AIRCRAFT RELIABILITY

MA4872

Lecture 10

Airport & Airline Operations

Nanyang Technological University

01 Feb 2017
(Wednesday)

MA4872 Aircraft Reliability

 WHAT IS AIR TRANSPORT?

1. Flying is the most efficient means of moving long distances at great speed

A B747 can carry passengers at 1,000 km/h at a per passenger-km fuel cost
comparable to a compact car with 4 passengers travelling at 100 km/h.

2. In the first century of flight, we fly aircraft. In the 2nd Century, we fly
passengers.

Today’s airline passengers want seamless travel from point-to-point. They expect
comfort and amenities like they are at home.
3. The world has grown accustomed to air travel – dependent on it.

During the security alert after 11 September 2001, the whole US business came to a
standstill.
4. The aviation industry employs 6 million people worldwide.

2.7 million by airlines + 1.7 million by support services + 1.8 million by aerospace
companies

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 2

 Convention on International Civil Aviation
• ICAO has 7 Regional Offices to consider local issues.
• Convention has been regularly updated since 1944.
• Convention currently ratified by 191 States.

International Air Services Transit Agreement

• Established First & Second Technical Freedoms
• Signed by All Delegate Nations
 International Air Transport Association

• Represents the Interests of the Airlines

• Formed in Havana in April 1945
• Replaced International Air Traffic Association
• Initially 57 Members from 31 Nations, now 243 from 126
• Based in Montreal
• Mission is to ‘represent, serve and lead the airline industry.’
 ICAO Annex 14 Volume I
Aerodrome Design and Operations
Aerodrome Design and Operations

Chapter 1 – General (Definitions, Applicability, Certification of Aerodromes, Safety

Management System & Reference codes)

Chapter 2 – Aerodrome data

Chapter 3 – Physical characteristics

Chapter 4 – Obstacle restriction and removal

Chapter 5 – Visual Aids for navigation

Chapter 6 – Visual Aids for denoting obstacles

Chapter 7 – Visual Aids for denoting restricted use areas

Chapter 8 – Electrical Systems

Chapter 9 – Aerodrome operational services, equipment and installations

Chapter 10 – Aerodrome maintenance

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 5

 ICAO Annex 14 Volume I
Aerodrome Design and Operations

In general terms, ICAO Annex 14, Volume I covers technical

specifications and requirements associated with:

 Aerodrome certification
 Design of aerodrome facilities
 Aerodrome operational services
 Aerodrome operational safety

These general areas are supplemented by information found in:

 Appendices (are also SARPs)
 Attachments (guidance to the application of SARPs)
 (Standards And Recommended Practices)

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 6

 Runway

Runway are designated

according to its Magnetic
Compass Headings
All the Runways in Singapore
are North-East/ South-West

Changi : 02/ 20 (L, C, R)

Seletar : 03/ 21
Paya Lebar : 02/ 20

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 7

 Landing Fee
ICAO Council Statements:
• Should be based on maximum permissible takeoff
weight (MTOW), except under airport limitations
• Should compute on basis of a rate per 1,000 kg;
rate may vary at certain weights
• May be just a fixed charge up to a weight threshold
• Should include cost of lighting and other landing
aids -- these should not be optional
• Should not depend on stage length of flight
 Air Navigation Charges

ICAO approach
Costs to be taken into account should include only:

Approach and Airport Control Charges

• should be associated with landing fee
• may take aircraft weight into account, but less than in direct
proportion
Route Air Navigation Charges
• should take into account distance flown, and aircraft weight (in
less than direct proportion)
Charges for Service Not Over Provider
• a State may charge for services rendered anywhere
• collection of charges in such cases may be difficult
 Other Aeronautical Charges

Terminal Air Navigation -- Sometimes charged separately; allotted

between airport operator and ATC service provider
Passenger Service -- Charged on a per passenger basis; usually paid
directly by airline, but with notable exceptions; “head taxes” (eg PFC in
US) may be a form of passenger service fee
Cargo Service -- Per ton or other unit measure
Parking and Hangar Charges -- Based on MTOW and/or aircraft
dimensions; often no charge for occupancies of less than “normal
threshold” (2-6 hours); rate may differ for contact vs. remote stands.
Noise-related charges - may be part of landing fee - ICAO states:
• should be imposed only where noise problems exist;
• should recover only costs of noise alleviation;
• should not be too high for the operation of some aircraft
Security charges – may be part of passenger service charge
1.7 Reference code
Aircraft type Code Code Element 2 Aerodr.
Element 1 reference
code
Aeroplane reference Code No. Wing span, m OMGWS, m Code
field length, m letter

1. ATR 42-200 1,010 2 24.6 4.9 C 2C

2. Fokker: 50 1,760 3 29.0 8.0 C 3C

3. A 320-200 2,058 4 33.9 8.7 C 4C

4. A 340-300 2,200 4 60.3 12 E 4E

Outer main gear wheel span

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 11

 AEROPLANE REF AEROPLANE CHARACTERISTICS
TYPE CODE

ARFL Wingspan OMGWS Length MTOW Tyre P

(m) (m) (m) (m) (kg) (Kpa)
ATR 42-200 2C 1010 24.6 4.9 22.7 16150 728
Lear Jet 55 3A 1292 13.4 2.5 16.8 9298 -
Fokker F28-2000 3B 1646 23.6 5.8 29.6 29480 689
Fokker:
F27-500 3C 1670 29.0 7.9 25.1 20412 540
F50 3C 1760 29.0 8.0 25.2 20820 552
Airbus A300 B2 3D 1676 44.8 10.9 53.6 142000 1241
Airbus A320-200 4C 2058 33.9 8.7 37.6 72000 1360
Boeing:
B737-200 4C 2295 28.4 6.4 30.6 52390 1145
B737-300 4C 2749 28.9 6.4 30.5 61230 1344
B737-400 4C 2499 28.9 6.4 36.5 63083 1400
Boeing:
B707-300 4D 3088 44.4 7.9 46.6 151315 1240
B757-200 4D 2057 38.0 8.7 47.3 108860 1172
B767-200ER 4D 2743 47.6 10.8 54.9 172365 1310
Boeing:
B747-300 4E 3292 59.6 12.4 70.4 377800 1323
B747-400 4E 3383 64.9 12.4 70.4 394625 1410
B777-200 4E 2500 60.9 12.8 63.73 287800 1400
MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 12
 Airport Designation

There are two main airport designation codes in use:

Airport ICAO IATA

1. Singapore Changi WSSS SIN
2. London Heathrow EGLL LHR
3. NY John F Kennedy KJFK JFK
4. Los Angeles KLAX LAX
5. Beijing International ZBAA PEK
6. Tokyo, Narita RJAA NRT
7. Singapore Seletar WSSL XSP

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 13

 Instrument Landing System

Basic ILS in use in most airports using two radio beams, modulated at
90Hz and 150 Hz

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 14

 ILS Categories
Category I (CAT I) – A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height not lower than
200 feet (61 m) above touchdown zone elevation and with either a visibility not less than 800 meters
(2,625 ft) or a runway visual range not less than 550 meters (1,804 ft).

Category II (CAT II) – A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height lower than
200 feet (61 m) above touchdown zone elevation but not lower than 100 feet (30 m), and a runway visual
range not less than 300 meters (984 ft) for aircraft approach category A, B, C and not less than 350 meters
(1,148 ft) for aircraft approach category D.

Category III (CAT III) is subdivided into three sections:

Category III A – A precision instrument approach and landing with:

a) a decision height lower than 100 feet (30 m) above touchdown zone elevation, or no
decision height (alert height); and
b) a runway visual range not less than 200 meters (656 ft).

Category III B – A precision instrument approach and landing with:

a) a decision height lower than 50 feet (15 m) above touchdown zone elevation, or no
decision height (alert height); and
b) a runway visual range less than 200 meters (656 ft) but not less than 75 meters (246 ft).
Autopilot is used until taxi-speed. In the United States, FAA criteria for CAT III B runway visual
range allows readings as low as 150 ft.

Category III C – A precision instrument approach and landing with no decision height and no runway
visual range limitations. This category is not yet in operation anywhere in the world, as it requires
guidance to taxi in zero visibility as well. "Category III C" is not mentioned in EU-OPS. Category III B is
currently the best available system.

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 15

 Other Navigation and Landing Aids

1. DME - Distance Measuring Equipment

2. TACAN – Tactical Air Navigation (Military)
3. VOR – VHF Onmi Range
4. NDB – Non-Directional Beacon
5. ADF – Automatic Direction Finder
6. SSR – Secondary Surveillance Radar (Transponder)
7. LRRA – Low Range Radio Altimeter
8. MLS – Microwave Landing System
9. GPS – Global Positioning System
10. VASIS – Visual Approach Slope Indicator System

INS and IRS are independent Navigation System

Magnetic Compass is still an important primary navigation system

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 16

 Air Traffic Control

• The primary purpose of ATC is to prevent collisions, organize and expedite

the flow of air traffic, and provide information and other support for pilots.
• ATC also plays an important role in security.

• 1921, Croydon Airport, London was the first airport to introduce ATC using
aviation charts/maps, flight plans and radio communication
• 1940s : Radar enabled the controllers to “see” the aircraft
• 1960s : Computer provided situation awareness, and enabled the
controllers to perform monitoring and conflict detection functions
• 1990s : Satellites enabled the global navigation, communication and
surveillance capabilities
• Continued advancement in technology is necessary to meet the traffic
growth while ensuring safe, efficient, cost effective and environmentally
clean operations

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 17

Key Functions of Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore

Formulate
Air
Navigation
Policies

Singapore Facilitate
Air Hub Growth Ensure Safe
& Efficient
Air Traffic

Develop
Future ATM
Capabilities

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability Courtesy CC Hsin

 Singapore Flight Information Region
Courtesy ATMRI

245,000 NM2 (840,000 km2)

6 Contiguous boundaries with

Area Control Centres

2012
557,000 Air Traffic Movements in
the Singapore FIR

325,000 Air Traffic Movements at

Changi Airport
MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 19
Airspace Classification

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 20

Airspace Structure
Class A – Positive Control Area (PCA) Class D – Airport Traffic Area (ATA)
FL 180 to FL 600 Vicinity of small airport
IFR Control Tower equipped without Radar
Radio Communication with ATC Light aircraft allowed
Two-way VHF Radio and Mode-C
Class B – Terminal Control Area (TCA) Transponder
Vicinity of major airport of Big Cities IFR with VOR
Light aircraft not allowed Max Airspeed 250 kts
Two-way VHF Radio and Mode-C Radio Communication with ATC
Transponder
Class E – Remaining Controlled Airspace Area
IFR with VOR; VFR corridor sometimes
Everywhere
designated
Control Tower without Radar
Max Airspeed 250 kts
Light aircraft allowed
Radio Communication with ATC before
Two-way VHF Radio and Mode-C
entering Zone
Transponder
Class C – Airport Radar Service Area (ARSA) IFR with VOR
Vicinity of major airport of Smaller Cities Max Airspeed 250 kts
Control Tower equipped with Radar Radio Communication with ATC
Light aircraft not allowed
Two-way VHF Radio and Mode-C
Class G – Completely Uncontrolled Airspace
Transponder
Low Flying light aircraft
IFR with VOR; VFR corridor sometimes
Max Airspeed 250 kts
designated
ATC has no authority
Max Airspeed 250 kts
Radio Communication with ATC

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 21

 Air Traffic Control
The Functions of ATC are :

1. Ensure safe and efficient conduct of flight operations

2. Expedite and maintain orderly movements of air traffic
3. Ensure safe movement of aircraft in the airport
4. Co-ordinate and assist Search and Rescue

1. Clearance Delivery Controller issues airways clearance in controlled airspace.

2. Surface Movement Controller controls aircraft movement on the apron up to
holding point of runway.
3. Aerodrome Controller provides separation instructions within 3 nm of airport
and delivers takeoff and landing clearances.
4. Approach Controller maintains radar separation of aircraft within 30 nm from
airport
5. Arrival Controller manages separation of aircraft within 30 to 100 nm.
6. Sector Controller provides separations for aircraft en-route through the airport
FIR.

Airports are also responsible for providing aeronautical information to

aircraft flying within their FIR.
MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 22
 Domains of Air Traffic Control

• Airport control in the Air Traffic Control Tower (ATCT)

– Arrival and departure, and surface movement

• Terminal control in the Approach Control Centre (APP)

– Approach

• En route control in the Area Traffic Control Centre (ARTCC)

– En route and oceanic

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 23

 Air Traffic Management vs. Air Traffic Control
• As traffic continues to grow and technology advances, Air Traffic Control (ATC) is
evolving into Air Traffic Management (ATM) with three distinct but inter-related
functions
– Air Traffic Control (ATC)
– Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM)
– Airspace Management (ASM)
• ICAO formally defined the ATM requirements

Challenges
• Continued traffic growth results in demand and capacity imbalance
• Limited airspace as a national resource
• Ability to handle weather related issues
• Integration with airport operations
• Necessity to incorporate measures to minimize environmental impact
– Noise
– Fuel burn
– Air pollution
MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 24
 Changi International Airport
Changi Airport 2007 2009 2011 2013 2014 2015
Aircraft 220,746 240,360 301,711 344,000 341,400 346,300
Movement
Passengers (M) 36.70 37.20 46.50 53.7 54.1 55.45
Cargo (M Ton) 1.90 1.63 1.87 1.85 1.84 1.85

Growth in Traffic and Connectivity at Singapore Changi Airport

Airlines 1981 1990 2005/2006 2010
Passenger
8.1 million 15.6 million 32.4 million (2005) 42.0 million
Movements
1.83 million tonnes
Airfreight Movements 193,000 tonnes 623,800 tonnes 1.81 million tonnes
(2005)
Country Links 43 53 57 (Jun 2006) >60
City Links 67 111 >180 (Jun 2006) >200

Scheduled Airlines 34 52 82 (Jun 2006) >100

Weekly Scheduled
About 1,200 About 2,000 >4,100 (Jun 2006) >5,400
Flights

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 25

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 26
MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 27
 Air Traffic Regulation
Airline’s Level of Freedom to fly under Air Services Agreements

1. Fly over another country without landing

2. Land in another country for non-revenue traffic
3. Carry traffic to another country
4. Carry traffic from another country
5. Carry traffic between 2 countries, provided the flight originates and
terminates in own country
6. Carry traffic between foreign countries via own country (3 & 4)
7. Free traffic between 2 foreign countries
8. Carry traffic between 2 points within a foreign country.
9. The Right to Transport Traffic between 2 Points in a Foreign Country
not as a Precursor to/Continuation of a Third/Fourth Freedom Flight
(Stand-alone Cabotage)
MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 28
 Ninth Freedom

B
The Right to Transport Traffic between 2 Points in a Foreign Country not
as a Precursor to/Continuation of a Third/Fourth Freedom Flight
(Stand-alone Cabotage)

8th and 9th Freedoms are given to all countries in the European Union. It is
rare outside the European Union.
Example is the 2001 Protocol to the Multilateral Agreement on the
Liberalization of International Air Transportation (MALIAT) between Brunei,
Chile, New Zealand and Singapore.
 EVOLUTION OF AIRCRAFT TECHNOLOGY

Period Most Year Seats Hourly Annual

Productive Introduced Single- Productivity Capacity
Aircraft class ton-km/h ,000 ton-km
1930s- DC-3 (piston) 1936 21 527 1,571
40s
1950s Britannia 310 1956 139 6,048 18,144
(turboprop)
1960s Boeing 720B 1960 149 11,256 33,770
(turbojet)
Boeing 747 1969 550 31,935 95,805
(turbofan)
1980s B747-400 1989 568 44,350 210,440

2000s Airbus A380 2005 882 52.500 249,112

Adapted from data from Doganis (2001)

Annual Capacity for B747-400 and A380 is based on an average daily utilization of 13 hours.

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 30

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 31
MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 32
MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 33
MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 34
 AIRLINE ECONOMICS

PROFIT
Sector Length Sector Length
YIELD COST
Base and
Route
Market Segment Aeronautical Network
Charges

Network Fuel Cost Type and

Age of
Equipment

Government Staff Cost

Policies
Government
Marketing Cost Policies

Adapted from Flying High (McGraw Hill)

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 35

 Singapore Airlines Operating Cost Structure
Fleet Size : 105 aircraft (2013/14: 103) 2014/15 2013/14
A330 = 30; A380 = 18; B777 = 67 $ million % $ million % ∆%
1 Fuel costs 4,536.2 37.5 4,772.6 39.1 - 5.0
2 Staff costs 1,540.2 12.8 1,567.0 12.8 - 1.7
3 Depreciation 1,264.0 10.5 1,311.7 10.7 - 3.6
4 Handling charges 876.2 7.3 870.6 7.1 + 0.6
5 Rentals on leased aircraft 698.3 5.8 564.8 4.6 + 23.6
6 Inflight meals and other passenger costs 676.7 5.6 671.8 5.5 + 0.7
7 Aircraft maintenance and overhaul costs 655.7 5.4 675.6 5.5 - 2.9
8 Airport and overflying charges 594.8 4.9 599.4 4.9 - 0.8
9 Sales costs 552.9 4.6 549.6 4.5 + 0.6
10 Communication and information technology costs 85.0 0.7 81.7 0.7 + 4.0
11 Other costs 598.2 4.9 559.3 4.6 + 7.0
Total 12,078.2 100.0 12,224.1 100.0 - 1.2
Other costs mainly comprised crew expenses, company accommodation, foreign exchange revaluation and
hedging loss, comprehensive aviation insurance, airport lounge expenses, non-information technology contract
and professional fees, expenses incurred to mount non-scheduled services, aircraft licence fees and recoveries.

2014/15 2013/14 ∆%
Passengers carried (thousand) 18,737 18,628 + 0.6
Available seat-km (million) 120,000.8 120,502.8 - 0.4
Revenue passenger-km (million) 94,209.2 95,064.3 - 0.9
Passenger load factor (%) 78.5 78.9 - 0.4 pt
Passenger yield (¢/pkm) 11.2 11.1 + 0.9
Passenger unit cost (¢/ask) 8.9 9.1 - 2.2
Passenger breakeven load factor (%) 79.5 82.0 - 2.5 pt
Passenger Revenue (million $) 10,551.430 10,552.137 -0.007

MA4872 Aircraft Reliability

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 37
Significant Events in the AIRLINE Business . . .

1. De-regulation in 1978
2. Oil Crises
3. Jet Age
4. Jumbo Age
5. Budget Airlines
6. 9/11
7. What’s next … Space Tourism

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 38

 THE PROCESS AND IMPACT OF DE-REGULATION

• Fear of airlines abandoning the less profitable routes

• Fear of cut-throat competition – economic instability, cutting corners on safety
• CAB had enabled the industry to operate efficiently with the greatest good for the
greatest number of Americans
• Discontent about regulation – slow process to approve fare changes, interfere with Free
Market process, kept new entrants out
• Freddie Laker already started LCC in Britain in 1977. CAB started to ease limitations
already
• Congress passed the Airline Deregulation Act in late 1978 against strong opposition
from major airlines
• Major airlines feared competition, Labour Union feared retrenchment and Safety
advocate feared safety being compromised under business pressure
• 1984 – CAB abolished
• Rise of new carriers and growth of “hub-and-spoke” operation. Federal Express
• People Express – LCC reached $1 billion by 1985 and by 1986, ran into trouble
• 1979 operating revenues rose sharply for both domestic and international airlines.
Unprecedented 317 million pax flew through US skies
• By early 1981, airlines recorded losses of $421 million and pax dropped to 286 million.
• By 1991, three major American airlines went bankrupt : Pan Am, TWA and Eastern
• Average airfare dropped by one-third from 1977 to 1992

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 39

 Designing for the airline customer
What are the requirements for a profit?

• Sufficient market size

• Passenger appeal – Speed and Comfort
• Range and size – market demands
• Operational Convenience – Airport and workers’ friendly
• Operating Cost – Fuel and maintenance
• Environment Friendly – air and noise pollution
• Dependability and Maintainability
• Reasonable Standardization

In order to have a reasonable expectation of a profitable market for a new aircraft, one must
have an understanding of the reasonable technical risk, the correct size aircraft to obtain an
adequate market, a satisfactory competitive situation and a reasonable amount of
standardization. - Richard Shevell

MA 4872 - Aircraft Reliability 40