Module 4 & 5

RAILWAYS, HARBOURS, TUNNULLING & AIRPORT-18CV645
MODULE 4
AIRPORT PLANNING
Introduction
• Airport is a location where facilities for landing and takeoff operations for aircrafts are made
available.
• Airports have elements such as Runways, Taxiways and Buildings with passenger’s facilities,
Aprons, Hangers, Visual aids, and aircraft traffic control.
• Components includes- Landing area and Terminal area
• This module deals with Design and plan airport layout, design facilities required for runway,
taxiway and impart knowledge about visual aids
Air transport has the following characteristics:

1. Rapidity: Air transport had the highest speed among all the modes of transport.
2. Unbroken journey: It is capable of navigating continuously over mountains and ocean without any
break in journey
3. Accessibility: Capable of accessing even in remote locations such as forest, island and snowed
mountains that are inaccessible by other modes.
4. Expensive: Air transport is the most expensive means of transport. There is huge investment in
purchasing aero planes and constructing of aerodromes and has serios limitations in carrying
capacity.
5. Special Preparations: Air transport requires special preparations like wheelers links,
meteorological stations, flood lights, searchlights etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Air Transport:
Advantages
1. High Speed: The supreme advantage of air transport is its high speed. It is the fastest mode
of transport and thus it is the most suitable mean where time is an important factor.
2. Comfortable and Quick Services: It provides a regular, comfortable, efficient, and quick service.
3. No Investment in Construction of Track: It does not require huge capital investment in the
construction and maintenance of surface track.
4. No Physical Barriers: It follows the shortest and direct route as seas, mountains or forests do
not come in the way of air transport.
Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 87

5. Easy Access: Air transport can be used to carry goods and people to the areas which are not
accessible by other means of transport.
6. Emergency Services: It can operate even when all other means of transport cannot be operated
due to the floods or other natural calamities. Thus, at that time, it is the only mode of transport
which can be employed to do the relief work and provide the essential commodities of life.
7. Quick Clearance: In air transport, custom formalities can be very quickly complied with and
thus it avoids delay in obtaining clearance.
8. Most Suitable for Carrying Light Goods of High Value: It is most suitable for carrying goods of
perishable nature which require quick delivery and light goods of high value such as diamonds,
bullion etc. over long distances.
9. National Defense: Air transport plays a very important role in the defense of a country. Modern
wars have been fought mainly by airplanes. It has upper hand in destroying the enemy in a very
short period. It also supports over wings of defense of a country.
10. Space Exploration: Air transport has helped the world in the exploration of space.
Despite many advantages, air transport has the following limitations:

1. Very Costly: It is the costliest means of transport. The fares of air transport are so high that it
is beyond the reach of the common man.
2. Small Carrying Capacity: It carrying capacity is very small and hence it is not suitable to carry
cheap and bulky goods.
3. Uncertain and Unreliable: Air transport is uncertain and unreliable as it is controlled to a great
extent by weather conditions. Unfavorable weather such as fog, snow or heavy rain etc. may
cause cancellation of scheduled flights and suspension of air service.
4. Breakdowns and Accidents: The chances of breakdowns and accidents are high as compared
to other modes of transport. Hence, it involves comparatively greater risk.
5. Large Investment: It requires a large amount of capital investment in the construction and
maintenance of airplanes.
6. Specialized Skill: Air transport requires a specialized skill and high degree of training for
operating air service
7. Unsuitable for Cheap and Bulky Goods: Air transport is unsuitable for carrying cheap, bulky,
and heavy goods because of its limited capacity and high cost.
8. Legal Restrictions: There are many legal restrictions imposed by various countries in the
interest of their own national unity and peace.

Airport classification:
The airport classification helps in the design of airport and to establish uniformity in the design standards.
The airports have been classified by various agencies viz. International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO), Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), United States Airforce etc.
ICAO Classification:
The ICAO classifies the airport in two ways
• Based on the geometric standards
• Based on Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) and tire pressure
Table: Classification Based on Geometric Design

Airport Basic Runway Length Width of Runway Maximum Longitudinal
Maximum Minimum
Type (m) Pavement (m) Grade (%)
A Over 2100 21 45 1.5
B 2099 15 45 1.5
00
C 1499 9 30 1.5
00
D 899 7 22.5 2.0
0
E 749 6 18 2.0
5
0
0
0
Table:
0 Based on Aircraft Wheel Characteristic
Code No. Single Isolated Wheel Load (kg) Tyre Pressure (kg/cm2)
1 45000 8.5
2 34000 7.0
3 27000 7.0
4 20000 7.0
5 13000 6.0
6 7000 5.0
7 2000 2.5
FAA Classification:
Based on Aircraft Approach speed
Approach Category Approach Speed (knots)
A < 91
B 91 – 120
C 120 – 140
D 141 – 165
E >165

Based on take-off and landing:

Category of Airport Runway Length
Conventional Take-Off and Landing Airport (CTOL) >1500
Reduced Take-Off and Landing Airport (RTOL) 1000-1500
Short Take-Off and Landing Airport (STOL) 500-1000
Vertical Take-Off and Landing Airport (VTOL) 25-50 Sq.m
Based on Function:
1. Civil Aviation
• International Hubs: This category includes airports currently classified as International
Airports and having facilities of world standards.
Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Thiruvananthapuram
• Regional Hubs: Regional Airports will have to act as operational bases for regional airlines and
have all the facilities currently postulated for model airports, including the capability to handle
limited international traffic.
Cochin, Ahmedabad
• Domestic Airports:
Model Airports - Indore, Nagpur, Vadodara, Bhubaneshwar
Operational- Udaipur, Kota, Kanpur
Non-Operational: Patna, Mysore
• Custom Airports: Having National and International tourist potential
Jaipur, Calicut, Agra, Gaya etc.
2. Military Aviation
Not for civil use - Vadodara, Leh

AIRPORT PLANNING
Airport planning is a systematic process used to establish guidelines for the efficient development of
airports that is consistent with local, state, and national goals. A key objective of airport planning is to
assure the effective use of airport resources to satisfy aviation demand in a financially feasible
manner.
Socio- Economic Characteristics of Catchment Areas

1. Assessment of Traffic Potential:
Assessment of traffic potential for a proposed airport in terms of passenger and cargos is a crucial
element in establishing the need for an airport. The first step in assessment of traffic potential is
to delineate catchment area of a proposed airport in the national network of airport. After
demarcation of imaginary influence are, socio-economic characteristics of the population are
studied.
2. Population:
• Total Population
• Rate of growth of population
• Estimation of future population
3. Economic Characteristics
• Pattern of employment – Industries, Business, Government, Private, others
• Income Group – Composition of families under high income group and middle-income
group
• Average per capita income of persons in income groups of HIG and MIG
• Pattern of Expenditure – Proportion of expenditure for different items and more
particularly for travel
4. Travel Caricaturists
• Frequency of air travel
• Modal choice
Socio-economic characteristics of the region are compared with that of other comparable regions, where
airport is already in existence. From the comparison analysis, annual passenger volume and expected
cargo volume are assessed.

Components of Airport Layouts

• The layout of an airport mainly depends on the basic configurations of the runways.
• The other airport elements are then correlated in such a way that an integrated layout is
developed giving smooth flow of traffic, keeping in mind the taxi distances to a minimum,
providing shortest route for the passengers.
• A proper airport layout provides full functional efficiency with the minimum space utilization.
• An engineer should attempt to provide the simplest design which yields the optimum service
to air passengers.
• A good airfield layout should possess the following characteristic:
a. Landing, taxing, and taking off as independent operations without interference.
b. Shortest taxiway distance from loading runway end.
c. Safe runway length
d. Safe approaches
e. Excellent control tower visibility
f. Adequate loading apron space
g. Sufficient terminal building facilities
h. Sufficient land area to permit subsequent expansion
i. Lowest possible cost of construction.
The main components of airport are:

1. Runway
2. Terminal Building
3. Apron
4. Taxiway
5. Aircraft Stand
6. Hanger
7. Control Tower
8. Parking
Runways:
• It is the most important part of an airport in the form of paved, long and narrow rectangular strip
which actually used for landing and takeoff operations. It has turfed (grassy) shoulders on both
sides. The width of runway and area of shoulders is called the landing strip.

• Many factors are considered for design of runway. The direction of runway should be in the
direction of wind. Sometimes cross winds may happen, so, for safety considerations second
runway should be laid normal to the main runway.
• The number of runways for an airport is depends upon the traffic. If the traffic is more than 30
movements per hour, then it is necessary to provide another runway.
• Runway can be laid using bitumen or concrete. Bitumen is economic but concrete runways have
long span and requires less maintenance cost.
• The width of runway is dependent of maximum size of aircrafts utilizing it. The length of runway
is decided from different considerations like elevation of land, temperature, take off height,
gradients etc.
• The transverse gradients for runway should not be less than 0.5% but should always be greater
than 0.5%.
Taxiway:
• Taxiway is path which connects each end of the runway with terminal area, apron, hanger etc.
• These are laid with asphalt or concrete like runways.
• They are used for the movement of aircraft on the airfields for various purposes such as exit or
landing, exit for takeoff etc. The speed of aircraft on taxiway is less than that during taking off
or landing speed.
• In modern airports, taxiways are laid at an angle of 30 degree to the runway so that aircrafts can
use it to change from one runway to other easily. The turning radius at taxiway and runway meets
should be more than 1.5 times of width of taxiway
• Its longitudinal grade should not be greater than 3% while its transverse gradient should not be
less than 0.5%.

Terminal Buildings:
• Also known as airport terminal, these buildings are the spaces where passengers board or alight
from flights.
• These buildings house all the necessary facilities for passengers to check-in their luggage, clear
the customs and have lounges to wait before disembarking.
• The terminals can house cafes, lounges and bars to serve as waiting areas for passengers. Ticket
counters, luggage check-in or transfer, security checks and customs are the basics of all airport
terminals
Hangers:
• Hanger is a place where repairing and servicing of aircrafts is done. Taxiway connects the
hanger with runway so, when a repair needed for an aircraft it can be moved to hanger easily.
• It is constructed in the form of large shed using steel trusses and frames. Large area should be
provided for Hanger for comfortable movement of aircrafts.

Aprons:
• Apron is a place which is used as parking place for aircrafts. It is also used for loading and
unloading of aircrafts. Apron is generally paved and is located in front of terminal building or
adjacent to hangers.
• The size of area to be allotted for apron and design of apron is generally governed by the number
of aircrafts expected in the airport. The aircraft characteristics also considered while design.

Control Tower
The control tower is a place where aircrafts under a particular zone is controlled whether they are in land
or in air. The observation is done by the controller through radars and information is carried through
radio.The controller from the control tower observes all the aircrafts with in that zone and informs pilots
about their airport traffic, landing routes, visibility, wind speeds, runway details, etc. based on which the
pilot decides and attempts safe landing. So, control tower is like nerve system of an airport.
Aircraft Stand:
A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to provide access to aircraft stands
only.
Parking: This is a place provided for parking the vehicles of airport staff or passengers which is outside
the terminal building or sometimes under the ground of terminal building

Fig: Typical Airport Layout
Criteria for airport site selection and ICAO stipulations

The selection of a suitable site for an airport depends upon the class of airport under consideration.
However, if such factors as required for the selection of the largest facility are considered the
development of the airport by stages will be made easier and economical.
The factors listed below are for the selection of a suitable site for a major airport installation:
1. Regional plan
2. Airport use
3. Proximity to another airport
4. Ground accessibility
5. Topography
6. Obstructions
7. Visibility
8. Wind
9. Noise nuisance

10. grading, drainage and soil characteristics

11. Future development
12. Availability of utilities from town
13. Economic consideration
Regional plan: The site selected should fit well into the regional plan there by forming it an integral
part of the national network of airport.
Airport use: The selection of site depends upon the use of an airport. Whether for civilian or for military
operations. However, during the emergency civilian airports are taken over by the defense. Therefore,
the airport site selected should be such that it provides natural protection to the area from air roads.
This consideration is of prime importance for the airfields to be located in combat zones. If the site
provides thick bushes.
Proximity to other airport: The site should be selected at a considerable distance from the existing
airports so that the aircraft landing in one airport does not interfere with the movement of aircraft
at other airport. The required separation between the airports mainly depends upon the volume of air
traffic.
Ground accessibility: The site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to the users. The airline
passenger is more concerned with his door-to-door time rather than the actual time in air travel. The
time to reach the airport is therefore an important consideration especially for short haul operations.
Topography: This includes natural features like ground contours trees streams etc. A raised ground a
hill top is usually considered to be an ideal site for an airport.
Obstructions: When aircraft is landing or taking off it loses or gains altitude very slowly as
compared to the forward speed. For this reason, long clearance areas are provided on either side of
runway known as approach areas over which the aircraft can safely gain or lose altitude.
Visibility: Poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the airport. The site selected should therefore be
free from visibility reducing conditions such as fog smoke and haze. Fog generally settles in the
area where wind blows minimum in a valley.
Wind: Runway is so oriented that landing and takeoff is done by heading into the wind should be
collected over a minimum period of about five years.

Noise nuisance: The extent of noise nuisance depends upon the climb out path of aircraft type of engine
propulsion and the gross weight of aircraft. The problem becomes more acute with jet engine aircrafts.
Therefore, the site should be so selected that the landing and takeoff paths of the aircrafts pass over the
land which is free from residential or industrial developments.
Grading, drainage and soil characteristics: Grading and drainage play an important role in the
construction and maintenance of airport which in turn influences the site selection. The original ground
profile of a site together with any grading operations determines the shape of an airport area and the
general pattern of the drainage system. The possibility of floods at the valley sites should be investigated.
Sites with high water tables which may require costly subsoil drainage should be avoided.
Future development: Considering that the air traffic volume will continue to increase in future more
member of runways may have to be provided for an increased traffic.

Typical airport layouts:

The layout of an airport mainly depends on the basic configurations of the runways. The other
airport elements are then correlated in such a way that an integrated layout is developed giving
smooth flow of traffic, keeping in mind the taxi distances to a minimum, providing shortest route
for the passengers. A proper airport layout provides full functional efficiency with the minimum
space utilization. An engineer should attempt to provide the simplest design which yields the
optimum service to air passengers. A good airfield layout should possess the following
characteristic:
• Landing, taxing and taking off as independent operations without interference.

• Shortest taxiway distance from loading runway end.
• Safe runway length
• Safe approaches
• Excellent control tower visibility
• Adequate loading apron space
• Sufficient terminal building facilities
• Sufficient land area to permit subsequent expansion
• Lowest possible cost of construction.


Parking and circulation area
• Since the airport users normally arrive at the airport in automobiles, access roads and
parking facilities are of vital importance in the airport design. The circulation of traffic
and location of parking lots should be such that access to the terminal building is
as convenient as possible.
• Access roads are planned to provide fact connections between the airport and the city.
One of the present disadvantages of air travel is that the time saved through air
travel is lost in ground transportation.
• Circulation of vehicular traffic within the terminal area is also carefully planned.
It is essential to categorize the vehicular traffic to provide the road network satisfying
the specific needs of each traffic category. Broadly the vehicular traffic is classified as
passengers, visitors and service personnel.
• The area closest to the terminal building entrance may be used for short time parking
for enplaning and deplaning passengers. Sufficient space is to be provided for
passengers cars, adjacent to the entrance of the terminal building boarding and alighting
of passengers without any congestion and delay. Separate parking area is provided for
the staff personnel.
For the most efficient airport vehicular circulation and parking system, the following points are
considered:
1. Ease of passenger unloading and loading at the terminal building

2. One way traffic wherever possible
3. A minimum of driveway intersection
4. Adequate driveway width to permit overtaking
5. Sufficiently and clearly defined parking and circulation routes
6. Well lighted routes for pedestrians and vehicles

For determining the size and type of parking facility necessary, a traffic survey should be
conducted. FAA suggests that the size of the public parking facility should be based on 1.5 to 2
cars for each peak hour passenger. The pattern of parking is dedicated by the shape and size of
the parking area available. The basic parking patterns usually adopted are shown in fig

MODULE-5
Airport Design
Runway Orientation
According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) a runway is a "defined
rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft".
The orientation of the runway is an important consideration in airport planning and design. The
correct runway orientation maximizes the possible use of the runway throughout the year
accounting for a wide variety of wind conditions. FAA and ICAO regulations establish rules about
runway orientation and their expected coverage Runway Location Considerations. FAA
mandates identification standards for airport layout that is meant to assist pilots in easily
recognizing runways.
Runway is usually oriented in the direction of prevailing winds. The head wind i.e. the wind
direction of wind opposite to the direction of landing and taking-off provides greater lift on the
wings of the aircraft when it is taking-off. As such the aircraft rises above the ground much earlier
and in a shorter length of runway. During landing, the head wind provides a breaking effect and
the aircraft comes to a stop in a smaller length of runway. Landing and take-off operations, if done
along the wind direction, would require longer runway.
The challenge for the designer is to accommodate all of the aircraft using the facility in a reliable
and reasonable manner.
In navigation, all measurement of direction is performed by using the numbers of a compass. A
compass is a 360° circle where 0/360° is North, 90° is East, 180° is South, and 270° is West, as
shown in figure.

Wind Rose Diagram

Runway orientation using wind rose:
The wind data, i.e., direction, duration and intensity are graphically represented by a diagram
called wind rose. The plotting of the wind rose diagrams can be done in the following two
ways
Type I: Showing direction and duration of wind
Type II: Showing direction, duration and intensity of wind
Cross wind component:
It is not possible to get the direction of opposite wind parallel to the centre line of the runway
length everyday or throughout the year.
If the direction of wind is at an angle to the runway centre line, its component along the direction
of runway will be V Cos θ and that normal to the runway centre line will be V Sin θ where V is
the wind velocity. The normal component of the wind is called cross wind component. Cross wind
component should not exceed 25 kmph for mixed traffic.

Wind coverage:
The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind component remains within the limit
of 25 kmph is called wind coverage of the runway.
According to FAA, the runway handling mixed air traffic should be so planned that or 95 % of
time in a year. For busy airports, the wind coverage may be increased to 98 % to 100%.
Type I wind rose:

The radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle represents the duration of wind to a
certain scale. The total percentage of wind blowing in each direction are plotted and then joined
by the straight lines. The best direction of runway is indicated along the direction of the longest
line on the wind rose diagram.

Type II wind rose:

From the wind data table, it is observed that the percentage of time during which the wind velocity
is less than 6 kmph works out to (100-88) = 12. this period is called the calm period and does not
influence the operations of landing and take-off because of low wind velocity.
– Thus the wind velocities below 6 kmph have no effect on the fixing of orientation of a runway.
– Thus, the wind velocities below 6 Kmph have no effect on the fixing of orientation of a runway.
– The concentric circles with radii corresponding to 6, 25, 50, and 80 kmph to some scale are
drawn. Thus, each circle represents the wind velocity to some scale
– Starting with centre of the concentric circles, the 16 radial directions are shown on the outer
circle. The mid points of 16 arcs on the outermost concentric circle are marked and they are given
the cardinal directions of compass like N, NNE, NE, ENE, E, etc.
– The recorded duration of winds and expressed as percentage are shown for each cardinal
direction. It may be noted that the cardinal direction is central to sector.

– A transparent rectangular template or paper strip is taken. Its length should be slightly greater
than the diameter of the wind rose diagram and its width should be greater than twice the allowable
cross wind component i.e. 25 kmph.
– The scale for cross wind component should be the same as that of the concentric circles of the
wind rose diagram.
– Along the centre of the length of this template, a line is marked corresponding to the direction
of runway.
– The two parallel lines, one on either side of the centre-line, is drawn at a distance equal to the
allowable cross wind component i.e. 25 Kmph from the centre line. In other words, the two parallel
lines are 50 Kmph away from each other.
– The wind rose diagram is fixed in position on a drawing board.
– A hole is drilled in the centre of the template and it is placed on the wind rose diagram such
that its centre lies over the centre of the wind rose diagram.
– In this position, the template is fixed by a pin passing through its centre so that the template can
rotate about this pin as axis.
– The template is rotated and is placed along a particular direction.
– In this position of the template, the duration of 6-25, 25-50 and 50-80 Kmph winds are read for
the cardinal directions (N, NNE, NE etc.) lying between the two extreme parallel line marked on
the template.
– The sum of all these durations is expressed as the percentage and it gives the total wind coverage
for that direction.
Runway Length
It is the length of runway under the following assumed conditions:
i. Airport altitude is at sea level.
ii. Temperature at the airport is standard 15°C.
iii. Runway is levelled in the longitudinal direction.
iv. No wind is blowing on runway.
v. Aircraft is loaded to its full loading carrying capacity.
vi. En-route temperature in standard.

Corrections for Elevation, Temperature and Gradient

The basic runway length as discussed earlier is for mean sea level elevation having standard
atmospheric conditions. Necessary corrections are therefore applied for any change in elevation,
temperature and gradient for the actual site of construction.
i) Correction for elevation

• As the elevation increases, the air density reduces. This is in turn reduces the lift on the
wings of the aircraft and the aircraft requires greater ground speed before it can rise into
the air.
• To achieve greater speed, longer length of runway is required.
• ICAO recommends that the basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7 per
cent per 300m rise in elevation above the mean sea level.
ii) Correction for temperature
• The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as that of the increase in
elevation. Airport reference temperature is defined as the monthly mean of average daily
temperature(Ta) for the hottest month of the year plus one third the difference of this
temperature (Ta) and the monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature (Tm ) for the
same month of the year.
𝑇𝑚 −𝑇𝑎
Airport reference temperature = 𝑇𝑎 + 3
• ICAO recommends that the basic runway length after having been corrected for
elevation, should be further increased at the rate of 1 percent for every 1°C rise of airport
reference temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature at that elevation.
iii) Check for total correction for elevation plus temperature
• ICAO further recommends that, if the total correction for elevation plus temperature
exceeds 35percent of the basic runway length, these corrections should then the further
checked up by conducting specific studies at the site by model tests.
iv) Correction for gradient
• Steeper gradient results in greater consumption of energy and as such longer length of
runway is required to attain the desired ground speed
• ICAO does not recommend any specific correction for the gradient.

• FAA recommends that the runway length after having been corrected for elevation and
temperature should be further increased at the rate of 20 % for every 1 percent of effective
gradient.
• Effective gradient is defined as the maximum difference in elevation between the highest
and lowest points of runway divided by the total length of runway.
Example:
1. The data below refers to the daily temperature for the hottest month of the year 1988 for the
given airport site. Determine the airport reference temperature.
Date Temperature, °C Date Temperature, °C
Maximum Average Maximum Average
1 42.5 25.5 16 43.7 26.2
2 42.5 25.5 17 43.8 25.8
3 42.7 25.7 18 44.0 26.3
4 43.0 25.9 19 44.8 26.3
5 43.0 25.9 20 44.1 26.3
6 43.3 25.9 21 44.3 26.9
7 42.8 25.8 22 44.3 26.5
8 43.0 25.9 23 44.5 26.5
9 43.0 25.9 24 44.6 26.9
10 43.1 25.0 25 44.6 27.0
11 43.3 26.3 26 44.7 27.0
12 43.5 26.4 27 44.6 27.0
13 43.3 26.3 28 44.7 27.0
14 43.5 26.4 29 44.8 26.2
15 43.6 26.3 30 45.0 27.2
Solution:
1311.6
Mean of the maximum daily temperature, Tm= = 43.72°C
30
789.7
Mean of the average daily temperature, T a= = 26.32°C
30
43.72−26.32
= 26.32 + 3
= 32.12°C

2.The monthly mean temperature of the atmosphere, at a particular site, where an airport must be
developed are given below. Determine the airport reference temperature if the site is at mean sea
level, determine the actual runway length. The runway is assumed to be level
Month Temperature, °C
Mean of the average Mean of the maximum
daily temperature, Ta daily temperature, Tm
January 3 5
February 15 17
March 20 23
April 25 32
May 35 47
June 40 50
July 32 37
August 30 35
September 27 31
October 22 28
November 12 18
December 6 9
Solution:
The above table indicates that the hottest month of the year is the month of June. Therefore,
Mean of the maximum daily temperature, Tm= 50°C
Mean of the average daily temperature, Ta= 40°C
50−40
= 40 + 3
= 43.33°C
Consider, Runway length = L meters
i) Correction for elevation – Since runway is at mean sea level, no correction required
ii) Correction for temperature – Required, as the airport reference temperature is above the
standard atmospheric temperature at MSL (15°C )
Rise of temperature = 43.33 – 15 = 28.33 °C
The correction is applied at the rate of 1% per 1 °C rise of temperature
𝐿
Correction required = × 28.33
100
= 0.2833×L meters
Corrected Runway length = L + 0.2833L = 1.2833×L meters

iii) Correction for gradient – Runway is assumed as level and no correction is required
Actual runway length to be provided = 1.2833×L meters
3. The following data refers to the proposed longitudinal section of runway

End to end of Runway Gradient
0.0 – 5.0 chains +1.0%
5.0 – 15.0 chains –1.0%
15.0 – 30.0 chains +0.8%
30.0 – 40.0 chains +0.2%
If one metric chain is 24m length, determine the effective gradient of runway
Solution:
Chainage 0 5 15 30 40
Elevation 100.0 101.5 99.0 101.4 101.8
Maximum difference in elevation = 101.8 – 99.0 = 2.8m

Total runway length = 40 ×20
= 800m
2.8
Effective gradient of runway = 800 × 100
= 0.35 %
4. The length of runway under standard condition is 1620m. The airport site has an elevation of
270m, its reference temperature is 32.94°C. If the runway is to be constructed with an effective
gradient of 0.2%, determine the corrected runway length.
Solution:
i) Correction for elevation the basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7 per cent
per 300m rise in elevation above the mean sea level
ii) Correction for temperature – Required, as the airport reference temperature is above the
standard atmospheric temperature at MSL (15°C )
Rise of temperature = 43.33 – 15 = 28.33 °C

The correction is applied at the rate of 1% per 1 °C rise of temperature

𝐿
Correction required = 100 × 28.33
= 0.2833×L meters
Corrected Runway length = L + 0.2833L = 1.2833×L meters
iii) Correction for gradient – Runway is assumed as level and no correction is required
Actual runway length to be provided = 1.2833×L meters
Basic Elements of a Runway:

1. Structural Pavement
2. Shoulders
3. Runway Strip
4. Blast pad
5. Runway End safety area
6. Stop way and Clear way.
Structural pavement: It is the paved area whose length and width is designed to ensure a safe
operating surface. It supports the airplane load
Shoulders: The shoulders are adjacent to the structural pavement, which are designed to resist
erosion due to jet blast and to accommodate maintenance equipment and patrol.
Runway Strip: It includes the structural pavement, shoulders and an area that is cleared and
graded. This area should be capable of supporting fire, crash rescue and snow removal equipment.

Blast Pad: The blast pad is an area designed to prevent erosion of surfaces adjacent to the ends of
the runways which are subjected to repeated jet blasts and to minimize excessive ground
maintenance. The area is either paved or planted with turf.
Runway Geometric Design
• Factors considered in geometric design of runways:
i. Runway length
ii. Runway width
iii. Width and length of safety area
iv. Transverse gradient
v. Longitudinal and effective gradient
Runway length: The basic runway length as recommended by ICAO for different types of airport
are given in the table below. To obtain the actual length of runway, corrections for elevation,
temperature and gradient are applied to the basic runway length.
Runway width
• ICAO recommends the pavement width varying from 45 m to 18m for different types of airport.
• The aircraft traffic is more concentrated in the central 24m width of the runway pavement.
• Another consideration in determining the runway width is that the outermost machine of large
jet aircraft using the airport should not extend off the pavement on to the shoulders. This is because
the shoulder is usually of loose soil or established soil etc which is likely to get into the engine and
damage it.
• The outer engines of a large jet transport are about 13.5m from the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft.
• As such a pavement width of 45m will provide adequate protection to the engine from the
shoulder material during normal operations.
Width and length of safety area

• Safety area consists of the runway, which is a paved area plus the shoulder on either side of
runway plus the area that is cleared, graded and drained.
• The shoulders are usually unpaved as they are used during emergency. They may at the most
be prepared of stabilized soil or turf.
• Another advantage of providing shoulders on either side of runway is that they impart a sense
of openness to the pilot and improve psychology during landing and take-off.
• ICAO recommends that for non-instrumental runway, the width of safety area should be at least
150m for A, B, C, and 78 m for D and E types and for instrumental runway, it should be minimum
300m.
Transverse gradient
• This is essential for quick drainage of surface water. If surface water is allowed to pond on the
runway, the aircraft can meet severe hazards.
• ICAO recommends that the transverse gradient of runway pavement should not exceed
1.50percent for A, B, C and 2 percent for D and E types. It does not specify the minimum limit of
the transverse gradient.
• ICAO recommends that the transverse gradient of portion of the shoulder should not exceed
2.50percent.
• Transverse gradient of the remaining portion of the shoulder should not exceed 5 percent.
Longitudinal and effective gradient

• The longitudinal gradient of runway increases the required runway length. ICAO gives the
following recommendations for the maximum longitudinal gradient and the maximum effective
gradient.
• For longitudinal gradient:
A, B and C types: 1.50 percent
D and E types: 2.00 percent
For effective gradient
A, B and C types: 1.00 percent
D and E types: 2.00 percent
Rate of change of longitudinal gradient

• The abrupt change of longitudinal gradient restricts the height distance and may also cause
premature lift-off of the aircraft during the taking-off operation.
• The premature lift-off of aircraft will affect its performance of aircraft during its takeoff and
can also develop structural defects in the aircraft.

• Too many changes in the gradients over a small length of runway can also restrict the sight
distance and increase the runway length.
• The changes in gradients should be smoothened by vertical curves.
• ICAO recommends that the rate of change of gradient should be limited to a maximum
of 0.10 percent per 30m length of vertical curve for A and B types, 0.2 percent for C type and 0.4
percent for D and E types of airports.
Taxiway Planning
Geometric design standards:
• Length of taxiway
• Width of taxiway
• Width of safety area
• Longitudinal gradient
• Traverse gradient
• Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
• Sight distance
• Turning radius
Length of taxiway:
It should be as short as practicable. This will save the fuel consumption. No specifications are
recommended by any organisation for limiting the length oftaxiway.
Width of taxiway:
The width of taxiway is much lower than the runway width. The speed of the aircraft on a
taxiway is also lower than the speed on runway. The pilot can comfortably manoeuvre the aircraft
over a smaller width of taxiwaythan on a runway.
Width of safety area:

This area includes taxiway pavement shoulders on either side that may be partially paved plus the
area that is graded and drained. This may extend up to a point where it intersects a parallel runway,
taxiway and apron. Bitumen treated shoulders are normally used. The shoulders must be thick
enough to support the airport petrol vehicles and the sweeping equipment.
Longitudinal gradient:
If the gradient is steep, there will be greater fuel consumption.
ICAO recommends that the longitudinal gradient should not exceed 1.5 percent for Aand B types
and 3 percent for other types of airports.
Transverse gradient:
This is essential for quick drainage of surface water.
ICAO recommends that for taxiway pavement like runway, the transverse gradient should not
exceed a value of 1.5 percent for A, B and C types and 2 percent for D and E types of airports.
ICAO does not specify any value for the transverse slope of taxiway shoulders.
FAA recommends that it should be 5 percent for the first 3 m and 2 percent thereafter for all types
of airports.
Rate of change of longitudinal gradient:

ICAO recommends that rate of change of slope in longitudinal direction should not exceed 1
percent per 30 m length of vertical curve for A, B and C types and 1.2 percent for D and E types
of airports.
Sight distance:
ICAO recommends that the surface of a taxiway must be visible from 3 m height for a distance of
300 m for A, B and C types and distance of 250 m must be visible from 2.1 m height for D and E
types of airports.

Turning radius:
Airport Zones
Approach Zone : During landing, the glide path of an aircraft varies from a steep to flat slope. But
during takeoff, the rate of climb of aircraft is limited by its wing loading and engine power. As
such wide clearance areas, known as approach zones are required on either side of runway along
the direction of landing and take-off of aircraft. Over this area, the aircraft can safely gain or loose
altitude. The whole of this area has to be kept free of obstructions and as such zoning laws are
implemented in this area. The plan of approach zone is the same as that of the approach surface.
The only difference between the two is that while approach surface is an imaginary surface, the
approach area indicates the actual ground area.
Clear Zone
The inner most portion of approach zone which is the most critical portion from obstruction view-
point is known as clear zone. The purchase of this land in this zone is recommended for the
effective implementation of zoning laws. It is not necessary to grade this area, but all obstructions
are removed. Naturally a level area is preferred but it is not essential. Fences, ditches and other
minor obstacles are permitted.

Passenger Facilities and Services

1. Baggage Enquiries: Baggage allowances are determined by airlines and will depend on a
variety of factors such as fare paid and aircraft type, so be sure to check baggage allowance
information well in advance of setting off to Airport.
2. Internet Access: If you have a mobile internet device such as a laptop or Smartphone, you can
also print vital documents at the kiosks, ensuring you can brush up on last minute paperwork during
the flight.
3. Escape Lounge: Escape Lounge now for complimentary food and drink, free Wi-Fi and to
simply unwind before fly.
4. Prayer Room: If someone need somewhere for prayer or quiet reflection, can visit prayer rooms
in the main Terminal Building.
5. VAT Refunds: Visitors from various countries can reclaim the sales tax (VAT) on purchases.
This can be claimed by purchase goods from any merchant displaying the Tax Free Shopping sign
and filling in a tax refund form by the retailer, which is to be kept alongside receipts which can be
used to claim back tax.

6. Bag Wrapping and Weighing: Luggage-Point offer a Bag Wrapping facility within the
Landside concourse at Airports.
7. Cash Machines: Cash machines will be available in Airports, before and after security check.
8. Family Facilities: Travelling with children doesn't need to be a stressful process. At Airports
all the services and facilities will be available to keep kids happy and entertained at the airport,
whether that's from baby changing rooms to pre-flight entertainment and dedicated family rooms
at specified gates.
9. Information Desk: The 24-hour airport information desk is located in the international arrivals
area, providing help with general airport enquiries, flight information and paging calls.
10. Meeting Rooms: Meeting and conference facilities are available at Airports and through
a variety of nearby hotel spots.
11. Postal Services: Availability of postal services for passengers to send a letter or postcard from
airports.
12. Rest and Relaxation: When seeking peace and quiet before departing the Airport, passengers
can avail Escape Lounge. Further facilities geared towards a relaxing airport experience include
an array of comfortable seating in one of our many cafés, restaurants and bars.
13. Smoking Areas: Airports are smoke-free, with smoking only permitted in designated areas
outside the terminal building.
Airport Making and Lighting
Airport Lighting
Visual aids assist the pilot on approach to an airport, as well as navigating around an airfield and
are essential elements of airport infrastructure. As such, these facilities require proper planning
and precise design.

These facilities may be divided into three categories: lighting, marking, and signage. Lighting is
further categorized as either approach lighting or surface lighting. Specific lighting are
1. Approach lighting
2. Runway threshold lighting
3. Runway edge lighting
4. Runway centreline and touchdown zone lights
5. Runway approach slope indicators
6. Taxiway edge and centreline lighting
Airfield marking and signage includes
1. Runway and taxiway pavement markings
2. Runway and taxiway guidance sign systems
Airfield lighting, marking, and signage facilities provide the following functions:
1. Ground to air visual information required during landing
2. The visual requirements for takeoff and landing
3. The visual guidance for taxiing
The Airport Beacon
Beacons are lighted to mark an airport. They are designed to produce a narrow horizontal and
vertical beam of high-intensity light which is rotated about a vertical axis so as to produce
approximately 12 flashes per minute for civil airports and 18 flashes per minute for military
airports.
Obstruction Lighting Obstructions are identified by fixed, flashing, or rotating red lights or
beacons. All structures that constitute a hazard to aircraft in flight or during landing or takeoff are
marked by obstruction lights.
Alignment Guidance Pilots must know where their aircraft is with respect to lateral displacement
from the centreline of the runway.
Height Information The estimation of the height above ground from visual cues is one of the
most difficult judgments for pilots. It is simply not possible to provide good height information
from an approach lighting system.
Approach Lighting Approach lighting systems (ALS) are designed specifically to provide
guidance for aircraft approaching a particular runway under night time or other low-visibility
conditions.

Visual Approach Slope Aids Visual approach slope aids are lighting systems designed to provide
a measure of vertical guidance to aircraft approaching a particular runway.
Visual Approach Slope Indicator
The visual approach slope indicator (VASI) is a system of lights which acts as an aid in defining
the desired glide path in relatively good weather conditions. Precision Approach
Path Indicator The FAA presently prefers the use of another type of visual pproach indicator called
the precision approach path indicator (PAPI)
Threshold Lighting During the final approach for landing, pilots must make a decision to
complete the landing or ―execute a missed approach.
Runway Lighting After crossing the threshold, pilots must complete a touchdown and roll out on
the runway. The runway visual aids for this phase of landing are be designed to give pilots
information on alignment, lateral displacement, roll, and distance. The lights are arranged to form
a visual pattern that pilots can easily interpret.
Runway Edge Lights Runway edge lighting systems outline the edge of runways during night
time and reduced visibility conditions.
Runway Center line and Touchdown Zone Lights
As an aircraft traverses over the approach lights, pilots are looking at relatively bright light sources
on the extended runway center line.
Taxiway Lighting Either after a landing or on the way to takeoff, pilots must maneuver the aircraft
on the ground on a system of taxiways to and from the terminal and hangar areas. Taxiway lighting
systems are provided for taxiing at night and also during the day when visibility is very poor,
particularly at commercial service airports.
Taxiway Edge Lights Taxiway edge lights are elevated blue colored bidirectional lights usually
located at intervals of not more than 200 ft on either side of the taxiway.
Runway Stop Bar Similar to runway guard lights, runway stop bar lights are in-pavement lights
on taxiways at intersections with runways.

APPROACH LIGHTING AIRPORT BEACON
Airport Marking
Runway and Taxiway Marking In order to aid pilots in guiding the aircraft on runways and
taxiways, pavements are marked with lines and numbers. These markings are of benefit primarily
during the day and dusk.
Runway Designators The end of each runway is marked with a number, known as a runway
designator, which indicates the approximate magnetic of the runway in the direction of operations.

Runway Threshold Markings Runway threshold markings identify to the pilot the beginning
of the runway that is safe and available for landing.
Centerline Markings Runway centerline markings are white, located on the centerline of the
runway, and consist of a line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps.
Aiming Points Aiming points are placed on runways of at least 4000 ft in length to provide
enhanced visual guidance for landing aircraft.
Touchdown Zone Markings Runway touchdown zone markings are white and consist of groups
of one, two, and three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in pairs about the runway
centerline.
Side Stripes Runway side stripes consist of continuous white lines along each side of the runway
to provide contrast with the surrounding terrain or to delineate the edges of the full strength
pavement.
Blast Pad Markings In order to prevent erosion of the soil, many airports provide a paved blast
pad adjacent to the runway end.
Centreline and Edge Markings The centreline of the taxiway is marked with a single continuous
6-inch yellow line.
Taxiway Hold Markings For taxiway intersections where there is an operational need to hold
aircraft, a dashed yellow holding line is placed perpendicular to and across the centreline of both
taxiways.
Closed Runway and Taxiway Markings When runways or taxiways are permanently or
temporarily closed to aircraft, yellow crosses are placed on these traffic ways.

Taxiway Marking
Closed Runway and Taxiway Markings

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RAILWAYS, HARBOURS, TUNNULLING & AIRPORT-18CV645

Air transport has the following characteristics:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Air Transport:

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 87

Despite many advantages, air transport has the following limitations:

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 88

Table: Classification Based on Geometric Design

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 89

Based on take-off and landing:

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 90

Socio- Economic Characteristics of Catchment Areas

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 91

Components of Airport Layouts

The main components of airport are:

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 92

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 93

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 94

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 95

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 96

Fig: Typical Airport Layout

Criteria for airport site selection and ICAO stipulations

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 97

10. grading, drainage and soil characteristics

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 98

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 99

Typical airport layouts:

• Landing, taxing and taking off as independent operations without interference.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 100

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 101

Parking and circulation area

1. Ease of passenger unloading and loading at the terminal building

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 102

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 103

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 104

Wind Rose Diagram

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 105

Type I wind rose:

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 106

Type II wind rose:

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 107

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 108

Corrections for Elevation, Temperature and Gradient

i) Correction for elevation

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 109

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 110

Corrected Runway length = L + 0.2833L = 1.2833×L meters

3. The following data refers to the proposed longitudinal section of runway

Maximum difference in elevation = 101.8 – 99.0 = 2.8m

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 112

The correction is applied at the rate of 1% per 1 °C rise of temperature

Basic Elements of a Runway:

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 113

Width and length of safety area

Longitudinal and effective gradient

Rate of change of longitudinal gradient

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 115

Width of safety area:

Rate of change of longitudinal gradient:

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 117

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 118

Passenger Facilities and Services

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 119

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 120

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor., SJBIT Page 121

Module 4 & 5

Module 4 & 5