Chapter 1:

CO2 = CARBON DIOXIDE

H20 = WATER

H2CO3 = CARBONIC ACID/ CARBONATE

H+ = HYRDOGEN ION

HCO3- = BICARBONATE

Homeostasis- A dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance, in which internal conditions vary, but always
within relatively narrow limits. Existence of a stable internal environment within the body

Equilibrium- constantly changing dynamic state where two opposing forces/ processes are in balance

Negative feedback- corrective mechanism that oppose/negates/counteract a variation from normal

limits. Provide long term control over the body’s internal functions. Oppose change

Positive feedback- mechanism that increases a deviation from normal limits after an initial stimulus.
Enhance change

Compensation- things that your body does/ takes care of in order to restore your body back to a variable
limit (internal process)

Intervention- clinical action to bring body back to variable limit. (External process)

Variable- things the body is trying to control

Stimulus- anything that has direct effect on variable

Receptor- things that measure change in variable. Sensor based on stimulus/ environmental change

Types of receptors:

Thermoreceptors- receptor for when body temp rises; located in hypothalamus (part of your
brain) measures the rise in temperature and then sends a signal to other parts of your brain (control
center) so that the body can begin to address this rise in temperature to bring it back into normal limits

Chemoreceptors- for respiratory and heart rate; in your brain that measure the rise in CO2 and drop in
O2 as a result of the exercise. These receptors then send signals to the control center which will lead to
a change in heart rate and respiratory rate.

Baroreceptors- measure changes in blood pressure. They can send messages in your brain to initiate
changes that will help restore blood pressure to normal limits. 

Control center- determines what needs to be done (usually brain). Receives & processes info supplied by
receptor & sends commands to effector

Effector- anything that has direct effect on variable. Cell/organ that responds to commands of control
center whose activity either opposes or enhances stimulus
Normal ranges of blood PH 7.35-7.45

Normal ranges of carbon dioxide in the blood 35-45mm hg

Increased CO2 means increased H+ causes blood ph to drop (acidic). Scale to right. Decreased CO2
causes blood ph to rise (basic/alkaline). Scales to the left.

Acidosis- abnormal state caused by low pH

Alkalosis- abnormal state caused by high pH

Supine- face up

Prone- face down

Anatomical position- body viewed from the anterior surface with palms facing forward

Abdominopelvic quadrants- a pair of imaginary perpendicular lines that intersect at the umbilicus (navel)

Four quadrants formed by two perpendicular lines that intersect at navel

Abdominopelvic regions- nine abdominopelvic regions

Anatomical relationships- relationship between the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and location
of the internal organs

Anterior- front of the body; ventral

Posterior- back of the body; dorsal

Proximal- toward the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk

Distal- away from the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk

Lateral- away from the midline

Medial- toward the midline

Cranial/ cephalic- towards the head

Caudal- towards the tail (coccyx in humans)

Superficial- at, near, or close to the body surface

Deep- toward the interior of body; farther from surface

Frontal (coronal) plane- vertical plane divides body into anterior and posterior portions

Sagittal plane- vertical plane divides body into left and right portions

Midsagittal plane- plane through midline of body that divides into left and right halves

Parasagittal plane- parallels midsagittal plane but does not pass thru midline

Transverse plane- horizontal plane divides body into superior and inferior portions
Diaphragm- any muscular partition; respiratory muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the
abdominopelvic cavity

Abdominal cavity- most of large intestine, liver, stomach, spleen, small intestine

Thoracic cavity- lungs, heart, associated organs of the respiratory, cardiovascular and lymphatic systems;
the inferior portions of the esophagus; and the thymus

The 11 organ systems of the body are the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine,
cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive systems.

Chapter 2:

pH- Power of hydrogen; hydrogen ion concertation in body fluids

H+ = HYDROGEN ION. HCO3 = BIOCARBONATE

pH = -(negative) log of hydrogen ion concentration[H+]

ph = - log [1 in 10,000,000]

ph = - log [1 x 10^-7]

ph = 7 (neutral)

ph higher than 7 is base, lower than 7 is acid. Increasing hydrogen ion (H+) in solutions will lower pH.
Decreasing hydrogen ions in solution will increase pH.

pH scales runs from 1 to 14. Reds are acids, the purple and blues are alkalis and the green in the middle
is halfway between the two (neutral).

High pH = low H+
Low pH = high H+

If CO2 is off = respiratory problem.

If HCO3- is off = metabolic problem

If both are off = some sort of compensation

If pH is high or low normal = fully compensated

Lungs are fast at fixing pH, kidneys are slow at fixing pH. Renal system can partially compensate for pH
imbalances with a respiratory cause, the kidneys cannot fully compensate if respirations have not
returned to normal b/c the CO2 levels will still be abnormal. The renal system can not fuly compensate
for acidosis/alkalosis.

In uncompensated respiratory alkalosis the CO2 levels of the blood are low.

With renal compensation for respiratory acidosis, the pH of the urine decreased b/c H+ increased.

Lung and kidney should be operating at same time if there’s an issue with pH.

Acid = High (H+) or low (OH)

Base = Low (H+) or low (OH)

Respiratory alkalosis- condition of too little CO2 in the lungs. pH > 7.45 and PCO2 < 35 mm hg; decrease
in Pco2

Respiratory acidosis- result of impaired respiration/ hypoventilation, accumulation of too much carbon
dioxide in the blood; also caused by rebreathing. pH < 7.35 and PCO2 > 45 mm hg; increased Pco2

Hypoventilation causes include airway obstruction, depression of the respiratory center in the brain
stem, lung diseases (such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis) and drug overdose.

The kidneys (renal system) can compensate respiratory acidosis by excreting H+ and retaining
bicarbonate ion.

Hyperventilation increases rate and depth of breathing, removes co2 from the blood faster than it is
being produce by the cells, reducing H+ in the blood, increasing blood ph. The renal system can
compensate for alkalosis by retaining H+ and excreting hco3- (bicarbonate ions) to lower the blood ph
back to normal range. Causes are traveling at high altitude, anxiety, pain/trauma.

After hyperventilation, breathing stops temporarily to retain carbon dioxide to return to normal
breathing.

The kidneys (renal system) can compensate for respiratory alkalosis by retaining H+ and excreting
bicarbonate ion.

The reaction of water and carbon dioxide is catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase. carbonic anhydrase form a
family of enzymes that catalyze the interconversion of carbon dioxide and water, and dissociated ions of
carbonic acid. Carbon dioxide contributes to the formation of carbonic acid when it combines with water
through a reversible reaction catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase. The carbonic acid dissociates into H+ and
bicarbonate ions.

The kidneys maintain fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance in the body’s internal environment.
Regulating amount of water lost in the urine, the kidneys defend the body against excess
hydration/dehydration. Regulating acidity of urine and rate of electrolyte excretion, the kidneys
maintain blood pH and electrolyte levels within normal range.

Renal compensation- the body’s primary method of compensating for conditions of respiratory
acidosis/alkalosis. The kidneys regulate the acid-base balance by altering amount of H+ and HCO3-
excreted in the urine.

Increased Pco2 causes [H+] to increase, pH to decrease and HCO3- to decrease in the renal system.

Decreased Pco2 causes H+ to decrease, pH to increase and HCO3- to increase.

Metabolic acidosis- low plasma HCO3- and pH; increase metabolic rate, more H+, more CO2

Metabolic alkalosis- high plasma HCO3- and pH; decrease metabolic rate, less H+, less CO2

Compensates by expelling/ retaining CO2 in the blood.

To compensate meta. Acid. Respiration increases to expel co2 from blood, decreasing H+, raising pH.
Meta. Alkal. Respiration decreases to promote accumulation of CO2 in blood, increasing H+, decreasing
the pH.

When metabolic rate decreases, so does breaths per minute and tidal volume b/c there is more carbon
dioxide being formed.

Respiratory system compensates for metabolic alkalosis/acidosis.

The renal system compensates by conserving or excreting bicarbonate ions.

Causes of metabolic acidosis are salicylate poisoning (too much aspirin), diarrhea, strenuous exercise,
and ingesting too much alcohol. Also fever, stress and ingestion of food.

Causes of metabolic alkalosis are vomiting, constipation, ingestion of alkali (antacids/bicarbonate). Also
fall in body temp, decrease in food intake.

Carbonic acid is a weak acid, formed by carbon dioxide and water.

Nephron- functional unit/group that adjusts the blood composition

Rebreathing- action of breathing in air that was just expelled from the lungs

Atoms- basic chemical building blocks, smallest stable unit of matter

Matter- anything that takes up space and has mass

Mass- the amount of material in matter; physical property that determines the weight of an object in
the earth’s gravitational field. Mass of an object same as weight

Subatomic particles- three most important for understanding chemical properties of matter Is
Protons- (p+) positive electrical charge

Neutrons- (n or n0) electrically neutral, or uncharged

Electrons- (e-) negative electrical charge

Electron rules:

-orbit outside of nucleus

- path they from are called shells (orbitals)

-first shell holds no more than 2 atoms. If that gets full it makes new shell

-octet rule: outermost shell hold no more than 8 atoms (valance electrons)

Nucleus- central region of an atom. A cellular organelle that contains DNA, RNA and protiens; in the
central nervous system, a mass of gray matter

Mass of an atom is determined mainly by # of protons and neutrons in nucleus.

Mass of large object is sum of the masses of all its component atoms.

Atomic number- # of protons in the nucleus of an atom. # protons = # electrons

# neutrons can vary

Mass number- # protons + # neutrons in a specific atom

All atoms other than hydrogen have both neutrons and protons in their nuclei.

Electrical force- attraction between opposite electrical charges

Element- pure substance compose of atoms of only one kind. Cannot be broken down into simpler
substances
Isotopes- forms of an element whose atoms contain the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons
Atomic weight- average of the different atomic masses and proportions of its different isotopes
Mole- quantity of an element or compound having a mass in grams equal to the element’s atomic
weight or to the compound’s molecular weight
Electron shell/ energy level

Valence shell- combining power with other atoms

Only valance electrons interact

Inert- don’t undergo chemical reactions

Reactive- readily interact/combine with other atoms

Molecule- chemical structure of atoms held together by shared electrons

Compound- pure chemical substance made up of two or more diff. atoms in a fixed proportion,
regardless of whether electrons are shared or not

Molecular weight- sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule or compound

Polar molecule- has positive and negative charged ends

Chemical bond- an attractive force acting between two atoms, may be strong enough to form molecule
or compound

pH number is an exponent. Ex. pH of 6 ([H+] = 1 x 10 -6 ) mean that pH is 10x greater than a pH of 7. 10x
change in the acidity/basicness per number.

Covalent bond- chemical bond between atoms that involves sharing electrons. Atoms share valence
electrons to become stable. Atoms that join by covalent bonds form molecule

Polar covalent bond- unequal sharing of electrons

Nonpolar covalent bond- equal sharing of electrons

Hydrogen bond- weak interaction between the hydrogen atom on one molecule and a negatively
charged portion of another molecule. Attraction between slight positive charge on hydrogen atom of a
polar covalent bond and a slight negative charge on an oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atom of another
polar covalent bond

Ion- atom or group of atoms that have electrical charge, either cations or anions
Cation- t = (+) positive charge

Anion- n = (-) negative charge

Ionic bonds- chemical bonds created by electrical attraction between anions and cations. Atoms
gain/lose valence electrons to become stable. Bond formed by attraction of two oppositely charged ions.
Atoms that join by ionic bonds form compounds

Dehydration synthesis- process of the formation of a covalent bond through the removal of water

Solids- keep volume and shape at ordinary temps and pressures

Liquids- have constant volume, no fixed shape

Gas- no constant volume, no fixed shape

Anabolism (synthesis)- assembles smaller molecules into larger ones. Makes complex molecules

Catabolism (breakdown)- breakdown of complex molecules. Makes smaller molecules

Catalyze- cause an action or process to begin

Chemical reactions:

Decomposition- breaks down into smaller fragments

Synthesis- assembles smaller molecules into larger ones

Exchange- parts of reacting molecules shuffled around to produce new products

Enzyme- protein that lowers the activation energy of a chemical reaction, which is the amount of energy
needed to start the reaction

Enzyme make it possible for chemical reactions to rapidly proceed under life circumstanes/ change. (ex.
Body temperature). Temperatue and pH affect enzyme function.

Organic compounds- always contain carbon and hydrogen

Inorganic compounds- do not contain carbon and hydrogen

Water makes up two-thirds (2/3) of body weight.

Solvent- the liquid in which other atoms, ions or molecules are distributed. Fluid component of solution

Solutes- any materials dissolved in a solution

Dissociation- splitting of compound into smaller molecules

Ionization- dissociation into ions

Water chemical properties:

Universal solvent (strong polarity)- enable it to be excellent solvent

Reactivity- participates in chemical reactions

High heat capacity- absorbs and releases heat slowly

Lubricant- prevents friction between internal organs

Acid- compound whose dissociation in solution releases hydrogen ion and an anion; pH below 7.0 and
has excess hydrogen ions

Amino acid- building block of proteins

Monosaccharide- building block of carbohydrates

Nucleotide- building block of nucleic acids

Fatty acids determine if lipids are saturated/unsaturated

Base- compound whose dissociation release a hydroxide ion or removes hydrogen ion from solution,
raises pH

Buffer- resist change in pH; compound that stabilizes the pH of a solution by removing/ releasing
hydrogen ions

The chemical buffering system is the fastest compensatory mechanism for maintaining pH homeostasis
in the human body.

Salt- inorganic compound made up of a cation other than hydrogen ion (H+) and an anion other than
hydroxide ion (OH-)

Monomer- molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to for a polymer

Polymer- large molecule made up of long of monomer subunits

Macromolecules important to life are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.

Functional group- certain grouping of atoms that are responsible for reactions of a particular compound

Carbohydrate- organic compound made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. (1:2:1).

Monosaccharide- carbohydrate w/ 3 to 7 carbon atoms

Glucose- 6 carbon sugar; preferred energy source for most cells. Normally only energy source for
neurons. Most important metabolic “fuel” in the body
Lipids provide 2x as much energy as carbohydrates. When supply of lipids exceed energy needed, excess
is stored in fat deposits.

Types of lipids:

Fatty acids, eicosanoids, glycerides, steroid and phospholipids and glycolipids.

Triglycerides important functions:

Energy source- fat deposits that represent a high energy reserve. Can be broken down to provide energy

Insulation- fat deposits under the skin slow heat loss to environment.

Protection- fat deposit around delicate organs provides cushion that protects against bumps or jolts

Proteins provide support, movement, transportation, buffering, metabolic regulation, coordination and
control, and defense.

Globular proteins- compact, soluble in water

Fibrous proteins- tough, durable, insoluble in water

Cofactor- ion or molecule that must bind to an enzyme before substrate can also bind

Denaturation- result of structural change

Nucleic acids store and process information at the molecular level inside cells. Nucleic acid regulates
protein synthesis and make up the genetic material in cells.

The two classes of nucleic acid molecules are DNA and RNA. DNA encodes info needed to build
proteins, RNA cooperate to build specific proteins using info provided by DNA.

Phosphorylation- process of attaching a phosphate group to another molecule

High-energy bond- covalent bond whose breakdown releases energy the cell can use directly. Generally
binds a phosphate group to an organic molecule

AMP- nucleotide that contains adenosine and one phosphate group

ADP- product of attaching a second phosphate group by high-energy bond to AMP

ATP- most abundant high-energy compound; result of adding third phosphate group to ADP. Second and
third phosphate groups attached by a high-energy bond; nucleotide used as an energy molecule

Conversion of ADP to ATP is the most important method of storing energy in our cells. The breakdown of
ATP to ADP is most important method of releasing energy.

Digestive enzymes aid in the decomposition reactions that break down lipids and carbohydrates in food,
so they can be absorbed from the digestive tract. If these large molecules can’t be broken down, they
can’t be used as energy sources or chemical building blocks.

2H = 2 atoms of hydrogen
The amount of carbon dioxide (co2) in the blood is measured in mm hg (millimeters of mercury, height
of column of mercury), aka blood pressure reading. PCO2 normal range is 35-45 mm hg.

PCO2 = PARTIAL PRESSURE OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE BLOOD

PaCO2 normal range is 4.7 – 6.0 kPa, 35-45 mm hg
pCO2 below 35 is alkalotic
pCO2 above 45 is acidic
HCO3- (bicarbonate) normal range is 24 – 28 mmol/L. 22-26 mEq/L
Hco3 below 22 is acidic
Hco3 above 26 is alkalotic
pO2 normal range is 80-100 mmhg
02 (Sa02) saturation 95-100%
Base excess + or - 2
Arterial blood gas (ABGs) - ph, pco2 and hco3- are most important ranges when analyzing
Acidaemia- acidic blood
Alkalaemia- alkaline blood
Acidameia + Raised PCO2 = respiratory acidosis
Alkalaemia + low pco2 = respiratory alkalosis
Acidaemia + low hco3- = metabolic acidosis
Alkalemia + raised hco3- = metabolic alkalosis
Alkalaemia + low pco2 + raised hco3- = mixed alkalosis
Alkalaemia + low pco2 + low hco3- = respiratory alkalosis w/ an incomplete metabolic
compensation
The body never overcompensates.
If either co2 or hco3 is opposite the direction of the pH, there is compensation by that system,
and if it matches that tells you the acid-base disorder. EX: the co2 matches the pH, respiratory.
The hco3 matches the pH, metabolic.
The respiratory and metabolic systems interact through the formation of carbonic acid (h2co3).
Respiratory system balances the pH by increasing/decreasing the respiratory rate, manipulating
the co2 level. Fast and deep breathing release co2, slow and shallow breathing retains co2.
Polypeptide- protein hormone insulin
Polysaccharide-
Monosaccharide-
Disaccharide-
Triglycerides-

Chapter 3 –
Cyto- = cell
Unaided human eye can see objects about 0.1 mm in diameter, a typical cell is much smaller
than that.
Cells are building blocks of organisms. All cells come from the division of preexisting cells. Cells
are the smallest units that carry out life’s essential physiological functions. Each cell maintains
homeostasis at cellular level; tissue, organ, organ system, and organism, which reflect
combined and coordinated actions of many cells.
Two general classes of cells:
Sex cells- either sperm of males (oocytes) or immature ova (“eggs”) of females. Union of egg
and sperm for zygote
Zygote- trillions of cells that make up our body come from this one cell; the union of egg and
sperm
Somatic cells- (soma, body) or body cells include all other cells
Unicellular- (“uni-“, one) made of single cell
Multicellular- made up of multiple cells
Cell formation in body:
Atoms – Molecule compounds – cell organelles – cells – tissues- organs- organ systems-
functioning human
All of our cells are eukaryotic.
Eukaryotic- means that have a nucleus. All eukaryotic cells that 3 major components:
Cell/Plasma membrane- separates inside from world around it (intracellular compartment=
inside, extracellular compartment= outside). This barrier allows the cell maintain internal
environment so It can do its work. The cells need nutrients and produces waste, so cell
membrane allows some substance to pass through. Cell membrane is semipermeable- some
things pass through but others do not. Extremely thin (6-10 nm in thickness). Contains lipids,
proteins and carbohydrates.
Functions of plasma membranes:
Physical isolation- physical barrier that separate inside of cell (cytoplasm) from surrounding
extracellular fluid
Regulation of change w/ the environment- acts as gatekeeper. Control entry of ions and
nutrients, elimination of wastes, and release of secretions
Sensitivity to environment- first part of cell affected by changes in composition, concentration
(pH) of extracellular fluid. Also contains receptors that allow cell to recognize and respond to
specific molecules in environment
Structural support- specialized connections between plasma membranes or plasma membranes
and extracellular materials, gives tissues stability.
Nucleus- houses DNA, which is organized into diffused strands called chromatin or condensed,
rod like structures called Chromosomes. Dna (genes) = instructions for polypeptide (protein)
synthesis. Therefor your genes determine what proteins your sells make, which determines
what your cells/ you can do.
Membrane lipids- form most of the surface area of cell membrane, and 42% of weight. Cell
membrane is called phospholipid bilayer b/c phospholipid molecules in it form two layers
Phospholipid bilayer- Primarily responsible for the membranes ability to form a physical barrier
between the cell’s internal and external environments
Phospholipid- has both hydrophilic end (phosphate portion) and hydrophobic end (the lipid
portion) hydrophilic heads of the two layers are in contact w watery environments on both
sides (intracellular and extracellular fluid)
The lipid bilayer ( contains cholesterol, almost one cholesterol molecule for each phospholipid
molecule. Cholesterol stiffens cell membrane, making it less fluid and less permable.
Membrane proteins- 55% of weight of cell membrane. Two general classes are integral and
peripheral proteins.
Integral proteins- part of cell membrane that cant be easily separated without
damaging/destroying the membrane
Various types of membrane proteins that carry out particular functions:
Anchoring proteins- attach membrane to other structures and stabilize its position
Recognition proteins (identifiers)- cells of immune system that recognize cells as
normal/abnormal based on presence/ absence of characteristic recognition proteins
Enzymes- may be integral or peripheral proteins. catalyze reactions in the extracellular fluid or
in the cytosol
Receptor proteins- sensitive to presence of specific extracellular ions/ molecules called ligands.
Carrier proteins- bind solutes and transport them across the membrane
Channels/ channel proteins- some integral proteins contain a channel, or central pore, that
forms a passageway completely through the plasma membrane. Ions and other small water
soluble substance can pass only thru channels. Some are called gated channels b/c they
open/close to regulate passage of substances. Channels extremely important in muscle
contraction and nerve impulse transmission.
Peripheral proteins- bound to inner/outer surface of membrane and easily separated from it.
Rafts- some proteins are confined to specific areas called rafts. Mark the locations of anchoring
and some kinds of receptor proteins
Membrane carbohydrates- part of complex molecules such as proteoglycans, glycoproteins and
glycolipids. These large molecules extend beyond the outer surface of the membrane, forming a
layer called glycocalyx.
Nucleus is enclosed by double membrane nuclear envelope and contains a liquid called
nucleoplasm. Nucleoplasm contains the nuclear matrix, a network of filaments that provided
structural support and regulation of genetic activity.
Nucleolus (looks like little ball inside nucleus) structure that make ribosomes. Is an
membranous organelle.
Nucleosome- when DNA strands wind around the histones. Such winding allows a great deal of
DNA to be packaged in a small space
In a dividing cell, DNA is tightly coiled and organized as chromosomes. In a nondividing cell, DNA is
loosely coiled and organized as chromatin.

Chromatin- the appearance of the DNA content of the nucleus when the chromsomes are
uncoiled
Chromosomes- dense structures composed of tightly coiled DNA strands and associated
histones, become visible when a cell prepares to undergo mitosis or meiosis. 23 pairs of
chromosomes in somatic cells (humans). One member of each pair is derived from the mother,
and one from the father
Ribosomes- where proteins are built. May be in free in the cytoplasm or attached to
endoplasmic reticulum.
Cytosol has a higher concentration of potassium ions and suspended proteins, and a lower
concentration of sodium ions, than does extracellular fluid. Cytosol also includes small quantities of
carbohydrates and large reserves of amino acids and lipids.

Cytoplasm- material between plasma membrane and material that surrounds the nucleus;
space between cell membrane and nuclear envelope. Three major subdivisions are cytosol,
organelles and inclusions. Composed of liquid called cytosol, also known as intracellular fluid.
Inclusions are masses of insoluble materials. Contains cells functional parts, referred to as
Organelles (“mini organs”). Organelles are the internal structures that keep a cell alive and
functioning normally. Organelles can be dividied into two catergories; nonmembranous and
membranous organelles. nonmembranous organelles are not completely enclosed by
membranes, all of their components are in direct contact with cytosol. Membranous organelles
are isolated from the cytosol the extracellular fluid. Each organelle has a specific job. Some of
these jobs are:
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- network of membranous channels. Includes Rough ER- studded
with ribosomes, make proteins. Smooth ER- lacks ribosomes, makes lipids and carbohydrates.
ER forms hollow tubes, flat sheets and chambers called cisternae.
Smooth refers to no fixed ribosomes, while the fixed ribosomes on the outer surface of the
rough ER give it a rough/grainy/beaded appearance.
Smooth ER- involved w/ the synthesis of lipids, fatty acids and carbohydrates; and the
detoxification of drugs. Synthesis of the phospholipids and cholesterol, synthesis of steroid
hormones, synthesis and storage or glycerides, especially triacylglycerides (triglycerides),
synthesis and storage of glycogen
Rough ER- combination workshop and shipping warehouse
Golgi Aparatus/ Complex- processes items made by ER, packages them in membrane, and
release them out into the cytoplasm off sell or prepares them to be shipped out of the sell;
processes, packages and ships items made in the ER. Transport vesicle that carries a newly
synthesizes protein or glycoprotein that is destined for export from the cell, travels from ER
Mitochondria- cell powerhouse, produce energy (ATP). Cells used ATP for energy they need to
do their work. Kind of like little energy generators that fuel the cell. 2 reactants needed for
energy production are oxygen and short carbon chains. The products from this reaction is CO2,
H20 and ATP.
Lysosomes- cells digestive system. Produced by golgi aparatus. These sacs contain digestive
enzymes that break down damaged organelles or solid materials that enter the cell. Destroy
bacteria that enter the cell from the extracellular fluid. Do essential clean up and recycling in
the cell.
Peroxisomes- a membranous vesicle containing enzymes that break down hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2). Absorb and break down fatty acids and other organic compounds.
Cytoskeleton- serves as cells skeleton, gives the cytosol strength and flexibility. Network and
made of delicate filaments (microfilaments, intermediate filaments) and (microtubules) tubes
that helps maintain its shape/support and provides attachments and ways for them to move
around within the cell
Membrane flow/ membrane trafficking- continuous movement and exchange of membrane
segments
Centrosome- made of two cylinder structures called centrioles, which direct the movement of
chromosomes when cells divide.
Some cells have cilia. Cilia is hair-like projections on the surface that move in a wavelike
manner, sweeping substances over the cell surface/ cell membrane. EXAMPLE: in respiratory
tract, cilia sweep a layer of mucus across the cells sweeping away any debris that may plug up
the air sacs in lungs
Flagellum- whiplike tail of on sperm only; allows cell to move/swim
The cells nonmembranous organelles do not have a definite boundary. Examples include
cytoskeleton, centrosome with centrioles, ribosomes, and proteasomes. Some cells have
cellular extensions which include microvilli, cilia and flagella.
The nonmembranous organelles and their functions include (1) centriole = essential for movement of
chromosomes during cell division; organization of microtubules in cytoskeleton; (2) cilia = movement
of materials over cell surface (motile cilia), environmental sensor (primary cilium); flagella = propel
sperm (3) cytoskeleton = strength and support; movement of cellular structures and materials; cell
movement; (4) microvilli = increase surface area to facilitate absorption of extracellular materials; (5)
proteasomes = breakdown and recycling of intracellular proteins; (6) ribosomes = protein synthesis.
The membranous organelles and their functions include (1) endoplasmic reticulum = synthesis of
secretory products; intracellular storage and transport; (2) smooth ER = lipid and carbohydrate
synthesis; (3) rough ER = modification and packaging of newly synthesized proteins; (4) Golgi
apparatus = storage, modification, and packaging of secretory products and lysosomal enzymes; (5)
lysosomes = intracellular removal of damaged organelles or pathogens; (6) peroxisomes =
neutralization of toxic compounds; (7) mitochondria = production of 95 percent of the ATP required
by the cell.

Microfilaments- rod shaped; typically made up of protein actin. Actin form a layer called the
terminal web inside the cell membrane. Anchor the cytoskeleton to the integral proteins of the
cell membrane
Intermediate filaments- varies among cells; intermediate between microfilaments and
microtubules; insoluble in the watery medium and most durable of the cytoskeletal elements
Microtubules- hollow tubes built from globular protein tubulin. Largest component of
cytoskeleton.
Motor proteins- create the movement
Microvilli- increase the surface area of the cell exposed to the extracellular environment
Centrosome- region of cytoplasm located next to the nucleus in a cell. Microtubule-organizing
center of animal cells and the heart of the cytoskeletal system.
Cilia- extensions of the membrane. Two types of cilia in human cells are non-motile and motile.
Nonmotile primary cilium- acts as a signal sensor, detecting environmental stimuli
Motile cilia- “beat” rhythmically to move fluids or secretions across the cell surface. Stiff during
power stroke, flexible during return stroke
Ribosomes- organelles responsible for protein synthesis. Two subunits are small and large
ribosomal subunits. Before protein synthesis can happen, a small and large ribosomal subunit in
the cytoplasm must join together with a strand of messenger RNA. Two major types of
functional ribosomes are free and fixed ribosomes.
Free ribosomes- scattered through out the cytoplasm; the proteins they manufacture directly
enter the cytosol
Fixed ribosomes- synthesize proteins w/ destinations other than the cytosol become
temporarily bound, or fixed. Enter the ER, modified and packaged for use within the cell or are
secreted from the cell
Proteasomes- organelles that contain an assortment of protein-digesting (proteolytic) enzymes,
or proteases. Remove and recycle damaged/ denatured proteins. Break down abnormal
proteins, such as those produced within cells infected by viruses
Membranous organelles- include endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
peroxisomes and mitochondria
The nucleus is a cellular organelle that contains DNA, RNA, enzymes, and proteins. The nuclear
envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus; the perinuclear space is the region
between this double membrane. Nuclear pores enable chemical communication between the
nucleus and the cytosol.

Gene- a portion of a DNA strand that functions as a hereditary unit. Each gene is located at a
particular site on a specific chromosome and codes for a specific protein.

All molecules have kinetic energy and are in constant motion. For a given temp, all matter has
about the same average kinetic energy. Smaller molecules mover faster than larger b/c kinetic
energy is directly related to both mass and velocity (KE= ½ mv2 )

Concentration gradient (difference in concentration)

Diffusion- movement of molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration. Driving force behind diffusion is the kinetic energy of the molecules
themselves. Diffusion proceeds until the concentration gradient is eliminated (equilibrium is
reached).

Facilitated diffusion- the passive movement of a substance across a plasma membrane by means
of a protein carrier. The molecule to be transported must first bind to a receptor site on the carrier
protein.
Examples of solutes that might require facilitated diffusion include glucose, sodium and
potassium.
How would a decrease in the concentration of oxygen in the lungs affect the diffusion of oxygen into
the blood? Answer: Diffusion is driven by a concentration gradient. The steeper the concentration gradient,
the faster the rate of diffusion, and the less steep the concentration gradient, the slower the rate of diffusion. If
the concentration of oxygen in the lungs were to decrease, the concentration gradient between oxygen in the
lungs and oxygen in the blood would decrease (as long as the oxygen level of the blood remained constant).
Thus, oxygen would diffuse more slowly into the blood.

In the facilitated diffusion of glucose, what determines the direction in which glucose molecules will be
transported? Answer: The concentration gradient determines the direction in which glucose
molecules will be transported. Facilitated diffusion is a passive process, so glucose molecules will
travel from high to low concentration; down a concentration gradient.

A membrane is called selectively permeable, differentially permeable and semipermeable if it

allows some solute particles (molecules) to pass but not others.
Simple diffusion- diffusion of solute particles dissolved in water through a selectively permeable
membrane
Active transport- The ATP-dependent absorption or secretion of solutes across a plasma
membrane; does not depend on a concentration gradient
Osmosis- diffusion of water through a permeable membrane
Osmosis takes place across a selectively permeable membrane that is freely permeable to
water, but not freely permeable to all solutes. The higher the solute concentration, the lower
the water concentration. As a result, water molecules tend to flow across a selectively
permeable membrane toward the solution w/ the higher solute concentration. Water will move
until water and solute concentrations are the some on either side of the membrane; water
moves until a state of equilibrium is reached.
No water no osmosis. No selectively permeable no osmosis.
In the body, the water is always the solvent.
More solute= less water
Protein synthesis asselmbling of functional polypeptides in the cytoplasm.

Normally, the genes are tightly coiled and histones bound to the DNA keep the genes inactive.
Before a gene can affect a cell, the portion of the DNA molecule containing that gene must be
uncoiled and the histones temporarily removed in a process called gene activation.

every gene contains segments responsible for regulating its own activity. In effect, these are
triplets of nucleotides that say ”read this message” or ”do not read this message,” ”message
starts here,” or ”message ends here.” These ”read me,” ”don’t read me,” and ”start” signals
form a special region of DNA called the promoter, or control segment, at the start of each gene.
Each gene ends with a ”stop” signal. Gene activation begins with the temporary disruption of
the weak hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases of the two DNA strands and the
removal of the histone that guards the promoter.

Transcription- synthesis of RNA from a DNA template. The use of the term transcription makes
sense, as it means ”to copy” or ”rewrite.”

The synthesis of mRNA is essential, because DNA is too large to leave the nucleus. Instead, its
information is copied to messenger RNA, which is smaller and can leave the nucleus and carry
the information to the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis takes place.
Every nucleated somatic cell in the body carries 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)

Coding strand- contains the triplets that specify the sequence of amino acids in polypeptide
Template strand- complementary triplets that will be used as a template for mRNA production.

Steps of transcription:
1. RNA polymerase binding 2. RNA polymerase nucleotide linking 3. Detachment of mRNA

The synthesis of mRNA is essential, because DNA is too large to leave the nucleus. Instead, its
information is copied to messenger RNA, which is smaller and can leave the nucleus and carry
the information to the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis takes place.

Translation- formation of a linear chain of amino acids, a polypeptide, using info from the
mRNA strand
mRNA- messenger RNA
tRNA- transfer RNA

Mutation- permanent changes in a cell’s DNA that affect the nucleotide sequence of one or
more genes
Gene activation and transcription occur in the nucleus, Translation occurs outside of the
nucleus, in the cytoplasm.
A cell that lacked the enzyme RNA polymerase would not be able to transcribe RNA from DNA.

Permeability- The ease with which dissolved materials can cross a membrane; if the membrane
is freely permeable, any molecule can cross it; if impermeable, nothing can cross; most
biological membranes are selectively permeable (allow some and restrict others)

Freely permeable- membrane through which any membrane can pass without difficulty
Plasma membranes are selectively permeable b/c their permeability lies somewhere
between those extremes. A selectively permeable membrane permits the free passage of
some materials and restricts the passage of others. The distinction may be based on size,
electrical charge, molecular shape, lipid solubility, or other factors. Cells differ in their
permeabilities, depending on the lipids and proteins in the plasma membrane and how
these components are arranged.

Passive processes- move ions or molecules across the plasma membrane with no expenditure
of energy by the cell.
Active processes- require that the cell expend energy, generally in the form of ATP.

Factors that influence the rate of diffusion are:

Distance- the shorter the more quickly concentration gradients eliminated

Ion and molecule size- the smaller the faster. Small molecules such as glucose diffuse faster
than large proteins

Temperature- higher the temp, faster diffusion rate

Concentration gradient- the steeper the concentration gradient, the faster diffusion proceeds

Electrical forces- opposite electric charges (+ and -) attract each other and like charges repel
each other. The cytoplasmic (inner) surface of the plasma membrane has a net negative charge
relative to the extracellular (outer) surface. This negative charge tends to attract positive ions
from the extracellular fluid into the cell, while repelling the entry of negative ions.

Electrochemical gradient- net result of the chemical and electrical forces acting on any ion

An ion or a molecule can diffuse across a plasma membrane only by (1) crossing the lipid
portion of the membrane by simple diffusion or (2) passing through a membrane channel.
Small water-soluble molecules and ions diffuse through membrane channels. Lipid-soluble
molecules diffuse directly through the plasma membrane.

Simple diffusion:
Alcohol, fatty acids, and steroids can enter cells easily, because they can diffuse through the
lipid portions of the membrane. Lipid-soluble drugs, dissolved gases such as oxygen and carbon
dioxide, and water molecules also enter and leave our cells by diffusing through the
phospholipid bilayer.

Channel- mediated diffusion:

Ions and water-soluble compounds are not lipid soluble, so to enter/leave the cytoplasm these
substance have to pass through a membrane channel. Water molecules can enter/ exit freely,
but even a small organic molecule, such as glucose, is too big to fit through the channels.

sodium, potassium, and chloride, move across the plasma membrane at rates comparable to
those for simple diffusion.

Sodium potassium pump moves 3 sodium ions and 2 potassium ions simultaneously.

osmotic pressure- a solution is an indication of the force with which pure water moves into that
solution as a result of its solute concentration

hydrostatic pressure- pushing against a fluid

Osmolarity/ osmotic concentration- total solute concentration in an aqueous solution.
Osmolarity refers to the solute concentration of the solution, but tonicity is a description of
how the solution affects the shape of a cell.
Tonicity reflects amount of solute.
Isotonic- (iso- equal) the two solutions being compared have equal solute, or osmotic, concentrations. In
an isotonic saline solution, no osmotic flow occurs, and the red blood cells appear normal in size and
shape. Same solute concentration

Hypotonic- the solution with the lower solute, or osmotic, concentration. In a hypotonic solution, the
water flows into the cell. The swelling may continue until the plasma membrane ruptures, or lyses.
Lower solute concentration, more water

Hypertonic- the solution with the higher solute, or osmotic, concentration. In a hypertonic solution,
water moves out of the cell. The red blood cells crenate (shrivel). Higher solute concentration, less water

Sodium and chloride (NaC1) are the most abundant ions in the extracellular fluid. Little net movement of
either ion across plasma membranes takes place, so normal saline is essentially isotonic to body cells.

Carrier-mediated transport- requires specialized integral membrane proteins. can be passive or active,
depending on the substance transported and the nature of the transport mechanism. Same as enzymes
their characteristics are: specificity, saturation limits and regulation

Vesicular transport- involves moving materials within small membranous sacs, or vesicles. Vesicular
transport is always an active process. move tiny droplets of fluid and solutes rather than single
molecules, this process is also known as bulk transport. The two major types of vesicular transport are
endocytosis and exocytosis.

Endocytosis- The movement of relatively large volumes of extracellular material into the
cytoplasm by the formation of a membranous vesicle at the cell surface; major types includes
receptor-mediated endocytosis, pinocytosis and phagocytosis; involves large volumes of
extracellular material.
receptor-mediated endocytosis produces vesicles that contain a specific target molecule in high
concentrations.
pinocytosis: (cell drinking) The introduction of fluids into the cytoplasm by enclosing them in
membranous vesicles at the cell surface.; formation of endosomes filled with extracellular fluid

phagocytosis: (cell eating) The engulfing of extracellular materials or pathogens; the movement
of extracellular materials into the cytoplasm by enclosure in a membranous vesicle. Process by
which certain white blood cells engulf bacteria

exocytosis: The ejection of cytoplasmic materials by the fusion of a membranous vesicle with
the plasma membrane. . functional reverse of endocytosis
Symport/cotransport mechanisms- the common carrier protein (symporter) transports two different
molecules or ions through a membrane in the same direction, either into or out of the cell.
Antiport/countertransport, mechanisms- the carrier protein (antiporter) transports two different
molecules or ions through the membrane in opposite directions.

Primary active transport- process of pumping solutes against a concentration gradient using the energy
from ATP

The sodium ion concentration is high in the extracellular fluid, but low in the cytoplasm. The distribution
of potassium ions in the body is just the opposite: low in the extracellular fluid and high in the
cytoplasm. Because of leak channels in plasma membranes, sodium ions slowly diffuse into the cell, and
potassium ions diffuse out. Homeostasis within the cell depends on removing sodium ions and
recapturing lost potassium ions. This exchange takes place by a sodium–potassium exchange pump. The
carrier protein involved in the process is called sodium–potassium ATPase. Breaking the high-energy
bond of ATP provides the energy for the sodium–potassium exchange pump.
Secondary active transport- does not require ATP. Moves a specific substrate down its concentration
gradient. Unlike the carrier proteins in facilitated diffusion, these carrier proteins can also move
another substrate at the same time, without regard to its concentration gradient. The concentration
gradient for one substance provides the driving force needed by the carrier protein, and the second
substance gets a ”free ride.”

Molecules need a carrier protein to help them move across a membrane b/c they are lipid
insoluble or too large.
The membrane potential of a cell is the difference in electrical potential that results from the uneven
distribution of positive and negative charges across the plasma membrane. It is expressed in
millivolts (mV).
filtration is the process by which water and solutes pass through a membrane (such as a dialysis
membrane) from an area of higher hydrostatic (fluid) pressure into an area of lower hydrostatic
pressure. Like diffusion, it is a passive process. For example, fluids and solutes filter out of the
capillaries in the kidneys into the kidney tubules because blood pressure in the capillaries is
greater than the fluid pressure in the tubules. Filtration is not a selective process. The amount
of of filtrate—fluids and solutes—formed depends almost entirely on the pressure gradient (the
difference in pressure on the two sides of the membrane) and on the size of the membrane
pores.

MWCO- molecular weight cutoff; pore size. The molecular weight of a solute is the number of
grams per mole, where a mole is the constant Avogadro’s number 6.02 x 10 23 molecules/mole

Module 5:

membrane potential and the resting membrane potential are two characteristic physiological
features of all cells

Excess of positive charges on the exterior membrane is due to cations, namely sodium.

The negative charge along the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane is due to negatively
charged protein anions that are too large to pass through any membrane ion channels.

positive and negative charges are attracted to each other and would normally rush together, but
the plasma membrane keeps them apart.

Potential difference- The separation of opposite charges; requires a barrier that prevents ion
migration. Potential refers to energy contained by something relative to its position to something
else
membrane potential- The potential difference, measured across a plasma membrane and
expressed in millivolts, that results from the uneven distribution of positive and negative ions
across the plasma membrane; also called transmembrane potential.; the difference in electrical
potential that results from the uneven distribution of positive and negative charges across the
plasma membrane. It is expressed in millivolts (mV).
Volt- unit of measurement potential difference

resting membrane potential- The membrane potential of a normal cell under homeostatic
conditions; The membrane potential in an unstimulated, or undisturbed cell.

Each type of cell has a characteristic resting membrane potential between − 10 mV and −
100 mV, with the minus sign signifying that the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma
membrane has an excess of negative charges compared with the outside. Examples include
fat cells (− 40 mV), thyroid cells (− 50 mV), neurons (− 70 mV), skeletal muscle cells (− 85
mV), and cardiac muscle cells (− 90 mV). mV means millivolts.

If the plasma membrane of a cell were freely permeable to sodium ions, more of there
positively charged ions would move into the cell, and the membrane potential would
become less negative (move closer to zero).

The extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (cytosol) differ greatly in ionic
composition. The extracellular fluid contains high concentrations of sodium ions (Na+) and
chloride ions (Cl−), whereas the cytosol contains high concentrations of potassium ions
(K+) and negatively charged proteins

The cell’s passive and active transport mechanisms do not ensure an equal distribution of
charges across its plasma membrane, because membrane permeability varies by ion. it is
easier for K+ to diffuse out of the cell through a potassium leak channel than it is for Na+
to enter the cell through a sodium leak channel.

negatively charged proteins inside the cell are too large to cross the membrane. As a result, the
membrane’s inner surface has an excess of negative charges with respect to the outer surface.

Current- movement of charges to eliminate a potential difference

Resistance- measure of how much the membrane restricts ion movement
If the resistance is low, the current is very large, because ions flood across the membrane. The
resistance of a plasma membrane can change as ion channels open or close. The changes result in
currents carrying ions into or out of the cytosol.

Electrical gradient can either reinforce or oppose the chemical gradient for each ion.
electrochemical gradient- for a specific ion is the sum of the chemical and electrical forces acting
on that ion across the plasma membrane
equilibrium potential- membrane potential at which there is no net movement of a particular ion
across the plasma membrane
For potassium ions, equilibrium occurs at a membrane potential of about –90 mV and resting
membrane potential of neurons is typically −70 mV, a value close to the equilibrium potential for
K+. equilibrium potential indicates an ion’s contribution to the resting membrane potential.
equilibrium potential for Na+ is approximately +66 mV, as shown in Figure 12–9d. The resting
membrane potential is nowhere near that value, because the resting membrane permeability to
Na+ is very low, and because ion pumps in the plasma membrane eject sodium ions as fast as
they cross the membrane.

the relative distribution of ions across the resting cell’s plasma membrane, associate Negative
with the iNside and pOsitive with the Outside.
a stimulus that opens sodium ion channels triggers a rush of Na+ into the cell. Note that the
nature of the stimulus does not determine the amount of ion movement: If the stimulus opens the
door, the electrochemical gradient does the rest.
Sodium ion pump exchanges three intracellular (Na+) sodium ions for two extracellular (k+)
potassium ions
At the normal resting membrane potential, this pump ejects sodium ions as quickly as they enter
the cell. the activity of the exchange pump exactly balances the passive forces of diffusion, and
the resting membrane potential remains stable because the ionic concentration gradients are
maintained.

Passive ion channels (leak channels)- always open; important in establishing the normal resting
membrane potential of the cell
gated ion channels (active channels)- open or close in response to specific stimuli
Three classes of gated channels exist: chemically gated (ligand-gated channels); voltage-gated
channels; and mechanically gated channels.
chemically gated- open/ close when they bind specific chemicals
voltage-gated channels- open/close in response to changes in the membrane potential. most
important voltage-gated ion channels are voltage-gated sodium ion channels, potassium ion
channels, and calcium ion channels. These sodium ion channels have two gates that function
independently: an activation gate that opens on stimulation, letting sodium ions into the cell, and
an inactivation gate that closes to stop the entry of sodium ions. each channel can be in one of
three states: (1) closed but capable of opening, (2) open (activated), or (3) closed and incapable
of opening (inactivated).

mechanically gated channels- open/close in response to physical distortion of the membrane

surface. Such channels are important in sensory receptors that respond to touch, pressure, or
vibration
Any stimulus that opens a gated channel produces a graded potential.
Graded potentials (local potentials)- changes in the membrane potential that cannot spread far
from the site of stimulation.
Depolarization- A change in the membrane potential from a negative value toward 0 m V. Any
change where the membrane potential becomes more positive. Ex -70 mv to -5o mV or 10 mV

Local current- movement of positive charges parallel to the inner and outer surfaces of a
membrane that spreads the depolarization
Depolarization lessens with distance because the cytosol offers considerable resistance to
ion movement, and because some of the sodium ions entering the cell then move back out
across the membrane through sodium leak channels.

The maximum change in the membrane potential is proportional to the size of the stimulus,
which determines the number of open sodium ion channels. The more open channels, the
more sodium ions enter the cell, the greater the membrane area affected, and the greater
the degree of depolarization.

Repolarization- The movement of the membrane potential away from a positive value and
toward the resting potential; process of restoring the normal resting membrane potential after
depolarization. Typically involves a combination of ion movement through membrane channels
and the activities of ion pumps, especially the sodium–potassium exchange pump. However, if a
gated potassium ion channel opens in response to a stimulus, the opposite effect occurs.

Hyperpolarization- The movement of the membrane potential away from the normal resting
potential and farther from 0 mV. ; inside of the cell becomes more negative, loss of positive
ions produces hyperpolarization (increase in the negativity of the resting membrane potential) ex.
From -70 mV to -80 mV or higher
Graded potentials occur in the membranes of many types of cells—not just nerve
and muscle cells, but epithelial cells, gland cells, adipocytes, and a variety of
sensory receptors. If a graded potential causes hyperpolarization, an action
potential becomes less likely, but if the graded potential causes depolarization, an
action potential becomes more likely to occur.
If the voltage-gated sodium ion channels in the plasma membrane of a neuron
could not open, sodium ions could not flood into the neuron and it would not be
able to depolarize. If the extracellular concentration of potassium ions decreased,
more potassium would leave the cell, and the membrane potential would become
more negative. This condition is called hyperpolarization.
Membrane contains many more (-) potassium (K+) leak channels than (+) sodium
(Na+) leak channels, thus the membrane is more permeable (leaky) to potassium
ions. The sodium potassium pumps (Na+ -K+ pump) transport sodium ions out of
neuron and potassium ions back in, compensating for the sodium and potassium
leaks. The pumps help to maintain resting membrane potential. the membrane
protein of the exchange pump is Na+/K+ ATPase, which gets the energy to pump
ions by splitting a phosphate group from a molecule of ATP, forming ADP. If the
cell uses all its ATP, or if a metabolic poison inactivates Na+/K+ ATPase, the
neuron will soon stop functioning.

action potential (nerve impulses)- A propagated change in the membrane potential of excitable
cells, initiated by a change in the membrane permeability to sodium ions; changes in membrane
potential that once initiated, affect an entire excitable membrane
graded potential must depolarize the axolemma to a particular level in order to
stimulate an action potential.

Threshold- the membrane potential at which an action potential begins

Threshold for an axon is typically between −60 mV and −55 mV, corresponding to
a depolarization of 10 to 15 mV. A stimulus that shifts the resting membrane
potential from −70 mV to −62 mV will not produce an action potential, only a
graded depolarization. When such a stimulus is removed, the membrane
potential returns to the resting level. Local currents resulting from the graded
depolarization of the axon hillock cause the depolarization of the initial segment
of the axon.

Once the membrane reaches threshold, the first step in generating an action
potential is the opening of voltage-gated sodium ion channels at one site, usually
the initial segment of the axon. Then the steps proceed as follows: (1)
depolarization to threshold; (2) activation of voltage-gated sodium ion channels
and rapid depolarization; (3) inactivation of voltage-gated sodium ion channels
and activation of voltage-gated potassium ion channels, beginning repolarization;
and (4) closing of voltage-gated potassium ion channels, producing a brief
hyperpolarization (due to a lag in total closing of channels), and then a return to
the resting membrane potential.
refractory period- The time between the initiation of an action potential and the restoration of
the normal resting membrane potential; during this period, the membrane will not respond
normally to stimulation

helpful analogy: Flushing a toilet provides a useful analogy for an action potential and its
refractory period. Nothing happens while you press the handle, until the water starts to flow
(threshold is reached). After that, the amount of water that is released is independent of how hard
or quickly you pressed the handle (all-or-none principle). Finally, you cannot flush the toilet
again until the tank refills (refractory period).
Action potentials may travel along an axon in two ways: by continuous propagation
(unmyelinated axons) or by saltatory propagation (myelinated axons)
Saltatory propagation- action potential in a myelinated axons moves by “jumps” from node to
node rather than moving along the axon in a series of tiny steps. In addition to being faster,
saltatory propagation uses proportionately less energy, because less surface area is involved and
fewer sodium ions must be pumped out of the cytoplasm.
continuous propagation- an action potential appears to move across the surface of the membrane
in a series of tiny steps. Even though the events at any one location take only about a
millisecond, they must be repeated at each step along the way.
Presence of myelin greatly increases the propagation speed of action potentials.
The larger the diameter, the lower the resistance in an axon.
axons three groups according to their diameter, myelination, and propagation speed:
Type A fibers- Large myelinated axons. Diameters 4-20 propogation speed 120 m/sec (meters
per second) / 260mph
carry sensory information about position and balance, and delicate touch and pressure
sensations from the skin surface to the CNS. Urgent news like sensory information about
things that threaten survival and motor commands that prevent injury travels over Type A
fibers (like instant message/text) Less urgent sensory information and motor commands
are relayed by Type B fibers (e-mail) or Type C fibers (regular “snail mail”)

Type B fibers- Small myelinated axons. Diameters 2-4 propogation speed 18 m/sec (about
40mph)

Type C fibers- Small unmyelinated axons. Diameters less than 2 propogation speed 1m/sec
(2mph)
Type B fibers and Type C fibers carry information to and from the CNS. They deliver
temperature, pain, and general touch and pressure sensations. also carry instructions to
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, and other peripheral effectors.

Most action potentials originate near axon hillock of the cell body
Fishes use textrodotoxin to gTetrodotoxin causes paralysis by affecting the sodium ion transport in both the central
and peripheral nervous system. A low dose of tetrodotoxin produces tingling sensations and numbness around the
mouth, fingers, and toes. Higher doses produce nausea, vomiting, respiratory failure, difficulty walking, extensive
paralysis and death. As little as 1 to 4 mg of the toxin can kill an adult. Saxitoxin has a very different chemical
structure than tetrodotoxin but similar effects on transport of cellular sodium, and produces similar neurological
effects but is less toxic that tetrodotoxin.