AIRPORTS AND

RAILROAD
ENGINEERING
GROUP 4
BSCE – 4B
 AIRPORT
ENGINEERING
• Airport Engineering encompasses the planning, design and construction of
terminals, runways and navigation aids to provide for passenger and freight
service.
• Airport Engineers design and construct airports. They must account for the
impacts and demands of aircraft in their design of airport facilities.
• These engineers must use the analysis of predominant wind direction to
determine runway orientation, determine the size of runway border and
safety areas, different wing tip to wing tip clearances for all gates and must
designate the clear zones in the entire port.
Aerodrome
• Any defined area on land or water intended to be used for the arrival and
departure of an aircraft is called aerodrome

Airport
• It is an aerodrome which is intended for the use of commercial services. It is
provided with custom facilities.

Airfield
• It is an area which is used for landing and takes off aircraft. It may/may not
provided with facilities for convenience of passengers and for shelter, repair and
servicing for air craft.
 AIRPORT
COMPONENTS
1. Landing Area
• It is used for landing and
takeoff of aircraft. Runways
and Taxiways are located in
this area.
Runway
• It is paved long and narrow rectangular stripe which
is actually used for landing and take off airplanes.
The width of run strip way including width of two
shoulders is called the width of landing strip.
• Length of runway is slightly lesser than length of
landing strip. Runway length depends upon the
elevation of airport and surrounding temperature.
Whereas width of runway depends upon with of air
craft.
Taxiway
• It is paved area over which an airplane may tax while going
to and from runway and loading apron .Taxiways connect
two neighboring runways or runway with a service and
maintenance hangers.
• The speed of aircraft on Taxiway is much less than that on
runway at the time of landing and takeoff. Taxiways should
be so laid that the aircraft which is just landed and taxing
towards runways for takeoff
2. Terminal Area
• The transition of passengers from ground to air occurs in
terminal Area.
• It provides space for the airline's operations, office for
airport management and for providing facilities like rest
room, restaurant for passenger. In short it consists of
loading apron, terminal Building, repair and shelter hangs
fuel storage, automobile parking places, access roads.
2. Terminal Area
• Loading apron & Holding apron
• Terminal Building
• Hangers
• Automobile Parking Places
• Fuel Storage
• Access Roads
• Control Tower and Telecommunication sites
Terminal Building
• The key feature of any terminal area is terminal building. The
terminal building provide a smooth flow of passengers from
automobile parking place to the aircraft. The passenger should be
able to park his taxi in the parking place which is usually at point
very near to ticket-counter. His baggage is checked at this point. The
he proceed to this aircraft stand on the apron via terminal building
in which waiting room, telephone, restaurant, restrooms and other
necessary facilities like post office, bank will be available. In case of
International Airports, there will be custom office also. The terminal
building may be of one level or two levels depending upon arriving
and departing passengers.
Hangars
• The function of hangar is to provide an enclosure for Housing and repairing of
air-crafts . They are constructed of steel framework covered with galvanized iron
sheets.
• The service hangars are provided with machine shops and stores for spare parts
of aircraft. The size of hanger depends on size of aircraft and its turning radius.
There are two types of storage and service hangers:
• T-hangers for small size Aircraft
• Nose Hangers for large size Aircraft
• The number of service and storage hangars depends on the intensity of aircraft at
the airport. The hangars hold be as near the loading apron as practicable.
Apron (loading)/Parking
Inserting apron
• Apron is a paved area in front of the terminal building; it is used for loading and
unloading of aero planes, also for fueling and minor servicing and check up of
aero planes.
• Since the aero planes are berthed on this area before loading and unloading,
therefore it is of the apron depends upon the size of aircraft and the parking
system to be adopted.
• The types of parking systems to be adopted on the apron area are as follows:
• Frontal system
• Open apron system
• Finger system
Holding Apron
• It may be sufficient area to accommodate three/four aircrafts of
largest size.
• It is a portion of paved area which is provided adjacent to the
ends for runway in case of busy airports on it, the taking off
aircraft coming from the loading apron is held for sometime so
that the aircraft instrument and engine operation may be checked
prior the takeoff the air craft.
Automobile Parking Places
• These will be necessary for the passengers, visitors and for employees and
administrative staff working at air port. They should be as near the terminal
building as possible so that the walking distance to the ticket counter may
be short.

Fuel Storage
•There will be air-craft fuel installation to supply fuel to the visiting
aircrafts, as and when required by them
Access Roads
• Good access roads should connect the terminal Area with the main
highway leading to the city. These should ensure quicker and easy ground
Transport from the terminal Area towards the city.

Control Tower and

Telecommunication Sites
• During bad weather conditions, when visibility is poor, certain in formation
regarding alignment, height and distance from runway threshold, to be supplied to
the pilot through some telecommunication instrument. This is achieved by
instrument landing system, approach light system. So that landing of aircraft may
be safe in bad weather.
Site Selection of An Airport:
• Regional Plan • Wind
• Airport Use • Noise nuisance
• Proximity to other Airport • Grading, Drainage and soil
• Ground Accessibility Characteristics
• Topography • Future Development
• Obstructions
• Visibility
Classification of Airports
According to ICAO
• The international Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) sets standards for the design, construction
and development of Airports on international basis. The ICAO has established a code to identify the
capability of the Airport.
• Runway length is coded by the letters A, B, C, D, E , F and G. These strength of runway pavement
is coded by numbers. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8. These two classification are shown in tabular form.
Code Letter Runway Length in Meters
A 2500 and above
B 2150 – 2500
C 1800 – 2150
D 1500 – 1800
E 1280 – 1500
F 1080 – 1280
G 980 - 1080
TYPES OF AIRPORTS
According to Civil Aviation of Government of Pakistan
Commercial Service Airports
• These are publicly owned Airports that have at least 2500 passengers
boarding each calendar year and receive scheduled passengers
service.

Non – Primary Commercial Service

Airports
• These are commercial service airports that have at leaset 2500 and
not more than 10000 passeneger boarding each year.
Primary Commercial Service Airports
• These are the airports that have more than 10,000 passengers
boarding each year.

Cargo Service Airports

• These are the airports that are served by aircraft providing air
transportation of only cargo with a total annual landed weight of more
than 100 million pounds.
Reliever Airport
• The airports used to relieve congest at commercial service Airports
and to provide improved general aviation access tot overall
community. These may be publicaly/privately owned.

General Aviation Airports

• The remaining airports are commonly described as general Aviation
Airports. These may be publically/privately owned Airports’ that
explains 2500/more passengers annually and receive scheduled Airline
Service.
TYPES OF AIRPORTS
According to International Civil Aviation Organization
International Airports
• These airports are usually larger, having longer Runways and facilities
to accommodate large aircraft. These are equipped with customs and
immigration facilities to handle international flights to and from other
countries.
• An internal Airport has direct service to many other Airports. These
serve as “HUBS” where non-direct flights may land and passengers
switch planes.
Domestic Airports
• These are the airports which handles only domestic
flights/flights within the same country. Domestic Airports do
not have custom and immigration facilities and are therefore
incapable of handling flights to or from a foreign Airport.
These airports have short runways which are sufficient to
handslide short/Medium have Aircraft.
Regional Airports
• A regional Airport is serving Traffic within a small/lightly
populated geographical area. A regional airport does not
have customs and immigration facilities to process traffic
between countries. The air craft using these airports tend to
be smaller business jets or private aircrafts.
PATTERNS OF RUNWAY
Single Runways
• Single runway is usually adopted when the prevailing winds blows in one direction
for most time of the year and the air-traffic is not much. Under the condition of visual
flight rule (VFR) Single runway can handle about 45 to 60 operation/movements per
hour. A single runway system with high permissible cross-wind component will serve
the purpose for most classes of airports.
 Parallel Runways
• If parallel runways are 900m apart, landing and takeoff can take place simultaneously on these
parallel runways. Parallel runways can handle 100 movements per hour under VFR conditions.
Parallel runway can be on one side / both sides of terminal building

• For international Airports, at least two parallel runways are necessity.

Intersecting Runways
•Intersecting Runways are usually adopted when wind in a particular direction does not provide the
required wind coverage of 95%. The capacity of this pattern is maximum to handle the Aircraft. When the
intersection prime of two runways is near the runway ends.
•Both runways can be used simultaneously for landing and takeoff operation if the corn wind components
of two runway are favorable
Divergent Runways
• Diverging runways are the opposite as operations start at the end of the V shape and
move outwards from each other. The diverging pattern is more efficient as it can see
up to 180 flights an hour in ideal conditions
• If wind speeds were strong enough in one direction, the runway unfavorable to the
prevailing wind would be inoperable
FACTORS AFFECTING RUNWAY
LENGTH
• Aerodrome Elevation
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Gradient
• Weight of Aircraft
 RAILROAD
ENGINEERING
• Railway engineering is a multi-faceted engineering discipline dealing with the
design, construction and operation of all types of rail transport systems. It
encompasses a wide range of engineering disciplines, including civil engineering,
computer engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, industrial
engineering and production engineering. A great many other engineering sub-
disciplines are also called upon.
• An Engineer could be expected to be involved in the design, construction,
maintenance and operation of trains and rail systems (monitoring and controlling the
rail network and the trains).
• Railway Engineers possess mechanical design skills and knowledge of propulsion
systems that allows them to design train vessels.
• The term permanent way stands for finally completed track used for
transportation of public and goods.
• Various components of permanent way are:
– Rails
– Sleepers
– Ballast
– Fixtures
– Fastenings
– Formation/Sub-grade
 Flat Footed Rail
• Stronger for same section
• Bearing plates for fixing with wooden
sleepers are required
• fastenings to wooden sleepers are less
costly
• Maintenance of points and crossing is
simpler
• Daily inspection not required
• Lower initial cost
• Simple replacement
• Less maintenance cost
• More suited for both lateral and
vertical loads
Bull Headed Rail
• Weaker for same cross-section
• Bearing plates not required
• Fastenings to wooden sleeper are
costly
• Fittings difficultFittings simpler
• Maintenance of points and crossings is
complicated
• Daily inspection is needed
• High initial cost
• Complicated replacement
• More Maintenance
• Better suited for lateral loads
Flat Footed Rail Bull Headed Rail
Rails
• Rail is similar to steel girders. These are placed end to end to
provide continuous and level surface for train to move.
• Rails are steel sections laid along two parallel lines over
sleepers in a track. They form a suitable track for the train
and should be strong 3enogh to bear stresses developed in
the track due to wheel loads, lateral and other forces such as
temperature variation. They transmit axle loads of train to
sleepers.
Functions of Rail
• Provide level surface for movement of train

• Provide smooth pathway so that friction between rail and wheel become less

• Serve as lateral guide from running of wheels axle of train

• Transferring load axle of train into sleepers

Types of Rail Section

• Double Headed Rails

• Bull Headed Rails

• Flat Footed Rails

Railway Gauge
• Perpendicular distance between the inner faces of rails OR
• It is the spacing or rails on railway track and is measured
between the inner faces of load bearing rails.
BROAD GAUGE:
Adopted in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Srilanka, Brazil, Argentina.
SUITABILITY:
– Broad Gauge is adopted under the following conditions
– When sufficient funds available for railway Projects
– When prospects of revenue are very bright
METER GAUGE:
Adopted in France, Switzerland, Argentina etc.
SUITABILITY:
– Meter gauge is suitable under the following conditions
– When funds available for railway projects are insufficient.
– When prospect of revenue are not very bright.
USES:
Therefore used for traces in under-developed areas and in interior areas.
Where traffic intensity is small.
NARROW GAUGE:
Adopted in South Africa, Britain, India
SUITABILITY:
– Narrow Gauge is suitable under the following conditions
– When construction of a track with wider gauge is prohibited due to
the provision of sharp curves, steep gradients and narrow bridges
and tunnels.
– When prospects of revenue are not very bright.
USES:
Therefore used in hilly and very thinly populated Areas
Factors Affecting the choice/Adoption of a
particular Gauge:
• Intensity of population
• Intensity of traffic
• Industrial and commercial development of the locality
• Prospects of future development of the area
• Funds available for railway projects
• Topographical and Geological features of the country
Wear of Rails:
The separation/cutting of rail due to friction and abnormal heavy load is called wear of
rails. There are three types of wear of rails
• Wear of rails on top/Head of rail
• Wear at end of rails
• Wear at side of head of rail

Wear on Head of Rail:

• Wear on Head of rail is due to abrasion on moving rails. Due to grinding action of
sand/ Dust between the rails and wheels of the train.
• When train starts/Apples brakes wheel just slide on rails causing wear on head
• Load coming on to a track may exceed the carrying capacity of the section
• Thus causing wear on Head of rail
Wear at the ends of the rail:
It is much greater than wear on the head of the rail
This type of wear is resulted due to the blows which the rail receive when the wheel jumps the
space/gap between rail ends. The ends of the rail are battered by such blows.

Effects:
The contact surface between the sleepers and thee rail is worn as the effect of these blows
increase.
The ballast under sleepers will loosen due to increase in intensity of vibrations., also the
sleeper will be depressed due to plates will get loose, under the impact of increasing
vibrations.
Wear of rails on curves/At side of react:
On the curve, they were of rail takes place both in inner and outer rails on the curve, the outer
wheel has to move through greater distance than the inner wheel and the inner wheel has to
slide over the inner rail.
Coning of wheels:
The art of providing an outward slope of 1:20 to the treads of wheel is known as
coning of wheels.

Advantages:
• Uniform wear of head of rail
• Maintenance of proper Gauge
• Increased life of sleeper

Disadvantages:
• Horizontal thrust may sometimes increase gauge distance
• Sleepers under outer edges of the rail are likely to be damaged
Methods of Reducing wear of rails:
• Use specially steel

• Good maintenance of track

• Reduction of expansion gap

• Exchange of inner and outer rails on curves

• Use of Lubricant oil

• Use of special alloy steel

• Good Maintenance of Track

• Reductions of expansion Gap

• Exchange of inner and outer Rails on curves

• Use of Lubricating oil

Requirements of ballast:

• Cheap and locally available material

• it should be elastic

• It materials should be of sharp edges to get easy grip

• Should not absorb rain water

• Should drain out rain water

• Do not grinding due to passage of train

• Give firm grip to sleeper

• Should transfer the load and can uniforms to formation

Granular mattress laid over earth formation and to provides suitable bed for sleeper on which they
can rest is known as ballast
Functions of Good Ballast

• It provides longitudinal and lateral stability to the track

• It provides proper drainage of the track

• It transfer load from sleeper and spread over the large area of land

• It provides level and sound foundation for sleepers to rest

• Holds sleepers in position during passage of train

• It provides elasticity and resilience to the track for getting proper riding comfort.

Ballast:
• It is a layer of granular material, broken stone ,on grave placed and packed below and around
sleepers for distributing the load from sleepers to the formation and provide drainage as well as
giving longitudinal and lateral stability to the trade.
Types/Material used as Ballast:
Sand:
Generally coarse sand is used as ballast because of following properties
Advantages:
• It has good drainage property, if it is free from vegetation and earth
• It provides track free from Noise
• It is cheap
Disadvantages:
• It enters moving parts of vehicles, resulting in friction
• Creates difficulties in maintenance
Moorum:
Soft material forced by disintegration of laterite stone. It may be of red and yellow color
Advantages:
• Provide excellent Drainage
• It can function as soiling inc as where stone ballast is laid in second stage
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to maintain track in proper for
• It is crushed into powder resulting track becomes dirty
Kanker:
Kanker is fragmented rock of volcanic origin known as lime agglomerate. Where it is
available it is used as road metal
Advantages:
• Excellent drainage property
• It is cheap, where queries are present
Disadvantages:
• Rails gets corrosive
• Difficult to maintain trade due to its relative softness
• It results industry track
Broken Bricks:

Over burnt bricks when broken further from good ballast

Advantages:

• Excellent Drainage property

• Does not permit growth of vegetation

• It is a cheap material on it is obtained from over bunt bricks

Broken stone:

It satisfies all requirement of ballast. It is hard, angular, non porous and does not get disintegrated into
fallen when broken.

Mostly it is quartz, trap and granite. If its size ranges 2cm to 5cm it will provide stability to track.

Compared to other materials it is expensive but taking in to consideration the maintenance cost it
ischeaper over long period of time
Gravel:
It is naturally obtained from river beaches it is next to broken stone in terms of stability
and strength.
Gravel obtained from gravel pits contains earth and Hence heeds to washed to remove
earth.
Advantages:
Excellent Drainage
It is cheaper than broken stone though forms equally strong track
Disadvantages:
Smaller sized gravel needs to be screened to eliminate very small pieces while large size
pieces needs to be broken to smaller size. Gravel obtained from pits needs to be washed.
Surfaced of grave is smooth and ballast get loosened under impact of passing train.
Blast Furnace Slag:
Material obtained as by-product from blast furnace.
Advantages:
• Excellent drainage
• Being strong material holds track in correct gauge and alignment
• It is cheaper material, as strong as stone
Disadvantages:
• Its use is limited to Area where it is locally available
• Used in countries where shortage of stones
Ash/cinder/fly Ash
There are obtained as residue obtained from locomotive and other furnaces.
Advantages:
• It is almost free of cost.
• Good drainage properties
• Ease in Handling
• Economical in initial cost
Disadvantages:
• Corrodes steel
• Track becomes dirty as it gets into powder
Requirements of an ideal permanent ways:
• A permanent way should serve the following requirements
• Both rails should be at same level
• Curves should be properly designed
• Proper SE should be provided
• Track should be elastic to reduce impact between rails and moving wheels.
• Points should be properly designed
• Rails, sleepers, fixtures and fastening should be properly designed.
• Even, uniform and correct Gauge should be provided.
• Should be strong enough o resist lateral forces/stresses
• Points and crossing should be properly designed
• Proper drainage should be provided
• Repairs and renewal should not present any difficulty

• All the fixtures and fastenings such as bearing plates, fish plates, fish bolts, spikes should be strong enough
to withstand stresses occurring in the track.
Sleepers:
Sleepers are the members generally laid transverse to rails, on which rails are fixed to transfer the
loads from the rails to the ballast and the sub grade.
Functions of sleeper:
• Holding rails in correct Gauge and alignment
• Providing a firm and even support for rails
• Transferring load from rails to wider area of ballast
• Absorb impacts and vibrations
• Providing lateral and longitudinal stability to the permanent way
Desirable Properties of sleeper/Requirements of an ideal sleeper:
• Should be capable to withstand vertical load, impact and vibrations
• Minimum life cucle cost (production, laying, maintenance, resale value)
• Easy to handle( Moderate weight, Not easily susceptible to damage)
• Gauge adjustment is possible
• Should have anti theft and Anti-sabotage features.
• Should have track circulating quality
• Strong enough to withstand bending stresses
• Should provide resistance against slide
• Should resist being pushed forward due to passage of train
Types of sleepers:
Depending upon the position in a railway track, sleepers may be classified as
• Longitudinal sleepers
• Transverse sleepers
• Longitudinal Sleepers:
• These are the early form of sleepers not commonly used nowadays. It consists of slabs
of stones or pieces of woods placed parallel to and underneath the rails To maintain
correct Gauge of the track, iron piece are provided at regular interval.
• At present these types of sleepers are discarded mainly because of following reasons.
• Running of train is not smooth on these sleepers
• Noise created by Track is considerable
• Cost is high.
Transverse sleepers:
Transverse sleepers introduced is 1835 and since then they are universally used. They
removed the drawbacks of longitudinal sleepers i.e. transverse sleepers are economical
silent in operation and running of train over these sleepers is smooth.
Depending upon materials transverse sleepers are further classified as
• Timber/wooden sleepers
• Steel sleepers
• Cast iron sleepers
• Rcc sleepers
• Pre-stressed sleepers
Timber/wooden sleepers:
The timber sleepers nearly fulfilled all the requirements of ideal sleepers and hence they are universally used. The wood used
may be peak, sal or pine.

Advantages:

• Useful for heavy loads and high-speed

• They have long life of 10-12 years depending upon the climate condition, rain intensity nature of traffic, quality of wood

• Good for track circuited railway tracks.

• They are able to accommodate any gauge

• Suitable for salty regions and coastal area

• Can be used with and section of rail

• Can be handled and placed easily

• They are not badly damaged in case of derailment

• They are not corroded

• Cheaper than any other sleeper

Disadvantages of Timber sleepers:
• Liable to be attacked by vermin so they must be properly treated before use
• Liable to catch fire
• Do not desist creep
• Affected by dry and wet
• Becoming expensive day by day
• Life is shorter compare to others.
Steel sleepers:
They are in the form of steel trough inverted on which rails are fixed directly by keys/nuts and bolts and used
along sufficient length of tracks
Advantages of steel sleepers:
• Have a useful life of 20-25 years
• Free from decay and are not attacked by vermins
• Connection between rail and sleeper is stronger
• Connection between rail and sleeper is simple
• More attention is not required after laying
• Having better lateral rigidity
• Good scrap value
• Suitable for high speeds and load
• Easy to Handle
• Good resistance against creep
Disadvantages of steel sleepers:
• Liable to corrosion by moisture and slats
• Cannot be used in tack circuited regions
• Cannot be used for all sections of rails and gauge
• Should not be laid with any other type of a ballast except stone
• Very costly
• Badly damaged under derailments
• Rail seat is weaker
• Having Good show absorber as there is not cushion between rail foot and ballast
Concrete sleepers:
RCC and pre-stressed con create sleepers are now replacing all other types of sleepers
except to some special circumstances such as crossing bridges etc. have timber sleepers
are used. They may be a twin block sleepers joined by an angle iron. It may be a single
block pre-stressed type
RCC sleepers
Pre-stressed concrete sleeper

RCC Sleepers:
• Trough type sleeper (one type)
• These are similar inn dimension to wooden sleepers they are not commonly used since
they are likely to crack under vibrations due to loads.
Blow and tie bar type sleeper/ composite sleeper
It contains two blocks of RCC, one block being placed under each rail. The
blows are joined by a metal tie bar. In the form of an inverted T-Section
Pre-Stressed concrete sleepers:
Theses sleepers may be Pretension or Post tensioned. The pre-tensioned
type using high tensile steel is tensioned before placing concrete
Reinforcement is kept under tension till concrete hardens. Then wires
being released, high compressive stresses are developed in concrete.
In post-tensioned sleepers, steel is tensioned after concrete has hardened.
On completion of tensioning, tubes are forced into cement grount under
pressure. Compression stresses are developed in concrete after it has
hardened.
Advantages of concrete sleepers: Disadvantages:

• Long life of about 50 years • Scrap value is nil

• Easy adjustment of Gauge • Difficult in trace renewal/High maintenance

• Having less fittings • Unsuitable to use over bridges and crossings

• Having stronger connections between rails and • Handling is difficult

sleepers
• Easy to fasten with rails
• Having more longitudinal and lateral stability

• Less creep

• Suitable for heavy traffic

• Having low maintenance cost.

CI (cast iron) sleepers:
Pot or Bowl type sleepers
CST-a sleeper
Pot or Bowl type sleepers:
The sleepers consists of two oval shaped bowls or pots, inverted under
each rail on the ballast sleepers are connected across the track by means of
tie bar with associated fittings such as gibs, key and cotter.
CST – a sleepers:
This is most commonly used sleeper having features of plate, pot and box
sleepers incorporated in it.
CI (cast iron) sleepers:
Pot or Bowl type sleepers
CST-a sleeper
Pot or Bowl type sleepers:
The sleepers consists of two oval shaped bowls or pots, inverted under
each rail on the ballast sleepers are connected across the track by means of
tie bar with associated fittings such as gibs, key and cotter.
CST – a sleepers:
This is most commonly used sleeper having features of plate, pot and box
sleepers incorporated in it.
Advantages of CI sleepers:
• Lesser corrosion
• Easy handling due to light weight
• High scrap value
• Long life up to 50-60 years
• Can be manufactured locally
• Prevent and check creep of rail
• Not attached by vermins.
Disadvantages of CI sleepers:
• They are expensive
• Lack of good shock absorber
• Can badly damaged under devilment
• Not suitable for track circuited portion
Creep in Rails:
Creep in rails is defined as longitudinal movement of rails in the track in the
direction of motion of locomotives
Magnitude of creep:
Magnitude of creep varies from almost nothing to about 6 inches or 16cm.
Creep is not constant over a given periods it is not continue in one direction or at
uniform rate Both rails of track may creep in same direction or one rail creep in
opposite direction to that of other.
Causes of creep:
• Creep in rails can be broadly classified into two categories
• Major causes of creep/Principal causes
• Minor causes of creep
Wave theory:
The train wheels cause depression under themselves forming lifts or crests
immediately at the rear and in from This action pushes the rail forward
resulting creep in direction of motion.
Direction of movement
• Lift in front of wheel
• Lift at rear of wheel
• Normal surface of wheel
Creeps develops due to unequal expansion and contraction owing to
change in temperature
Blow and tie bar type sleeper/ composite sleeper
It contains two blocks of RCC, one block being placed under each rail. The
blows are joined by a metal tie bar. In the form of an inverted T-Section
Pre-Stressed concrete sleepers:
Theses sleepers may be Pretension or Post tensioned. The pre-tensioned
type using high tensile steel is tensioned before placing concrete
Reinforcement is kept under tension till concrete hardens. Then wires
being released, high compressive stresses are developed in concrete.
In post-tensioned sleepers, steel is tensioned after concrete has hardened.
On completion of tensioning, tubes are forced into cement grount under
pressure. Compression stresses are developed in concrete after it has
hardened.
Percussion Theory:
According to this theory , compact of wheels at end of iacing rail at each
fishplate joint result in depression of trailing rail with resulting creep in
forward direction
• Wheel
• Direction of movement
• Trailing rail
• Facing rail
• Sleeper
• Joint
Due to deceleration/stopping of train, the braking action tends to push the
rail forward resulting creep in the forward direction
Minor causes of creep:
• Rails are not properly fixed to sleepers
• Bad Drainage of ballast
• Bad quality of sleepers
• Gauge fixed too tight/too slack
• Incorrect adjustment of SE on curves
• Rails Joints maintained in bad condition that in straight portion
• Creep is more on track within steep gradient
Prevention of creep/ improving methods against creep/ correction of creep:
There are two methods used for correction of creep
• Pulling back method
• Use of Anchors/Anti creepers
Pulling back Method:
In pulling back method rails are pulled back equal to the amount of creep either
by manpower or by the use of jacks
For this purpose, the sleeper fittings are made loose, the fish bolts at one end of
rail are removed while at other end they are made loose. Pushing is done by
inserting short length of rod through bolt hold and then pushing the rail
forward by means of crowbar.
Pulling is done by inserting hook through the bolt hole and then hauling the bolt
hole be means of rope attained to it.
Following points should be kept in mind in correction of creep
• Track below sleepers should be properly packed after pulling and pushing
operation
• All the fish bolts should be remove, cleaned and oiled and then refixed and
tightened up.
Use of creep Anchors/Anti creepers:
In this method, specially constructed device known and creep anchors/ant used to grip
the rails. Creep Anchors are provided for every third/fourth sleeper
This arrange met prevents the movement of rails because the sleepers which are
embedded in the ballast will have to move, if the creep has to take place. It is cheap and
economical method that that of pulling back method.
Following points should be kept in mind in case of creep Anchors:
• Creep Anchors should be strong enough to resist stresses produced b due to creep
• Number of creep anuurs should be according to intensity of creep produced
• These are provided at places where creep originals
• Creep Anchors should not be provided over railway bridges
Sites selection for a railway station:
Railway Station:
A railway station is defined as any place on a railway line where traffic is booked and dealt with
and where an authority to proceed is given to the trains
Following factors should be considered while selecting a site for a railway station
• Drainage
• Water Supply
• Future Allowances
• Gradient
• Location/Horizontal Alignment
• Vertical Alignment
• Accessibility
• Visibility
• Facilities
Drainage:
The proposed site should be on a fairly level ground and it should be well drained

Water supply:
There should be plentiful supply for water a t the site of station

Future Allowance:
There should be sufficient land available for the purpose of future extension along both
sides

Gradient:
The site should be such that permissible maximum gradient can be obtained without
much difficulty. The vehicles may start moving with wind which is Hazardous.
Horizontal gradient/Alignment:
The location of station yards should be such that it is neither located near
a curve nor on a curve.
Vertical Alignment:
The train should not be suited in a sag but it should be on a summit
Accessibility:
The station yards should be such that it is easily accessible from
city/town. There should be well developed and efficient transportation
system which leads the people and their goods to station with much ease.
Visibility:
The environment Ground the site selected for a station should
be such that their exists clear and improved visibility for the
drivers of trains. There should be certain enough arrangements
made which improvements made which improves the
visibility of a station
Facilities:
The site selected for the station should be such that for the
passengers of trains machinery works, garages, workshops etc.
THANK YOU!!
MEMBERS:

KEITH LEQUIGAN
KYLA MARIE LUCAS
JAMES JAMILLA
DREY MATTHEW GUEVARRA
IGI MARK LORENZO
ROMEO KAAMIÑO