Lebensm.-Wiss. u.-Technol.

, 35, 15–20 (2002)

Chemical and Physico-chemical Changes in Processed

Cheese and Ready-made Fondue During Storage.
A Review
W. Schär and J. O. Bosset*

W. Schär: Tiger Cheese Ltd., CH-3550 Langnau - Emmental (Switzerland)

J.O. Bosset: Federal Dairy Research Station, Liebefeld, CH-3003 Berne (Switzerland)
(Received April 17, 2000; accepted July 19, 2001)

Processed cheese is often expected to be a stable product with a very long shelf-life. However, even products without any
bacteriological contamination retain their high quality only for a few months at room temperature. During storage, structure and
flavour slowly change. The following possible causes for such changes are reviewed in the present paper: loss of water vapour,
hydrolysis of polyphosphates, changes in ionic equilibria, crystal formation, oxidation, nonenzymic browning, enzymatic activity as
well as interactions with packaging materials. The changes with age of processed cheese are influenced by four main factors: product
composition, processing, packaging and storage conditions (time and temperature). No work about the changes with age of ready-
made fondue appears to have been published.

r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd

Keywords: processed cheese; ready-made fondue; storage; ageing; shelf-life; quality

Introduction The ‘best before’ date must be declared according to the

So far, most research studies into the problems of the
shelf-life and storage of processed cheese have dealt with
problems caused by microbial contamination. Modern
processing technologies and careful selection of ingre-
dients make it possible to produce bacteriologically
stable processed cheese. For this reason, processed
cheese is often expected to be a product with a shelf-
life of more than 1 y. However, even bacteriologically
stable products in good packaging usually maintain
their quality only for 6–12 mo at room temperature
(Chambre and Daurelles, 1997). During storage, chemi-
cal and physical aging processes impair flavour and
structure. A typical off-flavour, often called ‘old’
flavour, gradually appears, thus limiting the sensory
quality. Structure also continuously changes, typically
towards a firmer, shorter texture. Several changes can
occur simultaneously.
This subject is relevant for all processed cheese
manufacturers who have great know-how on this topic
but have not published it for obvious reasons. They have
to check for these changes during product development.
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: jacques-
olivier.bosset@fam.admin.ch
0023-6438/02/020015+06 $35.00/0
r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd
ageing properties of their products. Processed cheese for
export markets should retain its quality as long as
possible, especially for hot countries where they are the
most popular cheese types. The manufacturers collect
empirical data but a better knowledge of the main causes
of change and factors contributing to this change would
form the basis for further improvements. However, only
few scientific results have so far been published.
‘Swiss Cheese Fondue’ (‘Fertigfondue’) is a typical Swiss
meal including cheese, white wine and brandy (Kirsch).
In 2000, approx. 7,400 tons of ‘Swiss Cheese Fondue’
and 13,100 tons of processed cheese were produced in
Switzerland (Swiss Association of Processed Cheese
Manufacturers, 2000). Both products are mainly based
on Emmental and Gruyère cheese.
No published data are available about the ageing and
shelf-life of ‘Swiss Cheese Fondue’ and processed Swiss
Emmental cheese with citrates. Therefore, the Federal
Dairy Research Station (FAM) of Liebefeld/Bern and
the Swiss association of processed cheese manufacturers
are carrying out a collaborative study on the ageing of
processed Emmental cheese and ready-made Fondue.
The two main aims of that study, published in two parts,
are to review the current knowledge on this topic and to
complete it on several aspects investigating a 1-y ageing
doi:10.1006/fstl.2001.0820
All articles available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

15
lwt/vol. 35 (2002) No. 1
of commercial processed Emmental cheese and ready-
made Fondue. Actual information about chemical and
physical changes in processed cheese is summarised in
the present review article.
Manufacture of Processed Cheese
Processed cheese is produced by heating a mixture of
cheese, water, emulsifying salts (mostly sodium citrates,
sodium orthophosphates or sodium polyphosphates)
and further optional ingredients such as butter or spices.
Mix constituents and processing conditions are selected
to give the desired structure, appearance, colour, flavour
and shelf-life at an acceptable cost. The mixture is
heated in a batch cooker to 70–120 1C under a partial
vacuum with constant agitation, until a homogeneous
mass is obtained, or in a continuous UHT-process at
140 1C. Generally, the hot processed cheese is filled into
the desired packages such as pouches or polymer-coated
aluminium foils. Thereafter, these packages are sealed
and the products are cooled down. Several textbooks
and review articles on processed cheese manufacture are
available (Meyer, 1970; Paquet, 1988; Berger et al.,
1989; Zehren and Nusbaum, 1992; Caric and Kalab,
1997; Chambre and Daurelles, 1997). The influence of
heating on the volatile compounds of Swiss processed
cheese varieties was recently investigated (Mariaca et al.,
1998).
During processing, the natural cheese, consisting mainly
of insoluble calcium paracaseinate and fat globules, is
finely dispersed, homogenised and converted into a gel
in which fat is emulsified. By chelating the calcium from
the protein structure, the emulsifying salts contribute to
the dispersion of the proteins and enhance their
emulsifying properties. The structure of the processed
cheese depends on the type of cheese used, the fat ratio,
the dry matter and the ability of the emulsifying salt to
sequester the calcium (Paquet, 1988).
Manufacture of Ready-made Fondue
The manufacture of ready-made fondue is similar to the
manufacture of processed cheese. White wine, starch
and Kirsch brandy are additional ingredients. As the
tartric acid from the wine acts as a chelating agent, the
content of emulsifying salt is set to a maximum of
8 g/kg, whereas processed cheese contains up to 40 g/kg
(Eidgenössisches Departement des Innern, 1998). Com-
mercial ready-made fondue is traditionally filled into
multilayer aluminium pouches with a content of 400 g.
Recent developments include ‘microwaveable’ fondue in
cups.
Microbiological Aspects
The scope of this review is limited to publications
dealing with bacteriologically stable products. Micro-
biological hazards can be eliminated by UHT pro-
cessing: even temperature-resistant spores such as
16
Clostridium butyricum, Clostridium tyrobutyricum,
Clostridium sporogenes can be destroyed. Post-sterilisation
infection is prevented by hot filling (85–95 1C) into the
packing (Sturm, 1998).
Shelf-life of Processed Cheese
According to Berger et al. (1989), processed cheese is not
a preserved food, but a ‘semi-preserved food’ with a
limited shelf-life. Premium grade processed cheese
should be given a shelf-life guarantee not exceeding
3–4 mo, especially when the product is packaged in
plastic foils. Products stored in metal cans or tubes may
have longer shelf-lives. According to Chambre and
Daurelles (1997), processed cheese products usually
retain their good quality for up to 6–12 mo at room
temperature. Sturm (1998) differentiates the shelf-life of
the following products stored at room temperature:
8 wk for slices, 20 wk for small portions, more than 1 y
for products packed in tubes or cans. Table 1
summarises the possible changes and their relevance.
Ready-made fondue in multilayer aluminium pouches is
very well protected against loss of water vapour, gas
permeation and light transmission. It is typically
produced with sodium orthophosphate as an emulsify-
ing salt. A longer shelf-life could theoretically be
expected, but even in this case, changes in the mouth-
feel are noticed: the structure continues to become more
homogeneous and the corresponding mouth perception
is described as becoming more creamy. An increasing
‘old’ off-flavour (taste and odour) limits its sensory
acceptance. Changes in fondue strongly depend on
storage temperature: at 5 1C, the changes are much
slower than at 20 1C (Tiger Cheese Ltd., Langnau-
Emmental: internal reports).
General aspects of the shelf-life of various foods are
discussed in textbooks. The following main changes will
be described: loss of water vapour, hydrolysis of
polyphosphates, changes in ionic equlibria, formation
of crystals, reactions induced by heat-stable enzymes,
nonenzymic browning, reactions induced by light and
oxygen as well as interactions with packaging materials.
Loss of Water Vapour
Usual packaging material for processed cheese provides
a good, but not a completely tight barrier against water
vapour. Depending on storage temperature, a consider-
able weight loss may occur, leading to a firmer texture
(Tiger Cheese Ltd., Langnau-Emmental: internal
reports). Typically, processed cheese slices, stored for
1 mo at 20 1C, may present a weight loss of 2–5 g/kg
(Ney, 1988).
Hydrolysis of Polyphosphates
Linear polyphosphates (with  4 phosphates) are ob-
tained from very pure orthophosphates (monophosphates)
 lwt/vol. 35 (2002) No. 1

Table 1 Chemical and physical changes in processed cheese during storage

Influence on
Practical Improvement
Effect Cause Flavour Texture significance possibilities
Loss of water Packaging not Noa Becomes Depends on the Tighter packaging
vapour completely tight firmer packaging properties Storage at lower
temperatures
Polyphosphates Unstable polypho- Noa Yes Only in products con- Storage at lower
hydrolysis sphates in aqueous so- taining polyphosphates temperatures
during storage lutions, hydrolysed to
short-chain poly- and
orthophosphate
Changes in ionic Interaction of emulsi- Noa Becomes Mainly in processed Optimised mixture of
equilibrium fying salts with ions firmer cheese spreads with emulsifying salts
and polyphosphates Storage at lower
proteins temperature
Crystal formation Solubility of the No Yes Depends on product Optimised mixture and
ionic components such composition and process quantity of emulsifying
as calcium, amino acids salts
and emulsifying salts Avoid ripe cheese
including crystals
Reactions induced Even after processing Yes Yes Depends on ingredients Careful selection of in-
by heat-stable heat-stable and heat treatment gredients
enzymes enzymes might during processing Higher heat treatment
remain active during processing
Storage at lower
temperatures
Nonenzymic Reaction of reducing Yes Not Products with a signifi- Lower lactose content
browning sugars with amino significant cant amount of lactose Less severe heat treat-
acids (1–6%) become yellow/ ment Storage at lower
brown temperatures
Reactions induced Traces of oxygen Yes Not Depends on composition Tighter packaging
by light and in the package. Oxidation significant (oxidising, antioxidative with lower oxygen
oxygen Permeation of flavour components), light and permeation
oxygen through packaging properties Packaging with a good
the package. light barrier
Storage at lower
temperatures
Interactions with Migration of packa- Yes No Depends on Selection of optimal
packaging ging components, cor- packaging packaging material.
materials rosion of aluminium materials Storage at lower
foil temperatures
a
Indirect effect possible because of different texture and mouth-feel.

by high-temperature condensation (Chambre and
Daurelles, 1997). They are hydrolysed in an aqueous
solution (Berger et al., 1989). This reaction begins
during melting and continues during the storage of
processed cheese (Ney, 1988). The hydrolysis quickly
leads first to triphosphates and diphosphates (pyropho-
sphates) then more slowly to orthophosphates which are
excellent pH buffers (Mair-Waldburg, 1958; Ruf and
Gläser, 1971). A part of added polyphosphates is
already hydrolysed during the melting process. The rest
is completely hydrolysed after 7–10 wk of storage (Caric
and Kalab, 1997). The hydrolysis of oligo- and
polyphosphates creates new acid functions thus lowering
the pH-value of the product and inhibits an eventual pH
increase (Chambre and Daurelles, 1997). The buffering
capacity of polyphosphates depends on the chain length:
the higher the chain length, the lower the buffering
capacity. Commercial mixtures of emulsifying salts
often contain short-chain oligophosphates with the
required good balance of calcium binding and buffering
properties. Long-chain polyphosphates are added to
improve calcium binding (Berger et al., 1989; Caric and
Kalab, 1997). The rheological properties of various
processed cheese slices were measured during 1 mo of
storage at 4, 13 and 20 1C (Ney, 1988). A measuring
device was developed, which bends the slices until they
break. The breaking angles generally decreased during
storage and were not caused by pH or loss of water
vapour. The results were described as a hardening effect
and related to the hydrolysis of polyphosphates
(Ney, 1988).
Klostermeyer (1990) reported measurements of the
firmness, viscosity and elasticity of various processed
cheeses. Products containing phosphates first showed,
however, a decreasing resistance after production. After
about 3 wk a minimum was reached, thereafter the
measured resistance rose again. This effect was not
observed with products containing citrates as emulsify-
ing salt. The curves presenting minima or maxima often
result from opposite processes, likely a slow destruction
of the primary gel structure and the formation of a
secondary structure. The author supposes that these

17
lwt/vol. 35 (2002) No. 1
phenomena are related to precursors in the submicelle
range.
Changes in Ionic Equilibria
After the melting and cooling of processed cheese, the
ionic equilibria and hence the pH settle slowly. During
storage, the loss of water vapour and the hydrolysis of
polyphosphates in turn influence the ionic equilibria in
processed cheese. In addition, interactions between
protein, emulsifying salt, sodium and calcium influence
water binding and texture. Processed cheeses typically
become firmer during storage. Spreadable, ‘creamed’
products should be stored below 20 1C, preferably at
10–15 1C, to avoid a firmer, shorter texture (Chambre
and Daurelles, 1997).
Formation of Crystals
Crystals are due to compounds with a low solubility.
The following possible crystals have been reviewed
(Berger et al., 1989; Caric and Kalab, 1997; Uhlmann
et al., 1983): calcium phosphate, calcium diphosphate,
calcium lactate, lactose, crystalline amino acids such as
tyrosine, and calcium tyrosinate. Crystals of emulsifying
salts may be observed in processed cheese as a result of
(i) an excess of emulsifying salt, (ii) an unsuitable
mixture of emulsifying salts or (iii) insufficient dissolu-
tion of the latter in the mixture during processing.
Tyrosine or other crystals may act as nuclei for the
formation of further crystals (Berger et al., 1989;
W. Berger, pers. comms., 2000). In general, the
formation of crystals is favoured by excessive amounts
of emulsifying salts or lactose, a high calcium content in
the natural cheese, a high pH-value and a long storage
of the processed cheese at low temperatures (Caric and
Kalab, 1997).
Crystallisation on the surface of processed cheese slices
is influenced by mechanical treatments as well as the
phosphates/citrates ratio in the emulsifying salt (Uhl-
mann et al., 1983). Small white crystals, identified as
calcium citrate or tertiary sodium calcium citrate, may
occur on the surface of processed cheese slices (Berger
et al., 1989).
Microcrystals of calcium phosphate and calcium pyro-
phosphate dihydrate have been described (Pommert
et al., 1988). These microcrystals do not affect the taste
and the appearance of the processed cheese, in contrast
with the other crystals responsible for spots or lines on
the product surface.
Reactions Induced by Heat-stable Enzymes
Most enzymes are denatured and deactivated during
processing. Nevertheless, denatured proteases may
rearrange and exhibit a certain degree of proteolytic
activity. Mulvihill and McCarthy (1993, 1994) examined
proteolytic and rheological changes during the storage
18
of cheese analogues made from rennet casein. The
plasmin content significantly influenced the proteolytic
and rheological changes during 1–35 wk of storage.
Beta-casein was more extensively hydrolysed than as1-
casein. As rennet (EC 3.4.23.4) is a relatively heat-
sensitive enzyme, its activity in processed cheese seems
negligible (Mulvihill and McCarthy, 1993). Heat-stable
lipases may also be active: processed cheese made with
ripe Camembert cheese may develop a noticeable
lipolysis during storage (Morgenthaler, M. Gerber
Cheese Ltd., Thun, Switzerland: pers. comms., 2000).
Nonenzymic Browning
Nonenzymic browning (‘Maillard reaction’) is an im-
portant and widely occurring reaction in foods. The
primary reaction is the carbonyl-amine addition between
reducing sugars and amines (usually the e-amino groups
of lysine). It is followed by rearrangements, scissions,
hydrolyses and other carbonyl-amine reactions, as well
as numerous further reactions (Feeney and Whitacker,
1982). The Maillard reaction and its prevention
have been reviewed (Feeney and Whitacker, 1982;
Pizzoferrato et al., 1998; Yaylayan, 1997). Its relevance
in processed cheese was discussed by Berger et al. (1989).
It plays a key role in products containing high amounts
of lactose (10–80 g/kg). During storage, especially at
elevated temperatures, the formation of a brownish
colour and an off-flavour limit the shelf-life of the
product. The extent of Maillard reactions is reduced by a
lower lactose content, less severe heating conditions and
a lower storage temperature (Berger et al., 1989;
Piergiovanni et al., 1989). The influence of manufactur-
ing procedures and composition of stirred-curd Cheddar
cheese were investigated for their effects on the non-
enzymic browning of processed cheese (Bley et al., 1985).
The correlation between galactose content of Cheddar
and the brown colour intensity in process cheese was
very high. Faster cooling of processed cheese reduced the
intensity of brown colour. In another study, non-
enzymic browning of processed cheese was examined in
a model system. The processing temperature and storage
temperature were found to be more important factors
than the concentrations of protein and lactose. The
results indicated the advisability of storing processed
cheese at low temperature (approx. 5 1C), since otherwise
the Maillard reaction continues during storage (Piergio-
vanni et al., 1989).
Reactions Induced by Light and Oxygen
Typical packaging materials for processed cheese
include aluminium foils for portions, multilayer foils
for slices, steel cans and cups (Sturm, 1998). Bosset et al.
(1993) and recently Borle et al. (2001) reviewed light-
induced reactions in milk and milk products. These
reactions may be relevant for slices in transparent foil,
but do not occur in opaque packaging materials such as
aluminium foils or steel cans. Processed cheese slices in

transparent foil are usually conditioned under a
protective atmosphere (nitrogen/carbon dioxide) with
an oxygen content below 20 mL/L. Oxidative reactions
leading to colour change (Kristensen et al., 2001) and
the formation of off-flavour due to methional and
carbonyl compounds as well as cholesterol oxides
depend on processed cheese composition (oxidising
and antioxidative components), light expose (emission
spectrum, intensity, duration) and properties of the
packaging. Studies on various milk products, including
processed cheese, show, that the formation of cholester-
ol oxides is negligible under normal processing and
storage conditions (Bosset et al., 1993). The influence of
different packaging materials (tin cans, polystyrene
cups, LDPE tubs) and storage temperature was exam-
ined in an Indian study (Goyal and Babu, 1991).
Samples packaged in tin cans had the least chemical
changes.
Interactions with Packaging Materials
A typical aluminium foil (11–15 mm) for processed
cheese is coated with a protective polymer and a
polyvinyl co-polymer with a sealing temperature of
65–75 1C (Sturm, 1998). This coating protects the
aluminium from corrosion due to salts and acids present
in the matrix and also prevents the undesirable
migration of aluminium into the cheese body. Factors
leading to the corrosion of aluminium foils have been
described (Flückiger, 1964; Berger et al., 1989; Meyer,
1970). In an off-flavoured product packed in aluminium
foil, Stark and Urbach found that the contaminant was
the vinyl monomer (G. Urbach, unpublished work by
Stark and Urbach, pers. comms. 2001).
Interactions with packaging materials were reviewed by
Gallmann et al. (1997). The migration of butylhydrox-
ytoluene (BHT) and Irganox 1010 into processed cheese
slices was measured (Schwope et al., 1987). Migration
strongly depended on molecular weight: BHT with a low
molecular weight migrated faster than Irganox 1010.
Conclusions
Processed cheese is a ‘semi-preserved food’ with a
limited shelf-life. Products without bacteriological spoi-
lage retain their good quality typically only for
4–12 mo at room temperature. During storage, appear-
ance, structure, colour and flavour slowly change. The
possible causes of these changes are: loss of water,
hydrolysis of polyphosphates, changes in ionic equili-
bria, formation of crystals, oxidation, nonenzymic
browning, enzyme activity, interactions with packaging
materials. Several mechanisms for these changes can be
active concurrently.
The changes with the age of processed cheese can be
influenced by four main factors: product composition,
processing, packaging and storage conditions (tempera-
ture and duration). Firm products retain their quality
longer than spreadable products with higher water
19
lwt/vol. 35 (2002) No. 1
content. Other compositional factors such as lactose
content or emulsifying salts also influence the shelf-life.
Most changes with age can be slowed down by lower
storage temperatures.
While these global effects of storage on processed cheese
are well known, this review clearly highlights the need
for further research on specific topics such as changes in
equilibria and interactions between the product compo-
nents. The chemistry of the system during the ‘hard-
ening’ of processed cheese as well as discrepancies
between effects noted by various authors in different
studies should still be experimentally explored and
explained. Moreover, two main fields should be
investigated: the storage of ready-made fondue, which
was never dealt with, and the relationship between
storage duration and storage temperature.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Mr Wolfgang Berger (Römerberg,
Germany), Mrs Annie Imbert (Fromageries Bel, Ven-
dôme, France), Mr Robert Sieber (FAM) and Mrs
Gerda Urbach (Australia) for their careful review of the
manuscript.
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