-
let ; Haut & Vivier ). They could incorporate an
inverted siphon, which was a pressurised pipeline carrying
water across a valley (Haut & Vivier ). The Romans
also used wooden pipes as an alternative to the terracotta
pipes, prevalent in Northern Europe (Hodge ). The
durability of the Roman constructions is remarkable, with
some of them having operated up to modern times (Mays
et al. ). Furthermore, it is recognised that the Romans
had an advanced knowledge of water supply engineering
(Hodge ; Haut & Vivier ).
After the fall of the Roman Empire at circa fifth cen-
Figure 1 | Water carrier, carrying water in so called tankards (Smiles (1862) and cited by
tury A.D., it is unclear if the Roman knowledge about Draffin (1939)).
water management survived the collapse of these civilis-
ations (Crouch ) and the following Middle Age
piped water supply was in Boston in 1652, when water
period referred to as Dark Ages (5th–15th centuries A.D.).
was brought from springs and wells to near what is now
Even though it is agreed that Roman achievements ‘were
the restored Quincy Market area (Mays ).
not totally forgotten’ (Angelakis et al. ), it is admitted
More information about the history and evolution of
that there was a decline in the quality of water management
water supply can be found in Angelakis et al. (), Draffin
practices during those several centuries (Burian & Edwards
() and Viollet ().
; Angelakis et al. ). This decline with very poor sani-
tary conditions including polluted water in sources and
waste in the streets is reported, especially in Europe (Gray Devices for raising water and water pumps
). Water supply was provided to a central delivery
point, from where it was brought to the homes by It is believed that ancient devices for raising water originate
either people themselves or servants, or else water carriers from the Assyrians, Babylonians and other ancient nations
who made a business of selling and delivering water (Ewbank ). The early devices used to raise water from
(Figure 1). wells are a pulley bucket, windlass and their various modifi-
It was not until after the Renaissance (14th–17th centu- cations to transfer motion. While they may seem basic to
ries) when water management practices began to evolve mention here, they were of a great significance. For example,
once more (Walski ). Possibly the first major pipeline the theft of a ‘fatal bucket’ from a public well in Bologna, by
was a 25 km line from Marly-on-Seine to the Palace of Ver- Modena soldiers, is believed to have resulted in a war
sailles in France, which was completed in 1664 (Walski between those two nations (the incident occurred at the
). By the mid-1700s, London had more than 50 km of beginning of the 11th century A.D.) (Ewbank ). Other
water mains constructed of wood, cast-iron and lead pipes early devices were invented for agricultural purposes to
(Sanks ; Walski ). In the United States, the first raise water over small elevations, such as a (swinging)
 226 H. Mala-Jetmarova et al. | History of water distribution systems and their optimisation
gutter and a combination of levers and gutters. The most
wide spread, nevertheless, appears to be the swape also
known as the shadoof or the ‘counterbalanced bailing
bucket’ (Needham ), which had been in use since the
second millennium B.C. and was still very common on the
European continent in the 18th century A.D. (Ewbank ).
In the first century B.C., Vitruvius compiled the existing
knowledge of hydraulics (Rouse & Ince ) and described
the principal hydraulics mechanisms to raise water invented
since antiquity to date (Ewbank ; Pollio et al. ).
These included the noria, the tympanum, the chain of pots,
also referred to as sakia, the screw pump and the machine
of Ctesibius of Alexandria (the force pump). The screw and
force pumps are often reported as the first pumps (in terms
of modern meaning) in the literature (Rouse & Ince ;
Crouch ; Koutsoyiannis & Angelakis ); the force
pump was the first pump discharging water by pressure
exerted artificially, not by gravity (Viollet ).
The tympanum and the noria (Egyptian ‘wheel of
fortune’) both have the form of a wheel partially submerged
into water, in which water is elevated by gutters or vessels,
respectively, using its rotary motion (Ewbank ). Interest-
ingly, the tympanum was improved centuries later by De La
Faye, a member of the French Royal Academy of Sciences,
to convey water via spirals (De Bélidor & Navier ).
Figure 2 | (a) A chain of pots in Spain, (b) upper section of a modern chain of pots (Ewbank 1858).
Water Science & Technology: Water Supply | 15.2 | 2015
Although the tympanum and noria are limited in lifting
water by the diameter of the wheel, Needham () reports
a c. 50 ft (15 m) noria made of bamboo and wood on the
Yellow River in China, and ‘the most splendid’ c. 70 ft
(21 m) noria on the Orontes in Syria. The chain of pots
(Figure 2), which consists of endless rope carrying vessels at
equal distances, which fill at the bottom and discharge at
the top (Ewbank ; Needham ), was invented to lift
water from ‘every depth’ (Ewbank ). The most remarkable
application is Joseph’s well at Cairo consisting of two consecu-
tive wells of total depth 297 ft (91 m), which are divided by an
animal driven chamber at 165 ft (50 m) (Ewbank ).
According to Ewbank (), the chain of pots, often driven
by windmills ‘constituted “water works” for supplying Euro-
pean cities’ previous to the 16th century, and was still
employed throughout Asia and Europe in the 19th century.
The invention of the most original screw pump, which is
used today in stormwater and wastewater applications, is
attributed to Archimedes (circa 287–212 B.C.) (Koutsoyian-
nis & Angelakis ). The force pump nowadays called the
reciprocating pump, which consists ‘essentially of two
piston pumps with the discharge pipes connected together
through an air chamber’, is attributed to Ctesibius of Alexan-
dria (circa 285–222 B.C.) (Draffin ). Vitruvius refers to
this pump as ‘the machine of Ctesibius which expels water
 227 H. Mala-Jetmarova et al. | History of water distribution systems and their optimisation
to a great height’ (Blackstone ), as it was used, for
example, to pump water from wells or create water jets to
fight fires (Koutsoyiannis & Angelakis ). Pieces of
force pumps were discovered in Hampshire, the site of the
Roman town Calleva Atrebatum, and are on display at the
British Museum (Blackstone ).
Those pumps were powered manually either by humans
or animals, noria when drawing water from a river could
also be powered by water current (Needham ), and the
chain of pots was later often driven by windmills (Ewbank
). Even though the power of steam had been known in
antiquity through the invention of aeolipile by Heron of
Alexandria (circa 10–70 A.D. (Wikipedia )), it did not
find any industry application (Viollet ) until the inven-
tion of the steam engine in the 17th century. The
predecessors of steam pumps are described in the literature
as ‘machines for raising water by (aid of) fire’ (Ewbank ).
Although the principle of suction was known since anti-
quity and suction pumps were used for a long time, it was
not until 1643, when an Italian, Evangelista Torricelli
explained it (Draffin ). Though Torricelli’s explanation
was persistently denied by certain groups, the principle
became well established through the subsequent exper-
iments on air pressure by Boyle and Guericke, the latter of
whom invented the air pump (Draffin ). A significant
improvement in pump development was the rotary pump,
plans for which were published by an Italian, Ramelli, in
1588 and the centrifugal pump (Draffin ; Ewbank
) invented in the late 17th century.
The first large pumped water supply system, of which there
are adequate records, is the water supply system in London
from the late 16th century. The system sourced water from
the River Thames, with pumps installed under London
Bridge in 1582 (Draffin ). The most spectacular pump
installation was on the Seine to supply the Palace of Versailles
in France, which was constructed in 1682. The pumps were
arranged into three levels and raised water subsequently into
three reservoirs, the highest of which was located 533 ft
(162 m) above the Seine and 1.2 km from it. Pumps were
driven by wooden water wheels, which were later replaced
with a 64-horsepower steam engine (Draffin ).
More information about the history and evolution of
devices for raising water and water pumps can be found in
Draffin (), Ewbank () and Needham ().
Water Science & Technology: Water Supply | 15.2 | 2015
Water quality and water treatment
‘Clean and safe water is the most important consideration of
a healthy population, community, and economy’ (Pope et al.
). Mays et al. () states that historically, drinking
water has been considered clear water; hence, the first treat-
ment attempts were aiming at the improvement of its
aesthetic conditions. The earliest recorded knowledge of
water treatment comes from Indian sources dated circa
2000 B.C. One of them suggests that ‘it is good to keep
water in copper vessels, to expose it to sunlight, and filter
through charcoal’, another directs ‘ … to heat foul water by
boiling and exposing to sunlight and by dipping seven
times into it a piece of hot copper, then to filter and cool
in an earthen (terracotta) vessel’ (Baker ).
The first development of water treatment technology rel-
evant to urban supply lies in Minoan civilisation at the
beginning of the Bronze Age (circa 3200–1100 B.C.). In
those days, sedimentation cisterns were used for the removal
of suspended solids, and terracotta infiltration devices filled
with charcoal for removing both organic and inorganic con-
stituents (Sklivaniotis & Angelakis ; Mays et al. ). In
the sixth century B.C. at the latest, utilisation of definitely
two and probably three qualities of water, potable (i.e.
springs), sub-potable (i.e. cisterns) and non-potable (i.e.
storm runoff probably combined with waste waters for irri-
gation) is documented (Crouch ), which indicates a
very high standard of water management practices. This
agrees well with a discussion by the Greek physician Hippo-
crates (460–377 B.C.), the father of medicine, in relation to
the qualities of water sources, who recommended to select
‘the most health-giving sources of supply rather than (on)
rectifying the waters that were bad’ (Baker ). He also
introduced a cloth bag later known as ‘Hippocrates’
Sleeve’ for straining rain water which he suggested to be pre-
viously boiled (Baker ). Greek historian Herodotus
(fifth century B.C.) stated that water drunk by the Persian
kings was previously boiled and kept in silver vessels
(Ewbank ). The Romans (circa 100 B.C.–500 A.D.) fre-
quently boiled rainwater before they used it (Ewbank ).
To bring water from a source to the cities, Greeks and
Romans constructed aqueducts typically consisting of open
channels, tunnels and bridges. In the first century A.D.,
Frontinus wrote a treatise describing Roman water supply
 228 H. Mala-Jetmarova et al. | History of water distribution systems and their optimisation
methods (Rouse & Ince ), a particular interest being his
‘description of a settling reservoir at the head of one of the
aqueducts supplying Rome and of … ingeniously designed
pebble catchers built into most of the aqueducts’ (Baker
). Water from aqueducts was delivered to houses,
where it was stored in cisterns for use by families (Crouch
). According to Ewbank (), if water was required
to be perfectly pure, two or three cisterns were built at differ-
ent levels, ‘so that the water successively deposited the
impurities’.
Similar to other scientific fields, water treatment tech-
nologies had not progressed during the Middle Ages, often
referred to as the Dark Ages, following the fall of the
Roman Empire in about the fifth century A.D. (Mays et al.
). Discoveries started emerging at the beginning of the
17th century. In 1627, Francis Bacon’s experiments dealing
with water purification, such as percolation, filtration, distil-
lation and coagulation, were published (Mays et al. ).
The important invention of the microscope, which led sub-
sequently to a new field of bacteriology, dates back to the
first decade of the 17th century, when Galileo Galilei devel-
oped the compound microscope to observe insects.
Microscopes were subsequently popularised in Hooke’s
books from 1665 and 1678, the second of which gives
detailed instructions for making microscopes (Wilson
). In the late 17th century, Antony van Leeuwenhoek
developed a microscope powerful enough to see bacteria
(Wilson ). In 1675, he discovered ‘living creatures’ in
the water which were ‘continually moving themselves’ and
called them ‘animalcula’ (Baker ). In spite of those bac-
teriological discoveries, which were originally considered
‘as unimportant curiosities’, it took another 200 years to
understand their importance (Mays et al. ).
It was in 1849, when John Snow related cholera to public
water supplies, and in 1854, when he investigated a cause of
cholera outbreak in London as being a central water supply
point, the Broad Street pump/well (Snow ; Snow ).
However, ‘Snow’s work was not accepted by the medical
establishment’ at that time (Savic & Banyard ). Although
the handle of the pump was removed by the public auth-
orities and water was not used during the outbreak, the
handle was reinstalled once the epidemic had passed
(Savic & Banyard ). About 30 years later, the impact of
bacteria in drinking water on human health was eventually
Water Science & Technology: Water Supply | 15.2 | 2015
recognised when the French scientist Louis Pasteur proved
the ‘germ theory of disease’ correct and the more widely
accepted miasmic theory invalid (Savic & Banyard ).
In the 17th century, the patent era in water treatment
commenced. The first known illustrated description of sand
filters was published by Luc Antonio Porzio in the late 17th
century (Baker ). In the 18th century, the first patent
for a water filter made of sponge, wool and sand was granted
to Joseph Amy (Amy ), and James Peacock received a
patent for a sand filter with backwashing (Mays ).
According to Baker (), the first filtration plant to supply
a whole town was completed at Paisley, Scotland in 1804.
In 1806, a large water treatment plant (WTP) opened in
Paris (Mays et al. ), which sourced water from the River
Seine and was continually operated for a half century
(Baker ). It used gravity filters ‘modelled on the Smith-
Cuchet-Montfort patent of 1800’ and composed of layers of
different sand fractions and pounded charcoal (Baker ).
In 1829, James Simpson’s slow sand filters were completed
in London and later ‘became the model for English slow
sand filters throughout the world’ (Baker ). In 1838,
Theophile Ducommun obtained a French patent for a lat-
eral-flow pressure filter and in 1835, Louis-Charles-Henri
de Fonvielle for a high-pressure filter (Baker ). The first
rapid sand filters were applied in New Jersey in 1882 (Mays
et al. ). In 1895, Allen Hazen ‘wrote the first treatise on
the art and science of water filtration’ (Baker ).
The earliest proposals to disinfect water were made
before there was knowledge of waterborne diseases. The
first of these found on record is a statement by Dr Robley
Dunglinson published at Philadelphia in 1835 (Baker
). One of the first known uses of chlorine for water dis-
infection was by John Snow in 1850, when he attempted to
disinfect the Broad Street well in London after an outbreak
of cholera (Christman ). In 1906, ozone was used for the
first time for disinfection in Nice, France and became very
popular in Europe, whereas chlorine was mostly used for
disinfection in the USA (Mays et al. ). The first serious
effort in water desalination was undertaken during World
War II for units which encountered difficulties in securing
drinking water (Mays et al. ).
More information about the history and evolution of
water treatment can be found in Baker (), Draffin
() and Mays ().
 229 H. Mala-Jetmarova et al. | History of water distribution systems and their optimisation
Hydraulics
The field of hydraulics has evolved through millennia. Basic
hydraulic principles that ‘water flows downhill’ and ‘water
always raises to its own level’ had been applied by ancient
civilisations (Hodge ) to construct irrigation and water
supply systems several millennia ago. In those days, hydrau-
lics was ‘purely an art, with no scientific basis beyond the
principle’ (Rouse & Ince ) and the complexity of
designed water systems surpassed the ability to mathemat-
ically describe such phenomena (Crouch ).
The admirable pioneers in the field of hydraulics were
Archimedes (circa 287–212 B.C.), who established the prin-
ciples of buoyancy (Pollio et al. ) and Heron of
Alexandria (circa 10–70 A.D. (Wikipedia )), who was
the first to formulate the relationship between flow, velocity
and cross-sectional area (Viollet ; Walski ). In the
first century B.C., Vitruvius compiled the existing knowl-
edge on hydraulics and subsequently in the first century
A.D., Frontinus wrote a treatise describing Roman water
supply methods (Rouse & Ince ). Koutsoyiannis &
Angelakis () report that unfortunately many of those
early hydraulic theories were forgotten for centuries of the
Middle Ages to come, ‘only to be re-invented during the
Renaissance or later’.
The Renaissance represented a perceptible change from
the philosophical to observational science and hydraulics
started progressively evolving based on experimental or
empirical approaches (Rouse & Ince ). In the 15th cen-
tury, Leonardo da Vinci made observations of many flow
phenomena and expressed an elementary principle of conti-
nuity using the ‘analogy of a dense crowd having to move
with increasing speed through a passage of decreasing
width’ (Rouse & Ince ). Interestingly, da Vinci’s conti-
nuity principle did not appear to be widely spread at that
time, but it was eventually rediscovered and popularised
by Castelli in the early 17th century (Rouse & Ince ).
In the 18th century, Newton introduced important laws of
motion, which subsequently allowed an understanding of
hydraulics, and Bernoulli developed principles of fluid
flow (Walski ). In 1883, laminar and turbulent flow
was defined by Reynolds (Reynolds ).
The development of an important headloss equation,
which predicts headloss for pipe or channel flow,
Water Science & Technology: Water Supply | 15.2 | 2015
represents over two centuries of incremental discoveries.
In the 1770s, Chezy formulated the first headloss equation,
which was extended by Darcy and Weisbach to a more
general form in 1845 (Brown ; Walski ). In
1891, Manning proposed headloss equations for flow in
open channels and pipes (Manning et al. ). In 1906,
Hazen and Williams developed a headloss equation using
‘C-factor’ rather than friction (Walski ). In 1944,
Moody related friction factor, roughness and Reynolds
number (Moody & Princeton ), and more recently,
Allen related the Hazen–Williams and Darcy–Weisbach
headloss equations (Allen ). Nowadays, the most com-
monly used equations for pressurised pipe networks are the
Hazen–Williams and Darcy–Weisbach equations. Savic &
Walters () made a valuable observation about the
Hazen–Williams equation in relation to its different
interpretations, which led to inconsistencies in network
performance predictions.
The field of hydraulics recognises much more famous
names and discoveries, which are outside the scope of this
paper and can be found in Rouse & Ince ().
Network analysis
Network analysis, which is invaluable for the water pro-
fessional involved with design, operation, maintenance
and optimisation of WDSs, consists of two distinct com-
ponents, namely, analyses of (i) hydraulic and (ii) water
quality behaviour of flow through a WDS. This section
focuses on hydraulic analysis only. Hydraulic analysis calcu-
lates flows, headlosses and pressures in a specified pipe
network by simultaneously solving a set of equations
(further in the text referred to as ‘network equations’).
These network equations arise from the conservation of
mass of flow and energy as (i) the sum of flows toward
any junction is zero, (ii) the sum of headlosses in a closed
loop is zero and (iii) the headloss in a pipe is directly pro-
portional to the power of the flow (Aldrich ). Due to
the size of WDSs and the associated large number of non-
linear network equations, hydraulic analysis is a complex
task. Historically, hydraulic analysis methods range from
graphical methods, through the use of physical analogies,
to mathematical models (Ramalingam et al. ).
 230 H. Mala-Jetmarova et al. | History of water distribution systems and their optimisation
Prior digital computers
Hydraulic analysis of WDSs involves tedious calculations
applying a combination of simplifications, engineering
experience and practice, and conservatism (Walski et al.
). The first method reported was the graphical method
introduced by Spiess () and (Aldrich ), followed by
the more popular graphical method of Freeman (). The
former method presented solutions for basic branched and
looped systems, whereas the latter method investigated
simple and more complex WDSs with fire demands. Free-
man’s graphical method was later expanded by Aldrich
() using the Hazen–Williams formula. Other well-
known methods include the electric network analyser
method (Camp & Hazen ) based on the analogy between
the laws governing hydraulic flow and electric current in net-
works (Ramalingam et al. ) and the Hardy–Cross
method (Cross ), which was the first method to solve
hydraulic analysis mathematically. The graphical and electric
analyser methods have not been widely used due to time and
equipment requirements, respectively (Aldrich ), the
Hardy–Cross method became popular with numerous sub-
sequent publications describing its application to various
systems (Ramalingam et al. ).
After digital computers
Several iterative methods have been applied to hydraulic
analysis of a WDS. The first method adapted to the digital
computer was the Hardy–Cross method (Cross ) in
1957, with application to the WDS of the city of Palo
Alto, California (Ormsbee ). Because this method
could take a long time to converge to a solution or could
fail to converge at all, other methods were proposed (Orms-
bee ). These methods included the Newton–Raphson
method (simultaneous node method) (Martin & Peters
), simultaneous loop method (Epp & Fowler ), the
linear theory approach (simultaneous pipe method) (Wood
& Charles ; Tavallaee ) and the gradient method
(simultaneous network method) (Todini & Pilati ).
The Newton–Raphson method may converge more quickly
for small networks, but very slowly for large networks com-
pared to the linear theory approach (Mays ). The
simultaneous loop method is the improved Newton–
Water Science & Technology: Water Supply | 15.2 | 2015
Raphson method with the benefit of significantly improved
convergence characteristics of the original algorithm (Orms-
bee ). The linear theory approach has the capacity to
analyse all network components and is more flexible regard-
ing the representation of pumps (Mays ). The gradient
method was adopted in the development of the hydraulic
simulation package EPANET (Rossman ).
The next significant step in hydraulic analysis of WDSs
was development of hydraulic simulation packages, accessible
for wide use by water professionals. The first such package
titled KYPIPE, which uses the simultaneous loop method to
solve the network equations, was developed by the University
of Kentucky in 1980 (Wood ). Another package,
WADISO, has been introduced by the US Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station and uses the simultaneous
node method to solve the network equations. KYPIPE and
WADISO are compared in Mays (). Possibly the most
widely spread has become the simulation software EPANET
(Rossman ), which is used in other (commercial) hydrau-
lic analysis packages. Those hydraulic simulation packages
have become well accepted tools (Mays 1989; Van Dijk
et al. ) and are used nowadays in conjunction with optim-
isation techniques to solve optimum WDS design, operation
and other related optimisation problems in WDSs.
More information about network analysis can be found in
Camp (), Ormsbee () and Ramalingam et al. ().
WDS optimisation
There are at least a dozen literature review papers on optim-
isation of WDSs which have been published since the 1970s
until nowadays (Table 1). These papers review mainly publi-
cations since the 1960s/1970s to date; some of them also
reference the publication of Camp () as the first work
in the field. However, even older publications can be
found, with the oldest dating back to the 1890s. Hence, it
appears that the formal work in optimisation of WDSs com-
menced about half a century before it is commonly reported.
The following section addresses this gap by reviewing the
publications from 1890s to the 1950s to link to the existing
literature review papers listed in Table 1.
The early publications on WDS optimisation do not
refer to system ‘optimisation’, but rather system ‘economy’.
They obtain optimum solution (i.e. a minimum of function)
 231 H. Mala-Jetmarova et al. | History of water distribution systems and their optimisation Water Science & Technology: Water Supply | 15.2 | 2015

Table 1 | Publications containing literature review of Water distribution system optimisation in chronological order

Author(s), year Paper title Date of references Comment

Shamir () Optimal design and operation of water 1961–1972 Review of optimisation of WDS design (no work was
distribution systems found to date concerning optimisation of WDS
operation)
Shamir () Optimisation in water distribution 1963–1977 Review of optimisation of WDS design and operation,
systems engineering including mathematical formulations of
optimisation models
Walski () State-of-the-art pipe network 1931–1939, 1968– Classifies papers into categories of fixed flow pattern
optimisation 1985 (branched systems), variable flow pattern (looped
systems), gravity and pumped systems
Lansey & Mays Optimisation models for design of water 1939, 1961–1988 Apart from the literature review includes also general
() distribution systems optimisation model (cost of pipes, pumps and
storage), and WDS design for multiple loading
conditions (solution methodology and application)
Walters () A review of pipe network optimisation 1966–1991 Review of optimisation techniques for WDS design,
techniques which is divided into branched and looped
networks. Also includes discussion on reliability
Dandy et al. A review of pipe network optimisation 1936, 1963–1992 Review and comparison of four optimisation
() techniques techniques: partial enumeration, nonlinear
programming (NLP), linear programming (LP),
genetic algorithms (GA)
Ostfeld & Incorporating reliability in optimal 1972–1992 Paper contains (i) discussion on definition of
Shamir () design of water distribution networks reliability, (ii) review of optimisation techniques for
– review and new concepts WDS design to include reliability, (iii) new concept
for incorporation of reliability into optimal WDS
design
Ormsbee & Optimal control of water supply 1968–1994 Review of optimisation techniques used for a pump
Lansey () pumping system scheduling problem, inclusive of detailed review
table
Simpson et al. Genetic algorithms compared to other 1973–1992 Overview of deterministic techniques (enumeration,
() techniques for pipe optimisation nonlinear programming) and GA for WDS design.
Also includes application of GA and its comparison
with the two above deterministic techniques
Engelhardt Rehabilitation strategies for water 1972–1999 Review of optimisation models for WDS
et al. () distribution networks: a literature rehabilitation, inclusive of models for extended
review with a UK perspective planning horizons and multi-objective optimisation
approaches
Lansey () The evolution of optimising water 1939, 1961–2006 Review of WDS optimisation with chronological–
distribution system applications topical charts, chronological–statistical charts. Also
outlines future needs in the field
Nicklow et al. State of the art for genetic algorithms 1969–2007 (WDS Review of applications of evolutionary algorithms
() and beyond in water resources optimisation (EAs) in water resources planning and
planning and management only) management, including WDS optimisation. Future
challenges are highlighted

by placing the first derivate equal to zero. This approach was
used priorly in the field of operations research with math-
ematical optimisation, which was established during World
War II, when there was a need to resolve strategic and tacti-
cal problems using limited military resources (Taha ).
The first written record found concerning the economic
aspects of water works are from the meetings of the New Eng-
land Water Works Association (NEWWA) from the late 19th
century. Nevons, the NEWWA president at the time, refers to
economy of water works as ‘the subjects […] of the greatest
 232 H. Mala-Jetmarova et al. | History of water distribution systems and their optimisation
importance’ (Nevons ), and Allis () talks about the
importance of including more discussions on economic
aspects of water works in the NEWWA meetings.
As early as 1895, Tuttle presented the work for econ-
omic pipe sizes in WDSs by using economic velocity of
flow through pipes (Tuttle ). Being possibly the first
work, it is described here in more detail. Tuttle based the
paper on the knowledge that the decrease in pipe sizes,
and consequently costs of the pipes, increases headlosses
and thus the pressure required, and vice versa. He formu-
lated an equation representing the annual cost of a WDS
including initial capital cost, annual interest plus deprecia-
tion and annual operating cost for pumping. Placing the
derivative of this equation equal to zero, he minimised
pipe diameter and subsequently calculated the ‘economic
velocity.’ The results were summarised in a tabular form
for a range of pipe diameters. Tuttle’s approach included
several assumptions, such as the cost of cast-iron pipes, pipe-
laying, pumping and others, which were implemented as
constants. On the other hand, he introduced a factor for
variable demand.
The principle of economic velocity to determine econ-
omic pipe sizes was later used in the work of True ()
and Braca & Happel (). Some advancements in True’s
work were, for example, implementation of a range of
Hazen–Williams coefficients for two pipe materials, cast-
iron and steel, and use of the variable cost of pipelaying.
He also stated the importance of ‘proper engineering allow-
ances’ made for future increase in water consumption. Braca
& Happel () utilised two methodologies to determine
economic pipe sizes, first the principle of economic velocity
and second the minimum annual costs for pipes and pumps
which he divided into initial capital costs and ongoing costs.
In the publications of Genereaux (b), Camp (),
Lischer () and Sarchet & Colburn (), nonetheless,
the principle of economic velocity was abandoned due to its
inaccuracies. Genereaux (a, b) included pipe and pump-
ing costs in the total annual costs and developed convenient
charts, from which economic pipe diameters could be derived
with a limitation to turbulent flows only. His work was later
extended by Sarchet & Colburn (, ) for both the turbu-
lent and viscous flows. Their results were also presented in
practical charts for determination of economic pipe diam-
eters. Camp () expressed the total annual cost of a WDS
Water Science & Technology: Water Supply | 15.2 | 2015
as the sum of initial capital and labour costs, annual interest
plus depreciation and annual operating cost for pumping.
Camp’s work received a lot of interest and was commented
on by numerous authors (Camp ). The discussion topics
were, for example, how to determine exact prices of pipes,
pipe laying and pumping, how to predict pipe roughnesses
over time and (maximum) future demands and demand pat-
terns. Lischer () applied Camp’s principles of design to a
simple system with a pump and storage tank and showed inter-
relations between the variables.
The determination of the most economic pipe sizes were
subject to early research not only in WDSs, but also in high-
pressure water-power installations (Adams ; Jeffcott
). These studies were based on the proposition that the
annual cost of the pipes plus the annual value of the energy
sacrificed due to friction is a minimum. Jeffcott () proposed
a numerical solution considering both pipes and tunnels
excavated through rocks, while Adams () developed a
graphical solution. Adams’ work was subsequently discussed
by several authors (Butcher et al. ), some of whom verified
the graphical solution mathematically. Additionally, it was
pointed out that the previously mentioned proposition is a
modification of a law in the electrical transmission of energy
regarding the most economical area of a conductor, first pro-
posed by Sir William Thomson in 1881 (Butcher et al. ).
Future research and development
This section is concerned with optimisation of WDSs within a
rapidly growing field. There has been a dramatic increase in
the development and application of evolutionary algorithms
(EAs) over the last two decades (Nicklow et al. ) with
future challenges and directions being actively proposed by
authors (Nicklow et al. ; Maier et al. ). Nicklow
et al. () briefly summarise future needs as solving large-
scale problems, advancing adaptive decision making under
uncertainty, and bridging process science and operational
engineering management. Conversely, Maier et al. () ana-
lyse the development and application of EAs in depth and
introduce an elaborate road map of future research challenges
and directions. These challenges include development of
improved problem formulation to account for uncertainty,
understanding the impact of assumptions and simplifications,
development of methods for search space reduction, methods
 233 H. Mala-Jetmarova et al. | History of water distribution systems and their optimisation
for parameter selection to adapt during optimisation runs,
improved performance measures for multi-objective prob-
lems, improved visualisation and communication tools to
support decision making and others. Addressing these chal-
lenges will enable EAs to be applied to real-world problems
with efficiency and confidence (Maier et al. ).
CONCLUSION
This paper presented a coherent picture of the history and
advancements of WDSs and other related fields since the
third millennium B.C. The related fields reviewed include
devices for raising water and water pumps, water quality
and water treatment, hydraulics, network analysis, and
optimisation of WDSs. Concerning WDS optimisation, the
reviewed publications cover a period from the 1890s to
1950s, which bridges the gap in the existing review litera-
ture. Future research directions are also incorporated.
The value of this paper is in bringing together a complex
array of work allowing the reader to quickly gain an under-
standing of the history and advancements of WDSs and
analysis. Moreover, the paper gives details of other existing
publications, listed at the end of each section, where more
information can be found.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge library personnel of the
Federation University Australia (FedUni), namely Angela
Thomas and Donna Byrne, for delivering references for
this paper. Your persistent and professional approach,
Angela and Donna, in obtaining very old and incorrectly
cited references by sources was exceptional and we
sincerely thank you. FedUni is very fortunate to have you
in their library team. This work was supported by the
Australian Research Council as Project LP0990908.
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