BALLISTICS

NOTES ON FORENSIC BALLISTICS
FACILITATOR: ROLAND N. RESURRECCION, M.S. Crim., C.C.S.
CHAPTER I
HISTORY OF FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
Projectile identification is older than most people realized

- Cast lead bullets were used in 14th century by English Archers who frequently marked
their arrows distinctively, and by the Roman Legionnaires. A particular fatal arrowhead could
sometimes be traced to a specific unit.
- On MAY 2, 1862, Stonewall Jackson was fatally wounded and a spherical ball was
removed from the victim by Dr. Hunter McGuire. It was on the same year were the so-called
Muzzleloaders were being used.
- Projectile evidence was frequently introduced in to court. The jury usually was able to
evaluate that evidence for themselves.
- From 1870’s ONWARD, the courts sometimes allowed sheriffs, police officers, and
particularly qualified civilians to give their opinions. Furthermore, what knowledge a few men
had before the end of the 19 th century was largely personal; there was no interchange of ideas
through publications or identification societies. Scientific literature on the subject did not exist.
In fact, nobody thought of it as a science.
- In JUNE 1900, The BUFFALO MEDICAL JOURNAL by Dr. Albert Llewillyn Hall was the
first article to be published regarding the subject. On the basis of Dr. Hall’s published work and
the report of the Frankfort Arsenal officers, they undoubtedly led the world into the new science
of firearms identification.
- In 1907, FRANKFORT ARSENAL, made a significant contribution to the science of
firearms identification. Some soldiers rioted a town in Brownsville, Texas using a .30 caliber rifle.
Bullets and shells were recovered and submitted for examination. The staff of Frankfort Arsenal,
studied this crime carefully and worked out for themselves the methods of identifying the
cartridge cases with the individual suspect’s rifles. The investigators had learned to identify a
weapon by fired cartridge cases markings, probably, principally those left on the primers. They
felt, however, that similar conclusions in connection with the bullets were not possible.
- In 1912, PROFESSOR BALTHAZARD, of the University of Paris, learned probably
independently most of what we knew of cartridge case identification and went further. He began
to identify firearms by its bullets. The method was slow, crude, and expensive, but it worked. He
took photographs of a crime bullet and also tests bullets from a suspect’s firearm. Six or more
photographs of each bullet were taken and considerably enlarged and then compared. Other
procedure, which in various forms has been tried many times. This method never works well. It
fell down completely in cases of deformed bullets.
- CHARLATANS, very few judges knew anything about firearms; they had heard vague
rumors about the marvelous development of firearms identification. The world was willing to
accept anything said to be scientific. Almost anyone admitted to testify in court as an expert. For
$50.00 a day, which was a lot of money in those day, they would go cheerfully to court and swear
to almost anything. With a pair of outside caliper, an ordinary hand magnifying glass, and a
scale, they would cheerfully swear away the life of an innocent man or free a guilty one. There
few real experts to check up on them.
- In March 22, 1915, Firearms identification played an important role in the case of
CHARLIE STIELOW, an illiterate tenant farmer, who was charged and convicted to suffer the
penalty of death. The firearms examiner testified among others that he found nine (9)
corresponding peculiar scratches on the bullet taken from the body of the victim. The scratches
were not visible to the naked eye, and can only be detected under the lens. In his opinion, the
bullets were fired from Stielow’s firearm and could have been fired from no other. Several
appeals were made regarding his case. C.E. WAITE, from the Department of Justice came to
investigate.
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On December 4, 1916, the Governor, unsatisfied of Stielow’s guilt, commuted the latter’s
sentence to life imprisonment. The Governor appointed GEORGE H. BOND, to conduct a special
investigation into the case. Mr. Bond, assisted by MR. WAITE ( from the Attorney General’s
Office) conducted the re-investigation of the case.
Mr. Bond, Mr. Waite, and several others tested the firearm of Stielow. DR. MAX POSER,
an expert in microscopic research, took the test bullets to the Bausch and Lomb plant at Rochester
for scientific examination.
Neither Dr. POSER, nor anyone could find a trace of the peculiar scratches, either on high
or low magnification.
Mr. Waite’s associate in the enterprise was the then MAJOR CALVIN H. GODDARD, a doctor of
medicine in the Medical Corps in the First World War and later transferred to the Ordnance
Corps. Two other associates were PHILLIP O. GRAVELLES, a trained microscopist and a
photographer and JOHN E. FISHER, a man of independent means with long experience in
design and precise machine. These three men were working in a small laboratory in New York,
classifying, firing, and testing the firearms and ammunitions collected by Mr. Waite.
The most significant contribution to the science of firearms identification was the
introduction of the COMPARISON MICROSCOPE in the year 1920.
On April 1925, the first comparison microscope was obtained and put into service. For the
first time, a test bullet from a suspected firearms could be compared directly and relatively
simply with that of a crime bullet. On the same year, Waite, published an article in the Saturday
Evening Post entitled “ Fingerprinting Bullet”. This article brought the new science of firearms
identification into the general public. Meanwhile, Major Goddard was writing several articles for
technical magazines and working out procedures for micro comparison of bullets and the
photographing of them. Mr. Waite. Goddard, and Fisher were operating at the BUREAU OF
FORENSIC BALLISTICS which was a private enterprise. Waite died in November 1926, Mr.
Goddard continued the on, cases referred then were slow in coming. However, Goddard, whose
findings were with scientific basis, was recognized for the first time as an expert.
On February 14, 1929, MAJ. CALVIN H. GODDARD, made an astonishing impression
upon the jury handling the trial case that happened in Chicago. He was asked to bring his
bureau from New York to Chicago.
The SCIENTIFIC CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION LABORATORY was opened in April
1930, with the best equipment and trained personnel. This Laboratory was associated with the
Northwestern University which later became a department of Northwestern University.
Students were accepted in various courses in early 1931, with Colonel Goddard as department
head and with was professorial rank. He also became an editor of the American Journal of Police
Science. It was later combined with the Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology.
The FBI National Police Academy was established in 1935. The curriculum in this school
included lectures in Firearms Identification.
In 1930, the science of Firearms Identification was firmly established on a scientific basis.
ALEXANDRE LACASSAGNE (1844-1921) – He was the first to recognize the significance
of stiations etched/found on a bullet extracted from a murdered victim and its link to the gun
from which it was fired, thus beginning the science of ballistics.
EDMOND LOCARD (1877-1966) – He established the first forensic laboratory in France
in 1910. His exchage principles “objects or surface which came into contact always exchange
trace evidence”.
COL. CALVIN H. GODDARD – Pioneered the introduction of the science of ballistics
into the different universities in the U.S. Subsequently, it was universally practiced and accepted
in the different courts throughout the world.
1930 - The first Crime Laboratory in U.S. was established by Los Angeles County Sheriff’s
Department.
CHAPTER II
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
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INTRODUCTION:
In most advanced countries today, FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION plays an important role
in the administration of justice. This science has advantage over extracted confessions, direct
witnesses, and other circumstantial evidence. It is regarded as the highest form of uncontestable
and conclusive piece of evidence with the utmost legal significance.
ORIGIN:
The term Ballistics was derived from the Greek word “ballo” or “ballein” which means
“to throw”. Its roots was also said to have been derived from the name of an early Roman war
machine called the “ballista” - a gigantic bow or catapult, which was then used to hurl missiles
or large objects such stones at a particular distance to deter animals (games) or their enemy
forces.
Ballistics dates back on the days of the famous French artist Leonardo da Vinci (1500 A.D.)
as can be gleaned in his sketch of Steam-Powered cannon to his primitive wheel-lock firearms.
BALLISTICS - In general or in its broadest sense, it is defined as the science of motion of

projectiles.
- Technically, it refers to the science of firearms identification.
KINDS OF MOTION:
1. Direct – the action of the expansive force of gases out of the burning powder.
2. Rotary – the action of the rifling found on the inner surface of the barrel.
3. Translational – the projectile hits the target and subsequently ricocheted.
IS FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION A SCIENCE?

Yes, in the sense that it is classified, formulated and a verifiable knowledge is gathered by
observation, research and experiment and is based on a scientific theory and using scientific
equipment. Thus, it is a scientific knowledge. (Alwyne Cole, Treasury Dept. USA 1946)
ITS LEGAL MEANING – It is the microscopic examination of fired cartridge cases and bullets
together with the recording and presentation by means of photography of what is revealed by the
microscope.
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS:
1. Interior Ballistics
2. Exterior Ballistics
3. Terminal Ballistics
4. Forensic Ballistics - integral part of ballistics. Integral means necessary to the completeness of
whole.
5. Shot Ballistics
6. Wound Ballistics
I. INTERIOR BALLISTICS – It is that branch of science that has something to do with the
properties or motions of projectiles while still inside the firearm. (From the time the Firer
squeezes the trigger). This extends from, the breech to the muzzle of the gun. Interior ballistics is
so short. From the release of the firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot can be heard as it
leaves the muzzle occupies only about 0.01 sec. in a modern rifle. A blow from the firing pin of a
small-arms weapon on the center of the primer cap compresses the primer composition violently
between the cap and the anvil, thus, causing the composition to explode, releasing the very hot
gases and hot particles. The holes or vents in the anvil allow the flame to pass through the
primer vent in the cartridge case thereby igniting the propellant. The powder begins to burn and
the pressure inside the cartridge rises rapidly almost at once, the bullet is pushed from the case
mouth. At first, the bullet is forced outward to make firm contact with the barrel so that the gas
would be confined within the chamber of the firearm. As the bullet moves down the barrel, the
available combustion space is increased. The powder burns progressively at first, increasing its
burning rate faster that the space increases. As long as this condition continues, the pressure
continues to rise. The maximum pressure is soon reached, when the two rates are momentarily
equal. Thereafter, the pressure drops till the bullet leaves the muzzle.
When the bullet charge is ignited, the pressure in the chamber begins to rise rapidly and soon
reaches a value high enough to move the projectile. The principal resistance to the motion of the
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projectile at this stage is the force required to deform the rotating band to fit the rifling of the
barrel. As the projectile moves, the propellant gas expands into the space behind it, the rate of the
pressure is reduced and the temperature of the gas begins to decrease. With increasing projectile
velocity, the expansion becomes rapid enough to cause the pressure to begin to drop. When the
burning of the charge is complete, and the evolution of the gas ceases, which usually occurs when
the projectile is from one third (1/3) on the way out of the barrel, the pressure drop becomes
more rapid. When the projectile leaves the bore with its full velocity, a few hundredths of a
second after ignition, the remaining pressure directs the propellant gas to the atmosphere.
Since the gun, as compared with a rocket, almost burns its propellant in a very short time and
large surface area is therefore required, a gun charge characteristically consists of a large number
of identical solid grains. Each of the grains is considered as burning simultaneously with the
others and in accordance with the laws of burning described above.
In addition to the laws of burning, a complete system of interior ballistic equations for the gun
includes three (3) other major members. The equation of state of the propellant gas relates to
PRESSURE, VOLUME, and TEMPERATURE OF GAS. The law on conservation of energy is
formulated to express the balance between the thermal energy of the gas and the kinetic energy
of the projectile and gas. Newton’s second law of motion gives the acceleration of the projectile
in terms of the pressure of its base.
A subject associated with the interior ballistics is that on BORE EROSION and FOULING of
various kinds. Erosion is caused by the combination of temperature and velocity, while Fouling,
refers to the accumulated deposit within the bore of a firearm caused by the solid by-products
remaining after a cartridge was discharged.
REACTIONS/ATTRIBUTES THAT TAKES PLACE WHILE THE BULLET IS STILL INSIDE

THE GUN ARE THE FOLLOWING:
1. Firing pin hitting the primer
2. Ignition of the priming mixture
3. Combustion of the gunpowder
4. Expansion of the heated gas
5. Pressure developed
6. Energy developed
7. Recoil of the gun
8. Velocity of bullet inside the barrel
9. Rotation of bullet inside the bore
10.Engravings of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.
II. EXTERIOR BALLISTICS – it refers to that motion of projectiles from the time it leaves the
muzzle of the firearm to the time it reaches the target. The flight of most bullets does not exceed
30 seconds at maximum range, which for almost any firearm is obtained at an elevation of about
33. This flight can be divided into three (3) distinct parts. During the FIRST, which last for only a
few yards, the bullet is recovering from the initial shock of firing, it is wobbly. The SECOND or
NORMAL period of flight extends for several hundred yards. During this time, it travels as it
should be, point first, with its axis rotation nearly on the trajectory. The FINAL period of flight
after the bullet has started to lose both velocity and spin. It again begins to wobble and finally
over or tumbles in an unpredictable manner.
Rifle bullets require spin to make them stable in flight. The proper amount of spin
depends on the size and weight of the bullet and its velocity. The spin imparted by the rifling,
besides making the bullet fly points foremost, it also ceases to “shift”, which in the case of a rifle
having a right-hand twist or spin makes the bullet go slightly to the right of the line of sight. The
bullet’s center of gravity travels along the parabola course of trajectory. But the point is kept
about on the line of sight by the gyroscopic action of the spin. It is the resulting couple, which
moves the bullet to the right. At extreme ranges, when the bullet is falling quite rapidly the point
is still being held up by this gyro-stillness effect, so that the bullet is finally traveling somewhat
sideways through the air. This is called YAW- the unstable rotating motion of the projectile.
Most modern rifles have sights, which can be adjusted to correct for “windage”, the term
used for the correction required for wind effect. With fixed sights for shooter has to estimate the
displacement that will be caused by the wind and aim that distance into the wind from his target.
This is often called “Kentucky Windage” from the habit of frontiersmen using Kentucky rifles”
held-off in this manner for wind correction.
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IT INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING:
1. MUZZLE BLAST - The noise created at the muzzle point of the gun by the reason of the
sudden escape of the expanding gas when it comes to instant contact with the air in the
surrounding atmosphere at muzzle point.
2. MUZZLE ENERGY - Energy generated at muzzle point of the gun.
3. TRAJECTORY - The actual curve path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to
the target.
STAGES OF TRAJECTORY:
A. Straight horizontal line
B. Parabola like flight – spinning flight of the bullet
C. Vertical drop
4. RANGE - the straight distance between the muzzle and to the target.
A. Accurate (effective range) - the distance within which the firer has control of his shots.
B. Maximum Range - the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.
While the range at which the ordinary pistol and revolver are suppose to be effective only
at 50 to 75 yards, all of them will send their bullets much further than that and are capable of
inflicting fatal wounds at distances up to one mile, depending on the caliber and gunpowder
content.
5. VELOCITY – Rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.

The long barrel rifle makes accurate for ranges up to 3000 yards and the weapon has a hinge
muzzle velocity of 1000 to 4000 ft/sec. and are intended for shooting at close range and bullets
are carried only at a distance of 400-600 yards.
NOTE: Rifled weapons maybe either be long-barreled rifles (2-3 ft.), or short barreled pistols
(1-12”).
CONDITIONS: refers to natural laws

1. Velocity - Speed of a bullet measured in ft/sec.
2. Energy – Fatal equivalent of a bullet.
3. Yaw – It refers to the unstable rotating motion of the projectile
4. Gyroscopic Action – Refers to the stillness of the bullet’s rotating motion and later on,
attains its highest momentum for stability in flight penetrating power.
Bullets from rifled weapons would spin at 2000 to 3000 revolutions a second, but over the first
few yards of trajectory – distance varies with the weapon – their flight is slightly unstable; the
end of the projectile wobbles before it picks up a smooth flight path. This phenomenon is known
as “TAILWAG”, and is of considerable important in evaluating gunshot wounds. A bullet with
“tailwag” does not strike its target cleanly.
6. AIR RESISTANCE - Resistance encountered by the bullet while flight.

NEWTON - He was first to discover and state the so-called “air resistance’ in 1710.
BENJAMIN ROBINS – An Englishman, who was one of the first to state sound ballistics
theories, in his research paper entitled, “New Principles of Gunnery” In 1142.
7. PULL OF GRAVITY - The downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth center due to
its weight.
8. PENETRATION - Depth of entry to which the bullet has entered its target.
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MOVEMENTS OF THE BULLET AFTER LEAVING THE MUZZLE OF THE GUN:
01. FORWARD MOVEMENT – The pressure of the expanded and heated gases inside the
barrel causes the bullet to have the forward movement. The movement is in line with the barrel
of the firearm. Small firearms has an average muzzle velocity of 1,200 feet per second while high
powered firearms have 2,500 feet per second or more.
02. SPINNING MOVEMENT – The bullet leaves the muzzle of the gun with spinning
motion on account of the lands and grooves inside the barrel, which are spirally arranged.
03. WABBLING MOVEMENT – Aside from the spin of the bullet, these is a TAILWAG-
the bullet travels sideways and vertically. This movement maybe present not in the whole course
of the flight but only for some distance.
04. TRANSLATIONAL – when the bullet hits the target and subsequently ricocheted.
05. PULL OF GRAVITY – The pull of gravity may cause arch like trajectory of the bullet,
particularly after the bullet has lost certain degree of momentum in its flight.
Ill. TERMINAL BALLISTICS

This concerns with the effects of the projectile on the target or until it rests.
MEDICAL BALLISTICS – A form of terminal ballistics wherein the target is a person. It is
concerned with the penetration, severity and appearance of the wound due to bullet or
missile.
IT INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING:
1. Terminal Accuracy – That size of the bullet grouping on the target;
2. Terminal energy – That energy of the projectile when it strikes the target; or striking force or
energy;
3. Terminal penetration – That depth bullet penetration on the target or object hit; and
4. Terminal velocity – speed of the bullet upon striking the target.
IV. FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Forensic Ballistics is that one being used in legal proceedings wherein a written report of
the examiner involving firearm, bullets and shells are properly presented and identified by the
prosecution in connection with the crime alleged to have been committed. Forensic Ballistics is
sometimes properly called as “Firearms Identification”.
The word forensic was derived from the LATIN word “forum” - meaning a market place,
where people gathered for “public debate” or “public discussion”. Thus, the word Forensic
Ballistics aptly describes the subject under consideration – the science of investigation and
identification of firearms and ammunition used in the perpetration of crimes.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS - The science of investigation and identification of firearms and

ammunition used in crimes.
BALLISTICS, FORENSIC BALLISTICS AND FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION have

come one and the same thing in the mind of the public.
DIVISIONS:
01. Field investigations – Refers to the work of an investigator in the field. It concerns mostly
with the collection, marking, preservation, packing and transmission of ballistics exhibits such
as fired bullets, fired shells, firearms, and allied matters.
02. Technical Examinations of the ballistics exhibits - refers to the work of

Firearms examiners of experts who examine bullets and/or shells whether fired from the
suspected firearm submitted; and/or determine also whether or not cartridges were loaded or
ejected from the suspected firearm submitted. Reports are made by the experts and testify in
court.
03. Legal proceedings – Court trials – wherein the Ballistics Report of the Firearm Examiner
and the Ballistics Exhibits, fired bullets, fired shells, firearms, and other allied exhibits are
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presented during the trial on the case in a court of justice.
V. SHOT BALLISTICS
- Refers to the study of shots from smooth bore firearms like shotgun and muskets.
A shotgun is a shoulder-fired firearm having a barrel that is smooth-bored and is intended
for the firing of a charged compound of one or more round balls or pellets.
The muzzle velocity of shotgun is about half that of a center fire rifle, and shot loses speed
more rapidly than a conical bullet, shot with high velocity powder charge has a muzzle velocity
of around 1,300 feet per second. With No.6 shot, this represents an average velocity at 40 yards of
only 975 per second. Shot in flight has “string” or “pattern”. The load strings out while moving
through the barrel, and at 40 yards, the average string is 12 feet at a 30 inch circle at 40 yards.
Unlike the rifle, the shotgun requires that aim be ahead of the target. The target is usually
rising as well as moving away, so both vertical and horizontal leads must be used. The first
shotguns had cylinder bores, uniform in diameter throughout their length. Bun makers found
out that a sight restriction or choked at the muzzle improved the pattern. Commonly, a short
section of reduced diameter joins the main part by the conical taper. A swaged choke has simple
conical section at the muzzle. The recessed choke has a slightly enlarged portion of barrel, with
conical sections fore and aft. Full chokes are used for a long-range shooting. Modified chokes or
cylinder bores are for upland birds and skeet shooting.
Shot pellets being spherical projectiles, their sectional density increases with diameter.
Thus, large shot will retain velocity better than a smaller size, besides having greater striking
energy. No. 2 shot has at least 50 ft/sec more velocity at 50 yards than no.6. Higher average
velocity requires less lead minimizing pointing errors. All things being equal, large shot gives
more kills at longer ranges than small shot, but the statement is true only per shot pellet. No.6,
with many more pellets per load than no.2, gives a better pattern, hence, more hits. Thus, the
load must be compressed.
Before chokebores were generally available, many ideas were advanced for concentrating
the shot in flight. They involve little wire or mash baskets, and metallic containers or paper tubes
which separate in flight. Modern manufacturers have done much research to provide better
patterns and reduced shot string.
CLASSIFICATION OF A SHOTGUN:
A. As to the number of shots:
1. Birdshot – The shot are small ranging in sizes from 0.05 inch to 0.15 diameters and loaded from
200 to 400 shots in the shell. Birdshots are small and are commonly used for hunting fowls and
other small animals.
2. Buckshot – The shot ranges from 0.24 to 0.33 inch in diameter and obviously fewer in number
in a shot. A standard 12-gauge shotgun contains only nine shots.
3. Single Projectile (Rifled Slag) – There is only a single shot or slug in a shell.
B. As to the systems employed in the determination of the diameter of the barrel of a shotgun:
1. Gauge System — Determination of the number of lead balls, each fitting of the bore totals
to one pound in weight. The smaller the gauge designation, the larger is the bore. If twelve
balls can be made from one pound of lead, each fitting the inside of the barrel of a shotgun,
the gun is called 12-gauge or 12-bore shotgun. 12-gauge shotgun is the most commonly
used.
2. Expression of the Bore Diameter in Inches – The 0.410 bore shotgun is the only shotgun at
present to be so designated.
3. Metric system – The bore is expressed in millimeters.
C. As to the length of the barrel:
There is no standard length of the barrel but modern barrels measure 26, 28, and 30 inches in
length.
D. As to the Grade of Choke:
A shotgun is choked when the muzzle end of the barrel is a diameter smaller than the rest of
the barrel. The main purpose of the constriction is to minimize the dispersal of the pellet or
buckshot after the shot. It is based on the presence or absence of choke and the degree of choking,
that shotguns are classified as:
1. Unchoke – The diameter of the barrel from the rear end up to the muzzle is the same.
2. Choke – The diameter of the barrel at the muzzle end is smaller than the rest of the barrel.
a. “Improved Cylinder” – The narrowing of the barrel by 3 to 5 thousands of an inch.
b. Half Choke – narrowing by 15 to 20 thousands of an inch.
c. Full Choke – narrowing from 85 to 40 thousands of an inch.
The lethal range is normally in an area of 30 inches in diameter at 30 to 40 yards according
to the degree of choking.
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E. As to the Number of Barrel
a. Single Barrel Shotgun:
There is only one barrel and basically the original type.
b. Double Barrel Shotgun:
(1) Side-to-side barrel.
(2) Over-and-under barrel.
F. As to the Manner of Firing and Reloading

a. Bolt Action:
The action of the bolt ejects the fired shell and loads the next one.
b. Lever Action:
When the lever is swing down it ejects the fired shell and loads the next shot.
c. Pump Action:
There is a cylindrical magazine which can accommodate up to six shells, end to end,
beneath the barrel.
d. Auto loading:
A pull of the trigger not only fires and ejects the shell but also reloads the next shot and
locks it for firing.
Shotgun Cartridge:
A shotgun cartridge is usually 2-3/4 or 3 inches long and the diameter depends on the gauge
of the firearm. The base and the lower portion of the cylindrical portion are made of brass with
the primer cap at the center of the base. Attached to the free end of its cylindrical portion is the
cylindrical laminated paper tube to complete the shell easing.
When the trigger is pulled, the firing pin activates the primer, which in turn ignites the powder
charge. Explosion of the gunpowder will cause propulsion of the wad and pellets (shot) in front.
The muzzle velocity of the pellet is relatively smaller as compared from those discharged from
rifled firearms.
Except for the presence and nature of the slug, the component of the shotgun blast is almost
the same as that of a rifled firearm. It also consists of gunpowder, flame, smoke, pellets and wad.
VI. WOUND BALLISTICS

- Refers to the study of the effects of projectile on a target and the conditions that affect
them.
Factors Responsible for the Injurious Effect of Missile:

1. Factors Inherent on the Missile:
a. Speed of the Bullet – The greater the muzzle velocity, the greater is the destruction inasmuch
as more kinetic energy can be liberated.
b. Size and Shape of the Bullet – The bigger the diameter or the more deformed the bullet is,
the greater are the injuries in the body tissues.
c. Character of the Missile’s Movement in Flight – Spinning movement will increase the
wounding power; “Yawing” and stumbling movement may cause sidewise penetration and
entry and cause more destruction; and ricochet may alter tissue involvement in its course.
2. Nature of the Target:

a. Density of Target – The greater the density of the tissue struck, the greater will be the
damage. More energy will be spent by the bullet in its course in penetrating skin, bones and
clothes. Heavy thick clothes may prevent penetration of missile; fragile bone may fragment
when hit and each fragment may act as a secondary splinter to cause further injuries.
b. Length of Tissue Involvement in its Course – The longer the distance of travel of the missile
in the body, the more kinetic energy it liberates, and the more destruction it will produce.
c. Nature of the Media Traversed – Bullet passing air spaces is less destructive inasmuch as air
is relatively compressible however, bullet traveling in a liquid or solid media may
accelerate transmission of force to the surrounding tissue thus, causing more destruction.
d. Vitality of the Part Involved – There is more likelihood for a fatal consequence when vital
organs are involved than those in other parts of the body.
Distinction Between Gunshot Wound of Entrance and Wound of Exit:
Entrance Wound Exit Wound
1. Appears to be smaller than the 1. Always bigger than the missile.
missile owing to the elasticity
of the tissue.
2. Edges are inverted. 2. Edges are everted.
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3. Usually oval or round depending 3. It does not manifest any
upon the angle of approach definite shape.
of the bullet.
4. “Contusion collar” or “Contact ring” 4. “Contusion collar” is absent.
is present, due to invigilation of the
skin and spinning of the missile
5. Tattooing or smudging may be 5. Always absent.
present when firing is near.
6. Underlying tissues are not 6. Underlying tissues may be seen
protruding. protruding from the wound.
7. Always present after fire. 7. May be absent, if missile is lodged in
in the body.
8. Paraffin test may be positive. 8. Paraffin test always negative.
The “Odd and Even Rule” in Gunshot Wounds:
If the number of gunshot wounds of entrance and exit found in the body of the victim is
even, the presumption is that no bullet is lodged in the body, but if the number of the gunshot
wounds of entrance and exit is odd, the presumption is that one or more bullets might have been
lodged in the body.
The rule is merely presumptive and actual inspection and autopsy will verify the truth of
the presumption. It may be possible that all of those wounds or a majority of them are entrance
wounds with some bullets lodged, yet the number may still be even.
Sometimes it is difficult to locate the lodged bullet but with the help of a portable X-ray, its
location and extraction can be facilitated.
How to Determine the Number of Fires Made by the Offender:
1. Determination of the Number of Spent Shells:
Search must be made at the scene of the crime or at the place where the offender made the
fire, for spent shells, if the weapon used is an automatic pistol or rifle. In case of revolver fire,
the empty shells may be found still inside the cylindrical magazine. In machine gun fire, the
spent shells may still be attached to the cartridge belt.
2. Determination of Entrance Wounds in the Body of the Victim:

Although most often erroneous, the investigator may be given an idea as to the minimum
number of shots made. The number of wounds of entrance may not show the exact number of
fire because:
a. Not all the fire made may hit the body of the victim.
b. The bullet may in the course of its flight hit a hard object thereby splitting it and each
fragment may produce separate wounds of entrance.
c. The bullet may have perforated a part of the body and then made another wound of
entrance in some other parts of the body; thus a single shot may produce two wounds of
entrance.
3. Number of Shots Heard by Witnesses:

The witnesses might be able to count the number of shots heard especially if the shots were
made at sufficient intervals of succession. However in cases of machine gun fire, there is
difficulty in ascertaining the number of shots heard and the testimony of witness as to the
number of shots heard must be admitted with caution.
Instances, when the Number of Gunshot Wounds of Entrance is Less than the Number of Gunshot
Wounds of Exit in the Body of the Victim:
1. A bullet might have entered the body but split into several fragments, each of which made a
separate exit.
2. One of the bullets might have entered a natural orifice of the body, e.g. mouth, nostrils
thereby making it not visible and then producing a wound of exit.
3. There might be two or more bullets which entered the body through a common entrance and
later making individual exit wounds.
4. In near shot with a shotgun, the pellets might have entered in a common wound and later
dispersed while inside the body and making separate wounds of exit.
Instances when the Number of Gunshot Wounds of Entrance is More than the Number of
Gunshot Wounds of Exit hi the Body of the Victim:
1.When one or more bullets are not through and through and the bullet is lodged in the body.
2. When all of the bullets produce through and through wounds but one or more made an exit in
the natural orifices of the body, e.g. eyes, mouth, nostrils.
2. When different shots produced different wounds of entrance but two or more shots produced
a common exit wound.
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Instances when there is No Gunshot Wound of Exit but the Bullet is Not Found in the Body of
the Victim:
1. When the bullet is lodged in the gastro-intestinal tract and expelled through the bowel; or
lodged in the pharynx and expelled through the mouth by coughing.
2. Near fire with a blank cartridge produced a wound of entrance but no slug may be recovered.
3. The bullet may enter the wound of entrance and upon hitting the bone the course is deflected
to have the wound of entrance as the wound of exit (cited by Modi, A Textbook of Medical Juris-
prudence & Toxicology, 10th ed).
Special Consideration on Bullets:
1. Souvenir Bullet:
Bullet has been lodged and has remained in the body. Its long presence causes the
development of a dense fibrous tissue capsule around the bullet causing no untoward effect. It
may be located just underneath the skin to be easily palpated and may cause inconvenience
and irritation. Deep seated location may not cause any problem to warrant its immediate
removal.
2. Bullet Migration:
Bullet that is not lodged in a place where it was previously located. A bullet which strikes the
neck may enter the air passage, and it may be coughed out or swallowed and recovered in the
stomach or intestine.
Bullets Embolism – a special form of bullet migration when the bullet loses its momentum
while inside the chamber of the heart or inside the big blood vessels and carried by the
circulating blood to some parts of the body where it may be lodged. It may cause sudden loss
of function of the area supplied or death if vital organs are involved.
3. Tandem Bullet:
Two or more bullets leaving the barrel one after another. In cases of misfire or a defect in the
cartridge, the bullet may be lodged in the barrel and a succeeding shot may cause the initial
and the succeeding bullet to travel in tandem. There is a strong possibility for them to enter the
target in a common hole. This might create doubt to the statement made by the firer that he
made only a single shot, but ballistic examination can show as to whether the bullet traveled in
tandem.
THREE (3) BASIC KINDS OF GUNSHOT WOUND (GSW) DISTINGUISHED BY THE

PROXIMITY OF THE WEAPON CAUSING THEM:
1. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.
2. Close Discharge – 6” to 2ft,
3. Distance Discharge - over 2 or 3 ft.
Entry wound are generally clean, round holes slightly smaller than the bullets which caused
them; as the bullet travels through the body it produces a shock wave which damages the tissue
around its path. This is known as “TISSUE QUAKE.” The bullet will slow down by the
passage through the body and its exit will leave an irregular hole. If the bullet exits head-on, the
wound will be smaller than the entry, but if it leaves the body at an irregular angle, or takes
pieces of bone with it, the exit wound will be ragged.
Contact wounding with the muzzle pressed against the skin will produce not a round entry
but star shaped hole with lacerated edges.
SHOTGUN DISCHARGED
At a close range, from 1 to 3 ft, a more or less irregular wound about 1 ½ to 2 inches in
diameter will be produced. There will be evidence of scorching and tattooing, singeing of hair by
flame unless the weapon was fired through the clothing. Beyond the range of 3 ft the shot begins
to spread out and at 4 ft the wound will appear as central hole with small perforations around it.
At ranges over 4 ft the shot continues to spread out and produces a mass of small perforations
with no central wound. An approximation of the range can be obtained by measuring in inches
the diameter of the wound (including the outermost perforations) subtracting 1, thus arriving at
the range in yards. Thus a wound of 9 inches diameter indicates that it was inflicted by a weapon
fired from about 8 yards; the exact range depends on the choke of the weapon and only test firing
gives the accurate answer.
Sir Sydney Smith – founder of the Medico-Legal Faculty at Cairo University and later Regis
Professor of Forensic Medicine at Edinburgh, was one of the leading exponents, studying
entrance and exit wounds, powder burns, and powder “tattooing” on human skin and other
medical phenomena associated with gun fire.
[[“The Only Way for Evil to Triumph is when Good Men DO Nothing” Burke] rnresurreccion/dmbutag 2012]
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CHAPTER III
FIREARMS
ORIGINS OF FIREARMS:
The first definite reference to a firearm is an English manuscript of 1326, “De Officials
Regnum” ( “On the Duties of Kings”), in which there is an illustration of a small cannon being
fired, but it was not until the closing of the century that technology had evolved sufficiently to
allow the first “handgonne” to appear. The contents of the manuscript “De Officials Regnum” is
hazy but it could be safely said that it is somewhat parallel to Mao Tse Tung’s idoneous remarks
that “power emanates from the barrel of the gun”. Then, the “ridaudequin” was developed,
which appeared in about 1380. It consisted of a number of small-caliber cannon barrels mounted
on a light cart, the barrels being splayed apart so as to deliver their shots in a fan-shaped arc to
the front. While these weapons appear to have been effective, they had one major limitation: they
were fixed to their carts such that they could not deal with an enemy who suddenly appeared on
the flanks. The logical step was to take on the same barrels and attached it to a wooden pose,
with the powder and the shot, and with the man holding a length of burning rope, he could tuck
the pole under his arm should a target appear, roughly aiming the weapon and touch it off by
applying his burning “match” to the vent of the gun to ignite the gun powder. In this manner,
the portable handgun arrived in the battlefield. The “handgonne” was therefore the transitional
stage between the cannon and the family of weapons which we collectively call “small arms”
The first handguns were simply reduced cannons, because of their smaller size. The
earliest known specimen is the “Tannenberg gun”, so called because of its discovery in a well at
the ruins of the castle of Tannenberg (not the Tannenberg in former Prussia, but a small castle in
Hesse.) Since this castle was destroyed in 1399, the weapon must date before that, and the
existence of handguns in the 14th century is borne out by the English Privy Wardrobe accounts
for 1388 which record “III(3) cannons parvos vocatos handgunnes”. The Tannenburg gun is cast in
bronze, octagonal in section. A bronze gun similar in date and hexagonal in shape was recovered
from the sea of Morko in Sweden.
Some guns were made in iron. One of the earliest known specimens was found at the
Vedelspang in Schleswig, Germany. They were known as “hook gun” because there was hook
beneath the barrel. Vedelspang was another castle, which, according to records was destroyed in
1426.
Early in 1411, some thought had been given to the mechanics of directing fire: a German
engraving of that year shows a handgun with a “serpentine matchlock”, an S-shaped piece of
metal pivoted at its center to the side of the stock. The gunner could use both hands to hold and
fire.
Rifles first appeared towards the end of the 14th century. Gun makers in Nuremberg are
given the credit for its invention. For a long time, its value was not appreciated because the lead
ball had to be driven down with a ramrod and mallet to load the rifle compounded by poor
gunpowder. Thereafter, it was further improved and was used in sporting events. Then, in
about 1600, Christian IV of Denmark had wheel lock rifles made for some of his troops and
some French cavalry were issued with rifles by 1680.
The American War of Independence (1775-1783) led to the more general acceptance of the
rifle as a military weapon. In 1774, Lt. Col. Patrick Ferguson of the British Army designed his
rifle and demonstrated it before the King of Windsor resulting in orders for 100 rifles. Ferguson
supervised the manufacture of rifles, trained a company of men in the use of the rifle and sailed
for America in 1777. Ironically, an American rifleman killed him in 1780 and his company was
disbanded.
By the early part of the 15th century, the handgun began to change its form. The “hook
gun” was further refined by German mercenaries which they generally called Lansknecht stock,
which was more controllable than the crude “Hook Gun” because it consisted of a piece of wood
placed underneath the barrel and retained by iron straps and the rear end shaped roughly to fit
against the man’s shoulder.
In 1517, the wheel lock was invented. In praise of this weapon, even Emperor Maximilian
I (1459-1519) of Austria made a great epic poem entitled Teurdanckh. However, he enacted
restrictive laws against carrying of self-ignited handguns – an early example of legal restrictions
of firearms which continues up to this day. Eleven years before, however, the Statues of the
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Shooting Range at Geislingen had already forbidden the use of the wheel lock. The interest of
the Hapsburg rulers in firearms led them to play an important part in the development of the
wheel lock, and many of the extant wheel lock firearms were made at Augsburg and Nurnburg.
The earliest extant wheel lock with which a date maybe associated is a combination of crossbow
and wheel lock pistol in the Bavarian National Museum, Munich, Germany. This weapon bears
the heraldic arms of the Archduke Ferdinand and the initials F and A; it may be reasonably dated
1521, which was the year of the Archduke’s marriage.
People had used flint to strike sparks for many thousand years, so it was not surprising
that this system should be applied to firearms. Thus, the “flintlock” gun was born. In 1547, the
Spanish lock or “miquelet” was developed by Simon Marquette, the son of an Italian gun maker
who had settled in Spain. It was a kind of handgun which George Washington used in the U.S.
Civil War. His flintlock pistol is displayed in the West Point Museum up to this day.
In Europe, the matchlock mechanism was retained for centuries. The Thirty Years War
(1618-1648) was fought with matchlock and many military writers continued to praise its
superiority over wheel locks.
In America, the majority of the early colonists at Jamestown, New Netherlands and
Plymouth used the matchlock because it was inexpensive and easy to make. Such guns, procured
from the Dutch traders at Albany, were in the hands of the Indians in the Connecticut valley as
early as 1648.
Match-lock guns became widely diffused in Asia and North Africa, where they remained
in use long after they become obsolete in Europe. The match-lock mechanism was introduced in
India probably in the early part of the 16 th century. It was in the year 1510, when Goa, was
occupied by the Portuguese, thus, it may be taken as the date of the permanent introduction of
the matchlock.
The Portuguese also introduced firearms into Japan when they landed on the island of
Tanegashima in 1542. The local armorers copied the matchlock muskets that the Europeans
brought with them. No wonder, when World War II was declared, they were all fully armed
with their own version of firearms. (See Encyclopedia of Rifles and Handguns, A comprehensive Guide
to Firearms. Edited by Sean Connoly, 1996 Ed., pp.1-29 and Vol. 9, Colliers Encyclopedia, 1989 Ed., pp.
729-736)
In the early 18th century Samuel Colt (1814-1862) (a) revolutionalized the design of the
revolver and more importantly, he (b)introduced the system of mass production of such
weapons. He produced a revolver with a cylinder that was drilled with five or six chambers,
each with its own tube to hold a percussion cap. In fact, his name is synonymous with the
revolver, although his venture into the arms business was not a great success, but by luck and
perseverance, he remained in business. By the start of the American Civil War in 1861 (which
lasted till 1865), continued in the firearms business and they led in firearms manufacturing
especially during the outbreak of the First World War when they mass-produced the .45 caliber
pistol. To this day, they still lead in the manufacture of firearms.
Thereafter, handguns and rifles were refined and refined as the years passed by and all
modern firearms were developed and widely used in every major war starting from the First
World War to the Second World War and including the Gulf War of 1991.
BRIEF HISTORY OF SMALL ARMS:
01. CANNON LOCK TYPE

– These weapons were loaded from the muzzle end of the barrel with powder, wad, and
ball. A small hole which is located at the breech end of the barrel was provided with a pan into
which a priming charge of powder was placed. In igniting this priming charge, either a hot iron
of lighted match is flashed through the touch-hole and into the main powder charge to discharge
the weapon.
- Used in Germany in the year 1313.
02. MATCHLOCK
- The construction of the matchlock was exactly the same as the hand cannon. Common
in them is that it was muzzle loaded and had a touch-hole covered with a priming charge. The
only difference being that the match lock, a slow burning piece of cord used the priming charge,
was held in an armed hook screwed to the side of the flame. To fire the gun, the hook was
pushed forward to drop the burning end of the match into the priming charge. As these
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weapons be were becoming sophisticated, the curved hook was embellished and took the form of
a snake and became known as the weapon “Serpentine”.
Eventually, the tail of the serpentine was lightened and became the forerunner of the
modern TRIGGER. These weapons were used during the time of Henry VIII who reigned from
1509 to 1547, were many of his cavalry were armed with a matchlock.
The major defect with this type of firearm was that it required a slow burning “match” for
ignition. As a result, it was of little use for surprise attack or in damp or rainy conditions.
03. WHEEL-LOCK
– The lighted match used in the matchlock was no longer necessary. When fired from the
shoulder, the wheel-lock was often referred to as an “arquebus” from the shape of the butt which
was often curved to fit to the shoulder. This weapon consisted of a serrated steel wheel, mounted
on the side of the weapon on the rear of the barrel. The wheel was spring-loaded via a chain
round in its axles with a spanner similar to a watch drum. When the wheel was turned with a
spanner, the chain would turn the axle and the spring was tensioned. A simple bar inside the
lock kept the wheel from unwinding until released with the trigger. Part of the wheel protruded
into a small pan, the flash pan or priming pan, which contained the priming charge for the touch-
hole. The serpentine, instead of containing slow burning match, had a piece of iron pyrite fixed
in its jaws. This was kept in direct contact with the serrated wheel by means of a strong spring.
In pressing the trigger, the bar was withdrawn from the grooved wheel which then turned on its
axle. Sparks produced from the friction of the pyrite on the serrated wheel ignited the priming
charge which in turn ignited the main powder charge and fired the weapon. It was invented by
JOHANN KEIFFUS of NUREMBERG, GERMANY in 1517.
04. FLINT-LOCK
- The ignition system which superseded that of the wheel-lock was a simple mechanism
which provided a spark by striking a piece of flint against a steel plate. The flint was held in the
jaws of a small vice on a pivoted arm, called the “COCK”. This was where the term “COCK THE
HAMMER” originated.
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIREARM

The first propellant used in firearms of all types was gunpowder. Despite the historical
and military significance of this substance, its origin remain largely obscure, but it is known that
the Chinese were using it by AD 1000. The first extant references to gunpowder in western
literature occurred in the 13th century. The origins of small arms also wrapped in mystery. It is
clear that the Chinese and Arabs knew at an early date how to make and use “roman candles”
(probably based on bamboo tubes) loaded with layers of gunpowder and incendiary material as a
means of starting fires at a distance for military purposes. But details of this weapon are lacking,
as too ant clear indications of the first use of genuine firearms for the propulsion of projectiles
from the tube.
LEONARDO DA VINCE – (1500 AD) A French artist, on his sketch of a steam-powered cannon
to his primitive wheel-lock firearms.
13th Century - development of firearms followed the invention of gunpowder in Western
Europe.
BERTHOLD SCHWARTZ - A German monk, and ROGER BACON. an English monk are both
credited with gunpowder invention.
Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English monk and scientist, with the invention of gun
powder in 1248, and Berthold Schwartz, with the application of gun powder to tie propelling of a
missile in the air 1300’s. This powder is what we now call “black powder”.
1118 - Moors used artillery against Zaragoza. Early manuscripts tell or several Moorish campaign
in which, artillery was used all dating prior to Bacon and Schwartz.
1245 - Gen. Batu, the Tartar leader used artillery in Liegnitz when he defeated the Poles,
Hungarians and Russians.
1247 - one of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in warfare was that of an attack on Seville,
Spain.
1346 - Cannons used by King Edward III of England at Crecy.
1353 – Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople.
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First firearms were inefficient, large and heavy and were not capable of being carried by an
individual soldier, hence, the development of cannons preceded that of small arm weapons by
almost 50 years.
Man never satisfied with himself, he is always trying to improve himself and his
surrounding. He created some crude or primitive weapons, which were subsequently developed
into sophisticated firearms of modern times. The following are the stages of development of
man’s weapon:
1. STONES
2. CLUBS
3. KNIVES
4. SPEARS AND DARTS SLINGSHOTS TO HURL OBJECTS
5. BOWS AND ARROWS
6. CROSS-BOWS
7. GUNS
8. MISSILES
PERSONALITIES IN BALLISTICS
1. Col. Calvin H. Goddard, Md., OS, U.S. Army – Father of Modern Ballistics
2. Horace Smith – Founded the great firm Smith & Wesson and pioneered the making of
breech-loading rifles.
3. Daniel B. Wesson - an associate or partner of Smith in revolver making.
 Designed the Model 1895 Box Magazine, lever action type of rifle for Winchester. He
also earned respect and recognition with pistols and machine guns.
 Designed the first successful gas-operated machine gun. His water-cooled Browning
caliber .30 and Browning Automatic Rifle were extensively used in World War I.
4. John M. Browning - Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the breech loading single
shot rifle.
5. John T. Thompson – Pioneered the making of Thompson Submachine gun.
6. David “Carbine” Williams – maker of the first known carbine.
 Carbine, like most of the very old terms used in the history of firearms, its actual origin
cannot be positively established. It is believed that the term might have originated from the
following:
“carabine”- which means Spanish Cavalry
“ carabs”- which means small ships
“ karab” – an Arabic term which means weapon
William Carbine – first known maker of carbine firearm
7. Alexander John Forsyth – Father of the percussion ignition.
8. Elisha King Root – Designed machinery of making Colt firearms.
9. Eliphalet Remington – one of the first rifle and ammunition makers.
10. John Mahlon Marlin - founder of Marlin Firearms Company.
11. James Wolfe Ripley – Stimulated the development of the Model 1855 rifled-musket.
12. Samuel Colt (1814-1862) of Hartford, Connecticut, produced the first practical revolver
bringing it to what most gunsmiths would agree was its perfect form in the Colt Army 1873
model, which became famous for its .45 caliber. He also introduced the system of mass
production of such weapons.
Other manufacturers followed Colt’s lead: Remington and Smith & Wesson in the U.S.,
Adams and Scott-Webley in BRITAIN, Star, Luger, Browning and Beretta on the
CONTINENT, until revolvers were used in every part of the world.
13. Henry Derringer – he gave his name to a whole class of firearms (rifles and pistols)
14. John C. Garand – designed invented and introduced the semi-automatic US Rifle, Cal. .30
M1 which is gas operated after Thompson did nod improve satisfactorily because of oiling
requirements, jams, and feeding troubles. He was hired by the U.S. Government and given
employment at Springfield Arsenal to continue development of automatic firearms.
15. Oliver F. Winchester – one of the earliest rifles and pistol makers.
16. Hiram Maxim (1840-1916) – Born in Maine, he settled in Britain, where he invented his
machine gun.
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 He also developed a smokeless form of gunpowder called “maximite.” He was Knighted in
Britain in the year 1901 for his inventions.
17. Hugo Borchardt – Employed with Winchester for a time. He developed one of the earliest
successful auto loading pistol. When he couldn’t get American makers into making it, he took
his design to Germany and was developed into the world’s famous LUGER PISTOL.
18. James Gatling– Created the first successful mechanical machine gun. Said machine gun
was used during the U.S. Civil War (1861-1865). The gun had several barrels, which revolved
around a central axis.
19. James Puckle – He attempted to design a machine gun in the year 1717. In trial, the gun
fired up to nine shots every minute, but the British Army was not impressed and it was soon
forgotten.
IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

1313 – Gun powder as a propellant. The age of gunpowder began with its first use as a
propellant for a projectile. Such use has been recorded as early as 1313.
1350 – small arms. Gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was in the middle of the 14 th
century that portable hand firearms were introduced. These guns were ignited by a hand-held
hot wire or lighted match.
1498 – Riflings. The first reference to rifled barrels appeared. Although some recognized its
important as an aid to accuracy, it was many years after before rifling was generally used.
1575 – Cartridge. Paper cartridge combining in both powder and ball were developed. This
greatly speeded loading and reduced the hazards of carrying loose powder.
1807 – Percussion system. The discovery of Forsyth in 1807 that certain compounds detonated by
a blast would be used to ignite the charge in a firearm, for the basis for all later percussion and
cartridge development.
1835 – Samuel Colt patented the first practical revolver in which the cylinder was rotated by
cocking the hammer.
1836 – Pinfire Cartridge. Developed by Le Faucheux in 1836 was probably the first self-exploding
cartridge to come into general use.
1845 – Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Flobert, developed a “bullet breech cap” which was in
reality, the first rimfire cartridge.
1858 – Centerfire Cartridge. The Morse cartridge of 1858 marked the beginning of the rapid
development of the centerfire cartridge.
1884 – Automatic machine gun. Hiram Maxim built the first fully automatic gun, utilizing the
recoil of the piece of load and fire the next charge.
1885 – Smokeless Powder . In France, Vielle, developed the first satisfactory smokeless powder, a
new propellant which not only lacked the smoke characteristic of black powder, but also more
powerful.
DEFINITION OF FIREARM:
1. Technical Definition:
A firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of a projectile by the expansive force of
gases coming from the burning of gunpowder.
2. Legal Definition:
Section 877, Revised Administrative Code - “Firearm” defined.
“Firearm” or ‘arm”, as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, shotguns, revolvers, pistols, and
all other deadly weapons from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or other missile may be
discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air rifles except
such as being of small caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be
considered as a complete firearm for all purposes thereof.
Penal Provisions of Laws Relative to Firearm.

Section 2692, Revised Administrative Code (RAC):
Unlawful manufacture dealing in acquisition, disposition, or possession of firearms or ammunitions
thereto, or instrument used or intended to be used in the manufacture of firearms or ammunition:
Any person who manufactures, deals in, acquires, disposes or possesses any firearm, parts
of firearms, ammunition therefore, or instrument or implement used or intended to be used in
Page 15
the manufacture of ammunition in violation of any provision of sections eight hundred seventy-
seven to nine hundred and six, inclusive, of the code, as amended, shall upon conviction, be
punished by imprisonment for a period of not less than one year and one day nor more than five
years, or both such imprisonment and a fine of not less than one thousand pesos nor more than
five thousand pesos, in the discretion of the court. If the article illegally possessed is a rifle,
carbine, grease gun, bazooka, machine gun, submachine, hand grenade, bomb, artillery of any
kind or ammunition exclusively intended for such weapons, such period of imprisonment shall
be not less than five years nor more than ten years. A conviction under this section shall carry
with it the forfeiture of the prohibited article or articles by the Philippine Government.
Section 2690. Revised Administrative Code:
Selling of firearm to unlicensed purchaser:
It shall be unlawful for any dealer in firearms or ammunition to sell or deliver any
firearms or ammunition or any part of a firearm to a purchaser or other person until such
purchaser or other person shall have obtained the necessary license therefore, Any person
violating the provisions of this section upon conviction in a court of competent jurisdiction, shall
be punished by a fine not exceeding two thousand pesos, or by imprisonment not exceeding two
years, or both.
Section 2691, Revised Administrative Code;
Failure of personal representative of deceased licensee to surrender firearm:
When a holder of any firearm license shall die or become subject to legal disability and any
of his relatives, or his legal representative, or any other person shall knowingly come into
possession of any firearm or ammunition covered by such license, such person, upon failure to
deliver the same to the Chief of Constabulary in Manila or to the senior officers of Constabulary
in the province, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding five hundred pesos or by imprison-
ment not exceeding six months, or both.
Art. 155, Revised Penal Code:

Alarms and Scandals:
The penalty of arresto menor or fine not exceeding 200 pesos shall be imposed upon:
1. Any person who within any town or public place, shall discharge any firearm, rocket,
firecracker, or other explosive calculated to cause alarm or danger;
Art. 254, Revised Penal Code:

Discharge of firearms:
Any person who shall shoot at another with any firearm shall suffer the penalty of prision
correccionaI in its minimum and medium periods, unless the facts of the case are such that the act
can be held to constitute frustrated or attempted parricide, murder, homicide or any other crime
for which a higher penalty in prescribed by any of the articles of the code:
First Sentence: (Shoulder Arms)

RIFLE – long rifle firearm designed to hit targets at a greater or longer distance, with spiral
grooves to fire only a single shot.
MUSKET – long smooth bored firearm that is designed to prepare a single shot.
SHOTGUN – long smooth bored firearms having a barrel of 25-30 inches long and designed to
shot birds in flight.
CARBINE – a short barrel rifle having a barrel not longer than 22 inches. Designed to fire a single
shot through a rifled-bore, either semi-automatic or full automatic, for every press of the trigger.
HAND/SHORT ARMS
Portable handguns appeared only in the early years of 16th century.
Classification of Small Firearms:

Small firearms are those, which propel projectile of less than one inch in diameter.
1. As to Wounding Power:
a. Low Velocity Firearm – These are firearms with muzzle velocity of not more than 1,400 feet
per second.
Example: Revolver.
b. High Power Firearm – These are firearms with muzzle velocity of more than 1,400 feet per
second. The usual muzzle velocity is 2,200 to 2,500 feet per second or more.
Example: Military rifle.
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2. As to the Nature of the Bore:
a. Smooth Bore Weapon – This firearm has the inside portion of the barrel that is perfectly
smooth from the firing chamber to the muzzle.
Example: Shotgun
b. Rifled Bore Firearm – This is a firearm with the bore of the barrel with a number of spiral
lands and grooves which run, parallel with one another, but twisted spirally from breech
to muzzle.
Example: Military Rifle
3. As to the Manner of Firing:
a. Pistol - Firearm, which may be fired only by a single hand.
Example: Revolver.
b. Rifle – Firearm which may be fired from the shoulder.
Example: Shotgun
4. As to the Nature of the Magazine:
a. Cylindrical Revolving Magazine Firearm – The cartridge is located in a cylindrical
magazine, which rotates at the rear portion of the barrel.
Example: Revolver.
b. Vertical or Horizontal Magazine – The cartridge is held one after another vertically or
horizontally and also held in place by a spring side to side or end to end.
Example: Automatic Pistol.
Types of Small Firearms which are of Medico-legal Interest:

1. Revolver – A revolver is a firearm which has a cylindrical magazine situated at the rear of the
barrel, capable or revolving motion and which can accommodate five or six cartridges; each of
which is housed in a separate chamber. After a shot, the circular magazine rotates by the
cocking of the hammer in a way that the next cartridge is brought in the proper position for
firing, The usual muzzle velocity of a revolver is 600 feet per second.
Kinds of Revolver as to Construction or Mechanism:

a. Revolver with the barrel firmly fixed to the frame and the revolving cylinder may swing
out to the side for the purpose of loading or extraction of the spent shell.
b. Revolver with the barrel hinged to the frame and the revolver cylinder may be broken to
load by releasing the barrel latch.
c. Revolver with barrel firmly fixed to the frame and the revolving cylinder may be removed
by taking out the cylinder pin on which it rotates.
2. Automatic Pistol – This is a firing weapon in which the empty shell is ejected when the
cartridge is fired and a new cartridge is slipped into the breech automatically as a result of the
recoil. The cartridge is contained in a vertical magazine which holds six to seven cartridges. It
is not automatic in action in the sense that a continuous pressure on the trigger will not make
the firearm fire continuously. It is more correct to call it a “self-loading firearm.” It has a usual
muzzle velocity of 1,200 feet or more per second.
3. Shotgun – A shotgun is a firearm whose projectile is a collection of lead pellets which varies in
sizes with the type of the cartridge applied.
A Weapon, In Order to Cause Injury must have Two Principal Component Parts, Namely:
I. The Cartridge or Ammunition – a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet, primer, cartridge
case and powder charge.
2. The Firearm – the instrument for the propulsion of a projectile by the expansive force of gases
from burning gunpowder.
PISTOLS – a handgun that is magazine feed.

They have said to have been invented in the Italian town PISTOIA – hence, the name
“PISTOL” – and arrived in Britain about 1515 as German import.
In the early 20th century, the so-called automatic pistol begun to appear.
REVOLVER – a handgun with a corresponding cylinder that revolves before the barrel, which
consist of different chambers.
MECHANISMS OF REVOLVER AND PISTOL

Revolvers carries 5, 6 or up to 8 shots in a cylinder which presents each cartridge to the
hammer in turn, the automatic, properly called ‘self-loading’ handgun, acts in somewhat similar
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fashion to a rifle. The magazine, containing up to 14 rounds of ammunition, is slotted into the
hollow handle of the weapon.
A slide on top of the barrel carries the firing pin hits the primer of the cartridge and fires
the bullet, at the same time releasing a power force of expanding gas in the breech of the gun-up
to 4 to 5 tons per square inch – which blows back the side. The slide action, like that of the rifle
bolt, ejects the spent cartridge, extracts a new one from the magazine and slots it into firing
position once more.
For purposes of Medico-legal Investigation, the following Parts of a Firearm are important:
1. The trigger with the firing pin.
2. The barrel
Other Parts of a Firearm:

1. Handle or Butt – The portion of the firearm used for handling it. It may house the magazine.
2. Firing Chamber – The place where the cartridge is held in position before the fire mechanism
starts.
3. Breechblock – The steel block which closes the rear of the bore against the force of the charge.
The face of this block, which comes in contact with the base of the cartridge, is known as
the breech-face.
4. Trigger Guard
5. Fronts and Rear Sight.
6. Safety Device like safety lock.
7. Sling.
In a Self-loading Firearm, the following are the Additional Parts:

1. Extractor – The mechanism by which the spent shell or ammunition is withdrawn from the
firing chamber.
2. Ejector – The mechanism by which the empty shell or ammunition is thrown from the firearm.
3. Trigger - This is a part of the firearm, which causes firing mechanism. Except in a single action
firearm, pressure on the trigger is the commencement of the whole firearm mechanism. To
avoid accidental firing, a trigger guard surrounds the trigger.
Classification of Firearm Based on Trigger Mechanism:

a. Relation of Cocking and Trigger Pressure:
(1) Single Action firearm – The firearm is first manually cocked then followed by pressure
on the trigger to release the hammer.
Example: Home-made “Paltik”.
(2) Double Action Firearm – A pressure applied on the trigger will both cock and fire the
firearm by release of the hammer.
Example: Standard Revolver.
b. Number of shots on Pressure on the trigger:
(1) Single Shot Firearm – A pull pressure on the trigger will cause only one shot.
(2) Automatic Firearm – A continuous pressure on the trigger will cause a series of shots
until the trigger pressure is released.
Example: Machine gun.
Trigger pressure is the amount of force (pressure) on the trifler necessary to fire a gun. Its
determination is necessary in the assessment of whether the firing can possibly be accidental.
“Hair trigger” is a vague term used when the firearm trigger pressure is 1.0 lb. (pound) or
less. It is intrinsically unsafe and should only be used under rigorously controlled situations
because of the possibility of unintended or accidental fire.
In general, the single action firearm varies from 3-1/2 to 10 pounds and in double action, it
varies from 6 pounds to as much as 18 pounds. The following are the approximate trigger
pressures of certain types of firearms.
a. Shotgun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 lbs.
b. Self-loading pistol . . . . . . . . . . . 3 to 4 lbs.
c. Revolver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 to 5 lbs.
d. Service rifle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 to 7 lbs.
2. Barrel:
a. Riflings:
The inner surface of a shotgun and that of a home-made gun is smooth while single
shot standard firearms are with riflings.
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The inner surface of the barrel has a series of parallel spiral grooves on the whole
length called riflings. The space between the two grooves is the land. The riflings are made
to have a strong barrel grip on the bullet, to stabilize its movement and to impart a
rotational movement on the bullet. Incidentally, the rifling reflected on the bullet becomes
an important factor in the identification of firearms.
Our manufacturers vary the way the riflings are imprinted in the inner surface of
the barrel on the following aspects:
(1) Number – The number of lands and grooves varies from 2 to 12.
Most high velocity firearms have 4 to 6 grooves. Some firearms have
multiple shallow grooves and this is known as microgrooves rifling.
(2) Twist or Rate – This is the expression for one complete turn of the rifling on a
certain length of the barrel. We say the twist rate is 1:12 when there is one complete
spiral groove in 12 inch of the barrel. Spiral groove twist or rate may be:
(a) Post Twist – When the number of inches of the barrel required for a complete
turn is small, like 1:8.
(b) Slow Twist – When a greater number of inches in the barrel are necessary to
have one complete turn, like 1:14.
(3) Direction – The direction of rifling may either be right (clockwise) or left
(counterclockwise).
(4) Width of the Groove and Land – The width of the groove varies with the
manufacturer and caliber. Some have the width of the groove different with that of
the land while others are the same or equidistant.
Example:
Colt 0.32 has 6 lands and grooves, twist to the left, the width of the land and
groove are 0.048 and 0.108 respectively.
Smith and Wesson 0.32 has 5 lands and grooves, twist to the right and are
equidistant at 0.095 inch.
Aside from those marks previously mentioned, the bullet or the shell shows individual or
accidental characteristics which are determinable only after the manufacture. They have
characteristics whose existence is beyond the control of men and which have a random
distribution. Their existence in a firearms are brought about through the failure or a tool in its
normal operation through wear, abuse mutilation, corrosion, erosion, or other fortuitous causes.
Those marks may be imprinted in the bullet or shell and may be used for identification purpose,
When the bullet or the shell or both has been recovered and a suspected firearm has been
found in the possession of a person, the procedure is to fire the suspected firearm at a recovery
box and compare the shell and bullet in the comparison microscope with the one in question.
How to Determine the Caliber of Firearm:

The caliber is the diameter of the barrel between two lands.
Table showing the relation between American, English and Continental Caliber:
American Caliber English Caliber Continental Caliber in Mn.
.22 Inch .220 Inch 5.6
.25 “ .250 “ 6.5 (6.35)
.28 “ .280 “ 7.0
.30 “ (.32 Rev.) .300 “ (.303) 7.65
.32 “ .320 “ 8.0
.35 “ (351) .350 “ 9.0
.38 “ .360 “ 9.3
.38 ‘ .370 “ 9.5
.38-.40-.41 Inch .410 “ 10.0
.404 Inch 10.5
.44 “ .440 “ 11.0
.45 .450 “ (.455) 11.25
(From: Modern Criminal Investigation by Harry Soderman and John O’Connel, 4th ed., p. 201).
* To convert millimeter calibration to inches, multiply the caliber in millimeters by 0.03937 or

divide by 25.4.
* To convert inches calibration to millimeters, multiply by 25.4 or divide by 0.03937.
MECHANISM OF FIREARM ACTION:
Generally, the principles involved in all firearm actions are the same. When the firearm cocked
and ready to fire, a pull on the trigger will cause the fixing pin of the hammer to hit the
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percussion cap of the cartridge in the firing chamber which is aligned with rear portion of the
barrel. The hit by the firing pin on the percussion cap will cause generation of a sufficient heat
capable of igniting the primer. The primer will in turn ignite the gunpowder or propellant which
will cause evolution of gases under pressure and temperature. The marked expansion of the
gases will force the projectile forward with certain velocity. Owing to the presence of the rifling at
the inner wall of the bore, the barrel offers some degree of resistance to the projectile. Inasmuch
as the rifling marks are arranged in a spiral manner, the projectile will produce a spinning
movement as it comes out of the muzzle.
Together with the bullet passing out of the barrel are the high-pressured heated gases,
unburned powder grains with flame and smoke.
During explosion, there is a backward kick of the firearm which in an automatic firearm causes
the cocking and the empty shell thrown out by the ejector. The backward movement is called
recoil of the firearm.
Things Coming Out of the Gun Muzzle After the Fire:
1. Bullet.
2. Flame.
3. Heated, compressed and expanded gas
4. Residues coming from:
a. Bullet:
(1) Fragment (jacket, lead).
(2) Lubricant.
b. Powder particles:
(I) Powder grains (unburned, burning).
(2) Soot.
(3) Graphite.
c. Primer:
(1) Lead, barium, antimony, etc..
d.Barrel:
(1) Lubricant.
(2) Rust, dust, etc..
(3) Scraping from bullet by previous fire.
e. Cartridge case:
(1) Copper, zinc.
Second Sentence:
.22 – minimum caliber
.19
.18 – only used as toys, they could not be considered as a firearm
.17
Third Sentence – barrel of complete firearm

A revolver without a barrel
A pistol without a barrel
Possession of any part of a firearm is considered a violation of illegal possession of firearm in
accordance with SCRA Dec. 11, 1992.
TWO GENERAL CLASSES OF FIREARM

ACCORDING TO GUN BARREL INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION
01. Smooth-bore Firearms – Firearms that have no rifling (land and grooves) inside their
gun barrel.
Ex. Shotguns and muskets
02. Rifled-bore Firearms – firearms that have rifling inside the gun barrel.
Ex. Pistols, revolvers, rifles
MAIN TYPES OF FIREARMS (according to Caliber of Projectiles Propelled)

01. Artillery – those types of firearms that propel projectiles more than one inch in
diameter.
Ex. Cannons, Mortars, Bazookas
02. Small Arms – propel projectiles less than one inch in diameter. Can be operated by
one man.
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Ex. Machine guns, shoulder arms and hand arms
TYPES OF FIREARMS (according to mechanical construction)

01. Single Shot Firearm – type of firearm designed to fire only one shot for every
loading.
Ex. Pistol, Rifle, Shotgun – single shots, P, R, S (pistols, rifles, shotguns)
02. Repeating Arms – fire several shots in one loading
Ex. 1. automatic pistols 3. Rifles
2. Revolvers 4. shotguns
03. Bolt Action Type – reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt.
Ex. 1. rifles 3. Machine guns
2. shotguns
04. Automatic Loading Type – after the first shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding
of the chamber takes place.
Ex. 1. Rifles 2. Shotguns
05.Slide Action Type (thrombone) – loading takes place by back and forth
manipulation of the under forearm of the gun
Ex. 1. rifles 2. shotguns
06. Lever Type (Break-type) – loading takes place by lever action on the firearm.
Ex. 1. rifles 2. shotguns
TYPES OF FIREARMS (according to use)

01. Military Firearms
Pistols
Revolvers
Rifles
Machine guns
02. Pocket and Home Defense Firearms
Pistols
Revolvers
Rifles
Shotguns
03.Target and Outdoor Men’s Firearms
Pistols
Revolvers
Rifles
UNUSUAL OR MISCELLANEOUS TYPE – those types of firearms that are unique in

mechanism and construction
Paltik pistols
Paltik revolvers
Paltik rifles
Paltik shotguns
THREE MAIN PARTS:

REVOLVER – Cal. 38 PISTOL – Cal. 45
1. Barrel Assembly 1. Barrel Assembly
2. Cylinder assembly 2. Slide assembly
3. Frame or Receiver 3. Frame or Receiver
RIFLE – Cal. 30 SHOTGUN – Gauge 12

2. Magazine assembly 2. Magazine assembly
3. Stock group 3. Stock group
DETAILED PARTS
REVOLVER .38 AUTOMATIC PISTOL .45
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a. breech end a. breech end
b. muzzle end b. muzzle end
c. bore c. bore
d. riflings (lands and grooves) d. riflings (lands and grooves)
e. front sight e. chamber
f. make f. interlocking ribs
g. barrel lug
h. barrel ink
i. barrel ink pin
j. barrel lead (lead)
2. Cylinder Assembly 2. Slide Assembly

a. chambers a. front sight
b. extractor b. top strap
c. extractor rod c. ejection part
d. racket d. rear sight
e. cylinder grooves e. breech sight
f. yoke f. breech face
g. cylinder locking notches g. extractor
(touch holes) h. firing pin
i. firing pin stop
j. serrations
k. trademark
l. model
m. interlocking lugs
3. Frame Receiver 3. Frame Receiver

a. top strap a. ejector
b. rear sight b. hammer
c. breech face c. spur
d. hammer d. grip safety
e. spur e. disconnector
f. thumb latch f. thumb safety
g. side plate g. back strap
h. back strap h. butt
i. firing strap i. Lanyard loop
j. butt j. front strap
k. front strap k. magazine well
l. trigger guard l. right side stock
m. trigger m. left side stock
n. cylinder lock n. trigger
o. right side stock o. trigger guard
p. left side stock p. modes
q. trade mark (monogram) q. plunger
r. serial number r. serial number
The automatic Pistol, Caliber .45 besides having the main parts and detailed parts it has
also the so called auxiliary parts accessories) which must all be removed first before disassembly
of the weapon can be accomplished.
1. Recoil plug 4. Recoil spring
2. Barrel bushing 5. Recoil spring guide
3. Slide stop pin
ADVANTAGES OF REVOLVER:
1. It is old standard weapon, everyone is used to it and almost everyone knows something
about how to handle it.
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2. The revolver is safer for inexperienced people to handle and carry than an automatic
pistol.
3. The mechanism of a revolver allows the trigger pull to be better than that of the average
automatic weapon.
4. A misfire dies not put a revolver out of action.
5. It will handle satisfactory old or new or partly deteriorated ammunition, which gives
reduced velocity that would jam an average automatic pistol.
DISADVANTAGES OF A REVOLVER:
1. It is more bulky to carry than that of an automatic pistol.
2. Its grip or handle is generally not as good as that of pistol.
3. It is hard to clean after firing.
4. It is slower to load.
5. It is harder to replace worn out or broken parts, it is a factory job.
6. Worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy due to improper lining
up of cylinder.
ADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL:

1. It has a better grip, fits the hand and points naturally.
2. It is more compact for the same fire power.
3. It is easier to load than a revolver.
4. In case of worn or corroded barrel a new one can be put in a little expense without sending
the gun to the factory
5. It gives greater fire power and greater ease of firing
6. There is no gas leakage in its operation.
DISADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL:

1. Ammunition must be perfect. Old and deteriorated ammunition will cause a jam.
2. A misfire stops the functioning of the gun.
3. When the gun is kept loaded for a long period of time, the magazine spring is under
tension and may deteriorate and cause trouble.
4. The automatic pistol cannot use blank or reduced loads.
5. It has poorer trigger pull than the revolver.
6. The magazine requires a jacketed bullet which is not as good for practical use as that of
lead bullet.
7. The automatic pistol is more dangerous to handle and fire especially for inexperienced
people due to the fact that after one shit it is always cocked and loaded.
8. It is not adopted to reloading. It throws away empty shell at each shot.
9. Its mechanical action ejects empty shell towards the face of the shooter, causing flinching
10. It throws out empty shells on the ground to remain as evidence.
11. It cannot be fired from the pocket without jamming.
EVERY POLICE OFFICER SHOULD FREQUENTLY CHECK HIS REVOLVER FOR:

1. Obstruction in the barrel
2. Bulging or swollen barrel
3. Firing pin protrusion through recoil plate when trigger is in rearward position.
4. An older revolvers, the imprint of the primer on the recoil plate in relation to the firing pin
hole (to insure blow in center of primer).
5. Evidence of “splitting lead” around breech of barrel or for complaints of fellow shooters in
the firing line.
6. Tightness of all side plate screw
7. Tightness of ejector rod head if the weapon is a Smith & Wesson revolver
8. Cleanliness and protective film of oil to prevent rust
NOMENCLATURE AND FUNCTIONS:

BARREL – initiates the path of the bullet
FRAME – houses the internal parts
Page 23
CYLINDER – serves as a chamber and magazine
YOKE – connecting pivot between the frame and cylinder
EXTRACTOR – pulls the empty shells from the cylinder simultaneously
EXTRACTOR ROD – activates the extractor and is a locking device
CENTER PIN – serves as a locking device for the cylinder
CENTER PIN SPRING – holds the center pin in a locked position
SIDE PLATE – provide access to the internal parts
SIDE PLATE SCREWS – hold the side plate and yoke in place
HAMMER BLOCK – safety device that prevents hammer blow to primer
DOUBLE ACTION SEAR – built to allow double action fire
HAMMER – strikes the blow that initiates or ignites the primer
BOLT – disengages pin and allow opening of cylinder and blocks hammer
THUMBLATCH – actuates bolts to release the cylinder
HAND (Pawl) – rotates the cylinder when the hammer is cocked
CYLINDER STOP – stops and holds the cylinder when the hammer is cocked
TRIGGER – actuates the parts necessary to fire the weapon
TRIGGER GUARD – guards the trigger from unnecessary action to avoid accidental firing
REBOUND SLIDE – returns trigger, actuates hammer block and locks hammer
TRIGGER SPRING – provides energy for return movement of rebound slide
TRIGGER LEVEL – contacts rebound slide to return trigger forward
MAIN SPRING – provides energy to the hammer to activate firing mechanism
STRAIN SCREW – controls tension on the mainspring
TRIGGER STOP – prevents excessive rearward movement after hammer release
RATCHET – helps in the withdrawal of the cartridge or shells from the chambers of the cylinder
CYLINDER NOTCH – it helps hold cylinder in place and aligned ready for firing.
CHAPTER IV
AMMUNITIONS/CARTRIDGES
INTRODUCTION:
It is important for students of firearms investigation and identification to be well versed
with ammunitions. This chapter limits itself only to metallic and modern shotgun shells since
these are the types greatly encountered by investigators in most cases.
Originally, the word “ammunition” means any unfired assembly of cartridge case,
powder, primer, and projectile which maybe used in a firearm. But today, the word is generally
used when referring to a “supply of assembled cartridges” in bulk as in boxes or lots. It is also
often used to refer to the supply a person maybe carrying with him. The term “round” refers to a
single cartridge.
Legal Definition:
Shall mean loaded shell for rifles, muskets. carbines, shotguns revolvers, and pistols form
which a ball, bullet, shot, shell, or other missiles may be fired by means of gunpowder or other
explosives.
Technical Definition:
A complete unfired unit consisting of bullet, cartridge case, propellant powder, primer.
ORIGIN:
16TH CENTURY - cartridge was discovered.
The earliest small arms cartridge consisted of a pre-measured charge of powder wrapped in
paper.
The term cartridge derived from the Latin word “charta” means paper and from the French
word “cartouche” meaning a roll of paper.
Introduction of “magnum” cartridges in the fifties (50’s) – first manufactured by Remington
and used to load such weapons as the Luger Blackhawk and the Smith & Wesson .44 magnum
– has meant that handguns are harder hitting, but their mechanism is largely unchanged and their
Page 24
victims suffer in much the same ways as the older weapon.
NOMENCLATURE/PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE:
I. Bullet – Refers to the projectile propelled form a firearm by means of the explosive force of
gases coming from burning gunpowder.
2. Cartridge Case – Refers to the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder. Sometimes
called shell.
3. Gunpowder – Refers to the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is converted
to gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and on to the
target.
4. Primer – Refers to the metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical
compound which when struck by firing pin would ignite. Such action is called “Percussion”.
Generally, cartridges or ammunitions may be classified as follows:

a.) METALLIC CARTRIDGE – Used largely on rifles, pistols, and revolvers were the case
is made of brass or copper. Also called as “ rifle ammunition”.
b.) NON-METALLIC CARTRIDGE - Ammunitions partly made of paper (cardboard) or
plastic and the projectiles are of lead balls or a number of lead pellets which are called “shots”. .
Also known as “shotgun shell”.
Accordingly, cartridges maybe further classified as follows:

I. ACCORDING TO THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE DIAMETER OF THE BASE WITH THAT
OF THE CYLINDRICAL PORTION OF THE CARTRIDGE
a. Cartridge With a Rim - The base of the cartridge has a diameter more than the cylindrical
portion.
The rim is used to prevent the cartridge from going through the barrel. This is common
among revolvers.
b. Rimless Cartridge – The base or head of the cartridge has the same diameter as that of the
cylindrical body. There is a groove cut between the base and the cylindrical body for the
extractor to hook into. This is usually found in self-loading firearms.
c. Semi-rimless Cartridge – This looks like a rimless at first glance but actually the rim does
project very slightly above the line of the cylindrical part.
d. Belted Cartridge – The cartridges are attached in a series in a canvass belt for successive
fires.
II. ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF FIREARMS WHEREIN IT WAS USED

Revolvers cartridges - used in revolvers
Pistol cartridges – used in automatic pistols
Rifle cartridges - used in rifles
Shotgun – used in shotguns
III. ACCORDING TO THE LOCATION OF PRIMERS

a. Cartridge with Center Fire (Center-fire)
- The percussion cap is located at the center of the base of the cartridge. This is the most
common.
- Most economical because it could easily be refilled.
- In this type of ammunition, head stamps are frequently used and these consist of the
designs or letters imprinted on the shell head, which is the area around the primer. The designs
or letters are used to identify the manufacturer or maker of the ammunition. Sometimes, as in
caliber .45 ammunition, the last two digits of the year of manufacture are indicated. Most of
these head stamps found in the shell head of the base of the ammunitions are valuable to field
investigators as well as to firearms examiners in the laboratory, Simply because these head
stamps assist them in narrowing down their search for a particular gun used in the commission
of the crime.
e.g. cal. .45 ; shotgun shell
TYPES OF CENTER FIRE CARTRIDGES:

Rimmed type - used in Revolvers Cal .38 & .357
Semi-rimmed - used in super .38
Page 25
Rimless - used .45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun, submachine gun
b.Cartridge with Rim Fire (Rim-Fire Cartridge)
- The simplest form of modern cartridges.
- The primer is placed inside the rim of the shell. This is common in 0.22 caliber- firearms.
c. Firearm with Pin (Pin-Fire Cartridge)
- The first cartridge of a self-loading type, which was commonly attributed to Monsieur Le
Facheux of Paris, at around 1836.
- The firing pin strikes a needle, which is placed at the rim of the shell. The needle will then
press on the Percussion cap which is inside the cartridge. This type is obsolete and now
rarely found.
d. Ring fire Cartridge
- A type of cartridge used only on sabotage cases. The chattel cartridges of Steyr advance
combat rifle and Steyr anti-material squad machine gun. This is a special type of cartridge
wherein the priming mixture is placed in a circular hollow ring about 1/3 of the base of the
cartridge.
IV. ACCORDING TO CALIBER

The caliber is only approximation of the bore diameter and is closer somewhat to the groove
diameter. Thus, for example, a .45 caliber semi-automatic has bore diameter of approximately .45
inch, while the groove diameter is .451 inch.
Caliber .22 – used in revolvers, pistols, rifles – SMALLEST CALIBER
Caliber .25 – used in pistols and rifles
Caliber .30 – used in carbines and other rifles
Caliber .32 – used in automatic pistols ~n1 revolvers
Caliber .380 – used in pistols
Caliber .38 – used in revolvers
Caliber .357 – used in .357 revolvers (Magnum)
Caliber .44 – used in magnum revolvers
Caliber .45 – used in automatic pistols
Caliber .50 – Cal .50 Machine guns (not used in crimes) – HIGHEST CALIBER
Caliber .38 - 44 – It came out after Major Douglas B. Wesson of Smith and Wesson produced
a .38 caliber revolver by using the frame of the famous .44 military weapon, which is a heavy gun
with a thick barrel and cylinder.
In such names such as “30-30” or Springfield, the first figure is the caliber and the second
figure is the number of grains of Black Powder that was the original standard load of the
cartridge.
The .45 - 70 - 500 originated in the same way, the first two figures mean the same thing, but
the third figure is the weight of the bullet. The .30 - 60 was called the .30 Govt. Model of I906.
SHOTGUN SHELL
--- Single unit of ammunition for shotguns.
--- It is usually larger. Used in smooth bores capable of withstanding far less pressure.
A. Paper tube G. Priming
B. Metal Base H. Propellant
C. Base wad I. Over-PowderWad
D. Battery Cup J. FillerWads
E. Primer cup K. Shot
F. Anvil L. Closing Wad
Shotgun bores are measured in gauges, with the smaller the number, the larger the
diameter. Thus, a I2-gauge shotgun has a larger diameter bore than a 20-gauge. The term gauge
was originally the number of lead balls of that size weighing 11 lb. This system does not hold for
the 400 “gauge” which is in actuality a caliber.
- Some shotguns are named by caliber, as for example, the one that is called .410 gauge
shotgun. In this case .410 gauge actually means .41 caliber.
- 12-gauge shotgun has a caliber of .729 inch.
KINDS OF SHOTS
I. BUCK SHOT – 9 to 12 pellets
Page 26
2. SINGLE SHOT – only one pellet
3. BIRD SHOT – 200 to 400 pellets
The shot leaves the gun as a solid mass at a velocity of about 1100 ft/sec. Up to about 3 ft the
effect is of single shot but beyond that the lead pellets spread out and the effect is multiple shots.
The shell wad leaves the gun with the lead pellets and is projected for several feet before falling
to the ground. The end of the barrel is often restricted or “CHOCKED” in order to hold the shot
together over longer distances.
The entire charge (pellets/shots) when moving through the air, can be properly referred to as
the “pattern”, although strictly speaking, the pattern is registered relative “distribution” of the
entire load upon the target.
SHOT WADS
At a distance of 5 to 8 yards or more from the place of firing in the approximate direction of
fire, one can sometimes finds wads.
Wads are very important because at times, these wads serve to identify the gauge and type of
ammunition used. In many shotgun crimes, wads are recovered at the scene, sometimes also
right inside the body of the victim. Unburned gunpowder can sometimes be recovered. All these
should, of course, be preserved since wads and powder, together with pellets, serve as bases to
identify at least the maker of the ammunition, and the type and gauge of the shotgun used.
CARTRIDGE LIFE:
The life of well-made metallic small arms ammunitions could perhaps last for 10 years as its
average age but some ammo may also loose some of its strength in 5 or 6 years time.
Some may last 25 years or more depending on the conditions of storage. Damp warm climates
are worst.
In order to prevent the entrance of oil or moisture, it is a common practice to varnish the
mouth of the case before the insertion of the bullet and to put a ring of waterproofing around the
joint between the primer and the primer pocket.
CHAPTER V
BULLETS / SLUGS
INTRODUCTION:
A bullet, slug, missile, or projectile, is the metallic object attached to the free end of the
cylindrical tip of the cartridge case, propelled by the expansive force of the propellant, and
responsible in to production of damages in the target. In some instances bullets — not metallic
but made of rubber, plastic, or even paraffin, but their uses are primarily confined to target
practice.
Definition: It is a metallic or non-metallic, cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by

means of expensive force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.
Projectiles propelled from shotguns are termed SHOTS or PELLETS.
Layman’s Term of bullet is SLUG.
ORIGIN:
The term bullet originated from the French word “BOULETTE” meaning a small ball. In
government parlance, a cartridge containing a bullet is still called “BALL CARTRIDGE”; from
the original terminology of the days when all bullets were balls.
Bullets in modern concept are projectiles propelled from rifled firearm, which is
cylindrical in shape.
The core of the slug is an alloy of lead, antimony and sometimes tin.
Armor-piercing bullets for small arms of similar material to the standard bullet, but in
addition to lead and antimony filler, a core of tungsten chrome steel which continues to penetrate
armor after the jacket and filler have been stripped away by contact with a resistant surface.
CLASSIFICATION:
A. Basically, there are two (2) kinds of bullets, and they can be classified under the following:
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I. According to Mechanical Construction
01. LEAD BULLETS – Are those bullets , which are made of lead or alloys of this metal (lead, tin
and antimony) which is slightly harder than pure lead.
Lead bullet must be lubricated to prevent the lead adhering into the bore that will interfere
seriously with the accuracy. This action is called “LEADING”
Lead Bullets generally used in revolvers. They are used in target shooting when they are
used in self-loading rifles they will melt.
02. JACKETED BULLETS – Are those bullets with a core of lead covered by a jacket of harder
material such as gilding metal, a copper-alloy of approximately 90%. Some Europeans use steel as
jacket material.
The primary function of the “jacket” in a bullet to prevent adherence of metal (lead) to the
inside of the gun barrel.
A jacketed bullet may be:

i . Full Jacketed Bullet – the whole bullet up to the base is enveloped with a metallic jacket.
ii. Semi-Jacketed Bullet – The nose or tree end is partly or fully exposed while there is relatively
thin but tough coating of the base and the cylindrical portion. This is made to permit expansion
of the bullet when it hits hard objects. Semi-jacketed bullets may be hollow –point.
The general rule is that soft metal, round nose bullets are fired from a revolver; full-jacketed bullets are
fired from a rifle and self-loading firearm; semi-jacketed bullets are fired from an automatic (self loading)
firearm or rifle.
--- Copper plated steel maybe used instead of gilding metal for the jacket of caliber .45 bullets.
Jacket of metal patch made of cupric nickel or gilding metal.
--- If jacketed bullets are used in revolvers, the gun barrel will be loosened or destroyed.
--- Keyhole shot – the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as a
result of not spinning on its axis.
II. Another way of classifying bullets are according to the following:
According to the Shape of the Free End:

(1) Conical (Pointed Nose) – The free end of the bullet is tapering and pointed. The purpose is to
minimize the resistance offered by the atmosphere, to increasing its penetrating power and to
minimize deflection upon hitting the target.
(2) Hemispherical (Round Nose) – The free end is dome-like and commonly observed in short
firearms.
(3) Wad-cutter (Square Nose) – The free end is flattened commonly used in target practices.
(4) Semi-Wad
(5) Hollow-point – There is a depression at the tip to expand or “mushroom” at impact on hard
object, to slow its speed in the body so that more kinetic energy will be released thereby
increasing its shocking effect.
According to the Shape of the Base:

(1) Flat Base
(2) Boat-tailed
(3) Square-base
III. Another way of classifying bullets is:

I. According to Types
A. Solid Lead E. Soft
B. Solid Hollow Point F. Metal-Cased Hollow Point
C. Solid Paper-Patched G. Metal Point
D. Metal-Cased
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RIFLED BULLETS:
There are many types of targets that can be destroyed by small missiles or projectiles. To
secure a maximum effect against each other, there are many types of bullets or shells. There are
five (5) principal types, two or more of which are combined into one bullet.
1. Ball bullets – have soft lead cores inside a jacket and are used against personnel only.
2. Armor Piercing bullets – have hardened steel cores and are fired against vehicles and other
armored targets in general.
3. Phosphorous Flare or Tracer bullets - Contains a compound at the base usually barium
nitrates ,which is set on fire when the bullet is projected. The flash of smoke from this burning
projectile permits the flight of the bullet to be seen.
- This consists of an aluminum tip and is packed with incendiary (phosphorus) which
burns during flight. It is used to determine the direction of the fire. The speed of sound in air is
1,087 feet per second or 331.3 meters per second.
4. Incendiary bullets – contain a mixture such as phosphorous or other material that can be set
on fire by impact. They are used against targets that will rapidly burn such as aircrafts or
gasoline depot.
5. Explosive (Fragmentary) bullets – contain a high charge explosive. Because of their small size,
it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms ammunitions.
For this reason the use of high explosive bullets are usually limited to 20 mm. and above.
OTHER TYPES:
01. Plastic Bullet - used for target practice.
02. Bullet with Plastic Sabot – The bullet together with the sabot travel up to the bore. The bullet
never comes in contact with the barrel and therefore there will be no rifling marks imparted in
the bullet but on the sabot. The front half of the sabot has six slits. As the sabot leaves the barrel it
offers resistance and the slit part of the sabot will fold backward, causing resistance and falls
away.
At three feet, the sabot and bullet are still in line.
At 6 to 7 feet, they strike the target separately.
The sabot itself travels approximately 50 feet.
03. Bullet with Secondary Explosion – The bullet may leave the barrel and upon reaching a
certain distance it produces secondary explosion and shrapnel splinters.
04. Pointed Bullet – is more effective ballistically than the round ball of the same weight because
there is less surface presented to the air and thus the speed of the bullet is less retarded so
quickly.
05. Dumdum Bullet– is an out-moded bullet and generally misused.
06. Soft Point or “mushroom” Bullet – will expand on striking an object and therefore produce
much more serious shock and have correspondingly greater stopping power.
Soft Point Bullets when fired from a high velocity rifle will expand upon striking a flesh
until it looks like a mushroom; hence, they are often called mushroom bullets. Such bullets are of
little effect than a full jacketed bullet in revolvers or automatic pistols, because the velocity is too
low to cause the bullet to expand.
07. Hollow Point Bullet – a bullet with a cavity in the nose designed to increase the expansion
when it hits the target (sometimes called ‘Express Bullet’).
08. Metal Cased Bullet– colloquially used to indicate either a metal patched or full-patched
bullet.
09. Metal Patched Bullet – any metal-jacketed bullet.
10. Steel Jacketed Bullet – Bullet having soft steal jacket, often clad or plated with gilding metal
to prevent rusting and reduce frictional resistance in the bore.
Purpose of Bullets
.38 – disability
.45 – shocking/subdue, knocking effect
M16 – fatal effect
Resistance of Cal 38 is 15,000 to 45,000 ft/pound
Buck shot- it ranges from 50 yards
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CHAPTER VI
CARTRIDGE CASES / SHELL
Definition:
Is a tabular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together the bullet, gunpowder
and primer.
The cartridge case is the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the
automatic firearm during firing and this remains at the scene of the crime. This is a firearm
evidence that can help trace a particular firearm from which it was fired.
FUNCTIONS:
1. It serves as a means whereby the bullet, gunpowder and primer are assembled into a unit.
2. It serves as a water proof container for the gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge case are forced
against the walls of the chamber by the pressure. It serves as the ‘gas seal’ at the breech end of the
barrel.
PARTS:
1. RIM – serve the purpose of limiting the forward travel of cartridge into their chambers and
this also limit the clearance, if any, between the heads and the supporting surface of the bolt
or breechblock.
2. PRIMER POCKET – performs triple functions:
a. holding primer securely in central position
b. providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge; and
c. providing a solid support of primer anvils, without which the latter could not be fired.
3. VENTS OF FLASH HOLES – is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket through
which the primer “flash” imparts ignition to the powder charge.
4. The HEAD and BODY – constitute the ‘cork’ that plugs the breach of the barrel against the
escape of the gas.
5. NECK – that part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet.
6. CANNELLURES – are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled into the neck and
bodies of the cases at the location of the bullet bases to prevent the bullets from being pushed
back or loosened.
- It is a groove indentation of a cartridge case that holds the end of the bullet.
7. Crimp – is that part on the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet.
Two-Fold Function:
1. It aids in holding the bullet in place.
2. It offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck which affects the burning
of the gunpowder.
8. BASE – the bottom portion of the case which contains:
a. The primer, which contains the priming mixture.
b. The shell head which contains the priming mixture.
c. The shell head which contains the headstamps, caliber and the year of manufacture.
9. SHOULDER – that portion which support the neck.
10. EXTRACTING GROOVE – the circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed for
automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CASE SHAPE AND HEAD FORM

There are 3 general shapes of cartridge case.
A) Straight B) Tapered C) Bottle neck
- all rim shell and most - is very rare but - most modern
centerfire revolver presently being used in center-fire cartridge
cartridges that are now so-called ‘magnum jet’ cases of bottleneck
manufactured have high cartridge Cal.22 type, since these case
straight cases form provide the
greatest powder
capacity
commensurate with
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over-all case length.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE ACCORDING TO THE CONFIGURATION OF ITS BASE

A.) Rimmed – These are all straight-shaped cartridges. It is generally designed for revolvers and
carbines. The diameter of the base of the cartridge is bigger than the body of the cartridge. These
are found in calibers .30 (carbine), .32, .38, .357.
- It has a flanged at the base which is larger than the diameter of the body of the
cartridge case. This flange is to enable the cartridge to be extracted from the weapon in which it
was used.
Revolvers and shotguns normally have rimmed cartridges which stops them from sliding
through the chambers or breech, while self-loading pistol cartridge is generally rimless or semi-
rimmed, bearing instead a groove to provide grip for the extractor.
B.) Semi-rimmed – designed to be used in the automatic weapons like pistols and submachine
guns such as Super .38, UZI 9 mm. These are the cartridge cases normally found at the crime
scene because they are automatically ejected for every firing of the firearm. And these cases
found at the crime scene are of essential in tracing the very firearm or weapon that fired them.
- It has a flanged which is slightly larger than the diameter of the cartridge case and a
groove around the case body just in front of the flange.
C.) Rimless – cases wherein the diameter of the body of the cartridge is the same as the diameter
of the cartridge case.
- Used in automatic pistols, cal .45 Thompson Submachine guns, Cal .45 Grease gun.
- Automatically ejected from the firearms after every shot, like that of the semi-rimmed
type.
The cartridge cases or shells remain at the scene of the crime. The cases found thereat
helps in tracing the particular guns from which they were fired.
D.) Rebated – It has an extractor flange which is less than the diameter of the cartridge case.
E.) Belted Case – These have pronounced raised belt encircling the base of the cartridge.
CHAPTER VI
PRIMERS
Definition:
Refers to the portion of the cartridge which consists of a brass or gilding metal-cup
containing a highly sensitive mixture of chemical compound, which when struck by the firing pin
would detonate or ignite. Such action is called “PERCUSSION”.
Used for igniting the gunpowder. A blow from the firing pin on the primer cup
compresses the priming mixtures and this causes the composition to detonate or explode. This
detonation or explosion produces ‘flame’ which passes through the ‘vent’ of ‘flash-hole’ in the
cartridge case and this ignites the gunpowder.
ORIGIN:
1807 – Alexander John Forsyth – Father of percussion ignition system. First one to conceive the idea
of using detonating compounds for igniting powder charges in small arms by percussion.
--- A Scotch Presbyterian Minister, chemist and hunter.
--- A well-known authority on firearms.
--- First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium chlorate, charcoal and sulfur
in powder forum.
PARTS OF PRIMER
In a typical center-fire cartridge have four parts:
1. Primer cup – container of the priming mixture. Made up of brass, gilding metal or copper.
2. Priming Mixture – highly sensitive chemical mixture contained in the primer cup.
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3. Anvil – that portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by a blow
from the firing pin. Must be hard, rigid and firmly supported in order to provide the resistance
necessary to firing the priming mixture.
TYPES OF PRIMER ACCORDING TO ANVIL

A. BOXER PRIMER ( one flash hole ) – It was developed in 1866 by Colonel. Edward M.
Boxer at the Laboratory of Royal Woolwich Arsenal in England. In this type of primer, the anvil
is a small bent disc of steel which fits into the cup, making the primer completely self-contained.
The flash hole in the cartridge case is centrally located at and is of relatively large in diameter
(approximately 1.5 mm in pistol ammunition). It is thus easy to push out the fired cup with a
thin rod for reloading purposes. Boxer-primed ammunition is almost exclusively used in
commercial ammunition and used mainly in North America.
B. BERDAN PRIMER ( two flash hole ) – It was designed in 1867 by Colonel Hiram
Berdan of the U.S. Army Ordnance Department. In this system, the anvil is actually a part of the
cartridge case in the form of a small peg in the primer pocket. Around the anvil are a number of
small flash holes to permit the passage of the ignition flame from the primer to the propellant.
Mostly used in military ammunition.
C. BATTERY CUP SYSTEM – It consists of a plain cup with no anvil, which fits into a
slightly larger inverted flange cup containing its own anvil. The flanged cap provides a rigid
support to the primer cup and anvil. The self-contained assembly fits into recessed pocket in the
base of the cartridge case. Battery cup primers are used exclusively in SHOTGUN ammunition.
4. Disc – piece of small paper or disc of tin which is pressed over the priming mixture.
Two-Fold Purposes of a disc:

1. To help hold the priming mixture in place.
2. To prevent moisture
PRIMING COMPOUNDS:
Classes:
1.Corrosive primers – e.g. Potassium chlorate – if ignited produces potassium chloride, draws
moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun barrels.
Advances in chemistry produce new compositions which potassium chlorate has been
eliminated.
CORROSION – the chemical wear and tear of the inside of the gun barrel due to rust
formation or chemical reaction by the products of combustion after firing.
EROSION – the mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to
mechanical abrasion or sliding friction. Constant use of jacketed bullet.
2. Non-corrosive
Every manufacturer has his own formula
Mixture of the mercuric primers of 25 years ago

Ingredients:
Potassium chlorate (initiator and fuel) – 45%
Antimony sulfide (element and fuel) 23%
Fulminate of mercury (initiator) – 32%
When WWI came, the standard mixture used by Frankford Arsenal known as FH 42 had the
ff. composition
Sulfur - 21.97%
Potassium Chlorate - 47.20%
Antimony Sulfide - 30.83%
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A Typical rimfire primer used in Cal. 22 ammo. had the ff. composition obtained by chemical
analysis in the Frankford Arsenal lab.:
Potassium chlorate - 41.43%
Antimony Sulfide - 9.43%
Copper Sulpho-cyanide - 4.70%
Ground glass - 44.23%
Germans have their own composition Barium nitrate in the place of K-chlorate together with
the same picric acid to strengthen the mixture. Their formula:
Fulminate of mercury - 39%
Barium nitrate - 41%
Antimony sulfide - 9%
Picric Acid - 5%
Ground glass - 6%
Swiss army had been using non-corrosive primer since about 1911. This was based on the
formula of a Swiss inventor named Ziegler. Swiss formula:
Fulminate of mercury - 40%
Barium nitrate - 25%
Antimony sulfide - 25%
Picric Acid - 6%
Ground glass - 4%
CHAPTER VII
GUNPOWDER
DEFINITION : Refers to the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is converted to
gas under high pressure and this propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and on to
the target.
Gunpowder, propellant, powder charge –refers to the same thing.
EXPLOSIVES IN AMMUNITION
TWO (2) TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES
01. LOW EXPLOSIVES – Have gradual pushing action. They do not destroy by their own
explosion. Low explosives propel or push shells from guns, or drive rockets through the air.
They help control the speed of the explosion. A low explosive going off resembles rapid
burning. Each grain of the explosive burns from the outside, like a log in a fireplace. The speed
of the burning depends on the size and shape of the grains. Used in gun ammunition called,
propellant. Its explosion lasts long enough to propel the shell out of the gun and send it to the
target. Low explosives include the Black and Smokeless powder.
02. HIGH EXPLOSIVES – They are used to destroy, and do not propel or push. They go off
suddenly and shatter the shell, bomb, or torpedo. The speed of such explosion and detonation
cannot be controlled. Well known high explosives include dynamite or trinitroluene (TNT).
CLASS AND COMPOSITION

I. Black Powder – Although it features less importantly, it still being manufactured by the
Europeans. In recent times, said powder was completely superseded by smokeless powder
ingredients. The standard ingredients of “black powder” are the following
Potassium nitrate - 75%
Sulfur - 10%
Charcoal - 15%
CHARACTERISTICS
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- Oldest propellant powder
- Consist of irregular grains and have either a dull or shiny black surface.
- Produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel.
- Burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited.
BLACK POWDER relies for its explosive properties on “3 qualities” which are typical of
all explosives.
First, when ignited it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air.
Second, in burning, it gives off a large amount of gas.
Third, a considerable amount of heat is evolved.
Most dangerous explosives to handle and store, because it can easily ignited by heat, friction,
flame or spark.
II. Smokeless Powder – The term smokeless powder is a mismomer for they are neither powder
nor are they smokeless, the latter term being applied to them only because they do not give off
huge cloud of white smoke like the black powder.
--- most powerful propellants being used.
4 MAIN CLASSES OF SMOKELESS POWDER

1. SINGLE-BASE PROPELLANT OR NITROCELLULOSE – contains only pure
nitroglycerin gelatinized with nitrocellulose.
2. DOUBLE-BASE PROPELLANT – composed of 1) nitrocellulose and 2) nitroglycerin as

their major ingredients accompanied by one or more minor ingredients such as:
a. Centralite
a. Vaseline phthalate esters
b. Inorganic salts
Purpose of Minor Ingredients

1. insure stability
2. reduce flash or flame temperature (or both)
3. improve ignitability
Double-base propellants are gray green to black in color and the grains are similar in size
and shape to the single-base propellants.
Almost all smokeless powder grains have a perfectly definite shape such as:
a. small squares d. strips
b. discs e. pellets
c. flakes f. perforated cylindrical grains
The powder is made in different shapes to obtain certain types of burning.
BULLSEYE POWDER – is a nitroglycerin or double base powder made by the Hercules

Powder Co.
3. TRIPLE BASE PROPELLANT – A type pf propellant powder which uses three principal
ingredients.
a. Nitrocellulose
b. Nitroglycerin
c. Nitro-guanidine
It was devised in an attempt to comprise between the low power single based powders
and high power but excessive heat of double base powders. The percentage of
nitroglycerin is small, but sufficient to give added power. The nitro-guanidine lowers the
Page 34
flame temperature while still adding active explosive constituent. One of the virtues of
triple based powders is that it is entirely flashless thought it does not generate rather more
smoke than the other types.
4. HIGH IGNITION TEMPERATURE PROPELLANT – a type of propellant in which the

main constituent is from RDX group of High Explosives. It was moderated to the process of
gelatinization and was then developed by Dynamit Noble of Germany in conjunction with
Heckler and Koch for the latter’s G11K2 rifle. This is a case less cartridge.
CHAPTER VIII
MAKING GUN BARREL
A barrel is made from solid composition steel. The first step in to drill a hole from cane
end through one end. The next step is to ream this hole very carefully to the exact bore diameter.
This reaming process leaves very circular marks round the barrel, caused in part by irregularities
of the cutting edge of the reamer and partly by little chips of steel that get caught by the reamer
and drag around it. A finished reamed bore before rifling looks smooth and glassy to the naked
eye but when examined by a high powered microscope these mark will show up in very
pronounces fashion. The reaming, process removes of the scars and scratches left by the drilling
operation. After the reaming has been finished the next step is to put in the rifling. There is a rod
that fits the inside of the bore and this rod has in the point of its circumference a small blade that
scrapes away a part of the metal broaching. After the rifling operation is completed, the barrel is
lapped. Lapping is the smoothening of the inner surface of the gun barrel. Polishing the inside of
the barrel is like a mirror with a polishing compound.
Some rifling methods used to make the rifling inside a gun barrel are:
1. BROACH-GANG SYSTEM
- A tool having a series of cutting edges slightly increasing height used to cut the spiral
grooves in a barrel. All grooves are cut with the single pass of the broach.
2. BROACH-SINGLE SYSTEM
- A non-adjustable rifling cutter which cuts all the grooves simultaneously, and is in a
series of increasing dimensions until the desired groove depth is achieved.
3. BUTTON SYSTEM
- A hardened metal plug, called a “button”, with a rifled cross section configuration. It is
pushed or pulled through a drilled and reamed barrel so as to cold form the spiral grooves to the
desired depth and twist. When the carbide button was first introduced, it was described as a
SWAGING PROCESS or SWAGED RIFLING.
4. HOOK-CUTTER SYSTEM
- A cutting tool which has a hook shape and only cuts one groove at a time.
5. SCRAPE SYSTEM
- A cutting tool which cuts two opposing grooves at a time.
6. SWAGE SYSTEM
- An internal mandrel with rifling configuration which forms rifling in the barrel by means
of external hammering. Also known as HAMMER FORGING.
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS

Generally, the marks found on the fired bullets are:
1. Land marks – caused by the lands
2. Groove marks – caused by the grooves
3. Skid marks – due to worn out barrel
4. Stripping marks – due to bullet “jumping” the rifling
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Land and groove marks together are called rifling marks. Found on the cylindrical or
peripheral surface of the fired bullets and these are caused but the riflings inside the gun barrel.
Skid marks – when the bullet first starts forward without turning, that before the bullet
can begin to turn, it moves forward a small distance and this makes the front of the groove in the
bullet wider than the rear part. The skidding is more pronounce in the revolver.
Stripping Marks – scratches on the fired bullets due to worn out barrel which cause the
bullet to jump.
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS

1. Firing Pin Marks – are generally found on the primer cup which is the central area of the
base of the cartridge. True in center fire cartridges.
2. Breech Face Marks – are found generally on the base of the cartridge case.
3. Extractor Marks – are mostly found on shells fired from pistols, rifles, shotguns and machine
guns.
4. Ejector Marks – found on fired cartridges of automatic weapons and are located near the rim.
5. Shearing Marks – called secondary firing pin mark, found in the primer near the firing pin
mark.
6. Chamber Marks – mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case and they are
caused by the irregularities in the inside walls of the chamber.
7. Pivotal Marks – marks found on shell caused by turning of the cartridge.
8. Magazine Lip Markings – markings found at the two points of the rim of the base of the shell
and these are caused by the magazine lips during the loading of the cartridges into the
magazine for firing.
These marks serve as a good guide for the firearm examiner in determining more or less
the relative position of the cartridge in actual explosion in the chamber of the suspected firearm
submitted for examination.
TWO GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS TO BE CONSIDERED REGARDING BALLISTICS

EXAMINATION
I. Class Characteristics – those that are determinable even before the manufacture of the
firearm.
CATEGORIES:
1. Caliber or gauge
2. Number of lands
3. Number of grooves
4. Twist of the rifling – LHT or RHT – all colt firearms except M16 firearm have left twist of
the rifling which according to the above brand that said twist has a good flight vehicle in
motion and achieve a good penetrating effect.
5. Pitch or riffling – width in inches to travel a complete turn.
6. Width of land
7. Width of groove
8. Depth of groove
II. Individual Characteristics – those that are determinable only after the manufacture of a
firearm.
These are the irregularities found in the inner surface of the barrel and on the breech face
of the breechblock of the firearm as a result of the failure of the tool beyond the control of man
to make them smooth as a mirror. When seen on the bullet or shell they run in the form of a
parallel scratches, striae or striations.
CATEGORIES:
-Caliber or gauge
-Land to land caliber
-Groove diameter measured from two opposite grooves.
Page 36
SOURCES OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIREARMS
The wear and tear of the tools/instruments used in the manufacture of firearms.
The action of oxidation.
The care of the firearm by the holder.
The use of the firearm by the holder.
In the manufacture of the firearm, the barrel under go process of BROACHING and
LAPPING which ultimately leave irregularities on the inner surface of the barrel due to the
failure of the gadgets and instruments to make it smooth as a mirror which is BEYOND THE
CONTROL OF MAN.
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES OF PISTOLS AND REVOLVERS ACCORDING

TO RIFLINGS
1. STYRE TYPE – 4 grooves, 4 lands, right hand twist, with grooves and lands as equal
width. Used in early models but only encountered in the Philippines during the early days
of the Americans.
2. SMITH AND WESSON – 5 GL – RHT, groove and lands are of equal width. Use in all
smith and Wesson firearms like S and W revolvers cal .32, .38, .357 magnum, except in S
and W revolvers, cal .45 MODEL 1917, S and W automatic pistol cal .32, .35, 9 MM in
which they belong to the browning type.
3. BROWNING TYPE – 6 GL RHT. Width of grooves is broader than lands like browning
automatic pistol cal .25, .32, 9 mm Star auto pistol, cal .32, .390.
4. COLT TYPE – 6 GL LHT, with broad grooves and narrow lands. Used in colt automatic
pistol, revolvers, also in Spanish pistol, cal .45, also Bayard revolvers and pistols.
5. WEBLEY TYPE – 7 GL RHT, with broad grooves and narrow lands. Used in Webley type
revolvers like Enfield revolvers cal .38, “Albion” revolvers cal .38.
SPECIAL STUDY OF MARKS APPEARING ON CALIBER .45 SHELLS

1. COLT AUTOMATIC PISTOLS, CAL .45 – shells fired from these pistols have vertical
marks on the primer and shell heads with extractor and ejector marks relatively located
between 3:00 to 7:00 to 8:00 o’clock respectively.
2. THOMPSON SUBMACHINE GUN, CAL .45 – shells fired from these weapons has
circular marks on the primer and heads with extractor and ejector marks are relatively
located between 3:00 to 9:00 o’clock respectively.
3. GREASE GUN, CAL .45 – shells fired from these firearms have circular marks on the
primer and shell head with extractor and ejector marks located between 3:00 to 6:00
respectively.
Cartridge cases fired in revolvers – there are two marks-the extractors and the firing pin.
What kind of firearm used? – Individual characteristics
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF RIFLES, SUBMACHINE GUNS, ETC.

a. Grease gun cal .45 4 LG RHT
b. Thompson SMG CAL .45 6 LG RHT
c. Browning auto rifle, cal .30 4 LG RHT
d. Carbine cal .30 4 LG RHT
e. Garand rifle, cal .30 4 LG RHT
f. Enfield rifle, cal .30 4 LG RHT
g. Springfield rifle, cal .30 4 LG RHT
h. Winchester rifle, cal .22 4 LG RHT
i. Squibman rifle, cal .22 4 LG RHT
j. Martin rifle, cal .22 6 LG RHT
k. Remington rifle, cal .22 6 LG RHT
l. Japanese rifle, cal .25 4 LG RHT
m. Savage rifle, cal .25 4 LG RHT
n. Remington rifle, cal .30 2 LG RHT
o. Winchester rifle, cal .30 4 LG RHT
p. Noseberg rifle, cal .22 4 LG RHT
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q. Browning machinegun, cal .30 4 LG RHT
r. Browning machine gun, cal .30 8 LG RHT
s. Armalite rifle, cal .22 6 LG RHT
RIFLING – are helical lines cut in the interior or the bore of gun barrel
Rifled weapons are distinguished by a spiral grooving or rifling on the side of the barrel.
This spins the bullet, marking it more stable in flight and giving greater accuracy.
PURPOSE OF RIFLING
Is to impart a steady rotating motion of the bullet in its travel straight forwards nose – on
towards the target.
To impart rotation/stability in the flight and greater penetration.
Composition of the Riflings:

1. number of lands 3. width of lands and grooves
2. number of grooves 4. depth of grooves
Pitch of rifling – the number of inches traveled by the bullet to make one complete turn.
Caliber – is the diameter of the inner surface of the barrel that is measured from land to land.
Twist of rifling – the direction of twist whether right or to the left.
HOW DO WE DETERMINE THE CALIBER OF A GUN?

It is determined by measuring the diameter of the bore of the gun barrel from land to land.
BORE – is the cylindrical passage of the barrel through which the bullet travels.
GROOVES – are the channels cut in the interior of a rifles gun barrel.
LANDS – are the raised portion of the bore of the gun barrel.
--- the elevated portions between the grooves inside a rifled gun barrel.
3 DIAMETERS OF A BORE OF A FIREARM

1. groove diameter
2. bore diameter – land to land
3. imaginary diameter – outside to end
COMMON CALIBERS
English (inches) .22 cal, .25, .30, .32, .38, .44, .45
Metric (millimeters) 5.5mm, 6.35, 7.65, 8, 9, 11.3, 11.4
Other types of calibers - .357, .380, .50
CONVERSION FORMULA
A.) mm (given) --- inches (problem)
given / 25.4
x 0.03937
B.) inches (given ---mm (problem)
given x 25.4
/ 0.03937
CHAPTER IX
CRIME SCENE SEARCH FOR BALLISTICS EXHIBIT
METHODS OF SEARCH
01. Strip Method of Search – if the shooting took place in closed small area, this method is
applicable.
02. Double Strip Method – If the shooting took place in the bigger area this method can be used.
03. Spiral Method – the searcher follow each other in the path of a “spiral” beginning on the
outside and then spiraling in toward the center.
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04. Wheel Method – the searcher gathers at the center and proceeds in outward radii or spokes.
This procedure should be followed repeatedly depending on the size of the area.
05. Zone Method – If shooting incident takes place in a bigger area, this method can be adapted.
The area is divided into zones and each zone one of the above four methods may be used.
This method is very practical in outdoor shooting or in cases of running gun battles. One
searcher may be assigned in one zone.
The investigator or the searching officer must be aware of those “allied items” or “objects”
that may be related to the use of firearms, such as:
1. holster 5. gloves
2. magazine (for automatic weapon) 6. masks
3. cartridge belts or holders 7. bullets
4. cartridge
TYPES OF SKETCHING
1. Open field sketch - outdoor
2. Open projection sketch - indoor
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN SKETCHING

1. Draw in accordance with a compass
2. Draw to scale
3. Measure relative positions of evidence from two fixed point.
- TRIANGULATION METHOD
4. Adopt an open projection sketch in an indoor crime scene.
PROCEDURE AT THE SCENE OF THE SHOOTING

The first duty is to clear the premises of all persons so that an intelligent and independent
investigation can be carried out. To properly investigate the circumstances is not a matter of five
or ten minutes but it requires that a definite routine shall not be done or followed if mistakes are
to be avoided. Things should be done which may appear wholly unnecessary at time, but only to
become vitally important matter. One can never foresee the angles that will develop later, and it
is far better to do a hundred things unnecessarily than to miss doing things that might mean the
solution of the case. The victim is dead and will stay dead forever, but the evidence will stay
alive for a time being. The officer may be pressured by reporters or others to do things which he
is not happy to do – to give statements to the press or to draw conclusions. In spite of all the
persuasions, he should bear in mind that there is one purpose and one purpose only, and that is
TO CARRY OUT INTELLIGENT AND INDEPENDENT INVESTIGATION.
Upon receiving a call to the scene of the shooting, the officer should always take along
with him a loose-leaf notebook and pen to make notes at the time and to place therein and not to
rely on his memory to reconstruct the situation for his future convenience.
When the officer is summoned on such an errand, such procedure should be followed in a
logical pattern. His observations should be put on writing at the time of his investigation for
future reference and to produce in court if it becomes necessary.
These steps are as follows:

01. Note accurately in writing the time the call was received and by whom it was sent.
02. Note accurately the time of arrival on the scene and the correct address.
These first two items may seem trivial, but it is amazing how in the court they become of
vital importance. It is not uncommon that the officer is unable to fix the time accurately within
an hour to the satisfaction of the court.
03. The investigator should ascertain if the victim is dead, if not, summon medical aid or
bring the victim to the hospital. Otherwise, the body should not be disturbed.
04. Immediately clear the premises of all by-standers and under no any circumstances allow
anyone to touch or remove anything in the vicinity.
05. Use every effort and means to identify the deceased.
06. Take the names and addresses of all witnesses and take written notes of the statements of as
many persons as practicable.
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07. Measure with a tape the exact distance of the body in relation with a fix point of
reference.
08. Examine the ceiling, floors, and furniture for bullet holes, blood stains, fire bullets, fired
shells or shotgun wadding.
09. If there is a firearm at the scene, investigator should note in writing the following
observations:
a. Exactly where the firearm was found.
b. Type of weapon, whether an automatic pistol or revolver, rifle or shotgun – caliber
or gauge designation.
c. Make and serial number of the firearm – investigator should mark his initials on the
butt or frame of the weapon for future identification.
10. At the crime scene, note down where the empty shells, bullets and/or firearms were found
and make a diagram to illustrate the same to show their relative distances and direction from
the of the victim. Photograph if possible.
11. Mark the empty cartridge cases inside or near the mouth by scratching the initials of the
investigator or the initials of the victim.
12. Mark the bullet at the ogive (or nose) by scratching the investigator’s initials or the victim’s
initials, but definitely NOT at the rifling marks (landmarks and groovemarks).
13. Mark the empty shotgun shells with indellible ink at the body.
14. The barrel of the barrel must be mark too.
15. After marking the empty shells and bullets, wrap them separately and individually
with soft tissue paper and note down on the wrapper where each was found, time, and date.
The purpose of wrapping them separately is to avoid being scratched during their carriage form
the crime scene and on to its place of depository.
16. When an empty shell was found at the scene of the crime, the presumption is that AN
AUTOMATIC PISTOL or AUTOMATIC WEAPON was used.
17. When no empty shell was found at the crime scene, the presumption is that a REVOLVER
was used.
18. In the bore of the barrel, the depressed portions are the grooves and the raised portions are
the lands.
19. On a fired bullet, it is the reverse, the landmarks are the depressed portions, and the groove
marks are the raised portions.
20. To determine the real direction of the rifling twist in a rifled barrel, peep thru the barrel,
particularly on the land and grooves and look away from you. If the land or the groove inclines
to the right, then it has a right twist, and if it inclines to the left, then the rifling twist to the left.
21. To determine the direction of the twist of a bullet, look on the bullet in an elongated position.
If the lands and grooves incline to the right, then the rifling twist is right. If the inclination is left,
then it is left.
22. It is the rifling of the bore that marks a fired bullet.
23. A fired bullet will acquire the class characteristics of the bore of the of the barrel from which it
was fired. Therefore, if the bore has a class characteristics of a .45 caliber, 6 lands, 6 grooves, right
twist, groove wider than the land, such characteristics will be marked on the bullet it fires.
24. So, if a fatal bullet will have the same class characteristics as the bore of the suspected gun,
then it is POSSIBLE that the bullet COULD have been fired from the suspected firearm or gun.
25. To determine definitely if the bullet above was fired or not from the suspected gun, then the
case must be sent to a FORENSIC BALLISTICS EXPERT who will conduct the proper
examinations.
26. If two bullets do not have the same class characteristics, DEFINITELY and
CONSEQUENTLY, the bullets were NOT fired from the barrel.
CHAPTER X
MARKING PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Identification is most easily determined by means of a mark or label, which has been
placed on the physical evidence.
The following steps are used when marking physical evidence or ballistics exhibits:
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a. Use a distinctive mark such as initials of the recovering officer.
b. Do not use “X” for marking because “X” is a universal mark and almost everybody uses
it so much so that it is hard to distinguish one “X” from another “X”.
c. Record the mark used and the position of the mark on the object.
d. Record any serial number or other distinctive marks present on the object.
e. Whenever possible, mark the object itself, taking care not to damage or alter it.
f. Always mark the container in which the object is placed even if the object itself is already
marked.
g. When tags are used, make corresponding entry in the tag and attach it securely to the
object.
PROPER LIFTING OF EVIDENCE FIREARM

In 1933, Churchill advised scenes of crime officers that a weapon found on the crime scene
should be lifted by passing a metal rod down the muzzle.
Today, such practice is an absolute anathema. DO NOT handle by means of inserting a pencil or
similar article in the barrel. This is because the modern helixometers and similar instruments are
capable of detecting minute clues from the interior of the gun. Picking Gun (Correct Way) – a
string inside the trigger guard.
HOW TO MARK THE FIRED BULLETS

The fired bullets should be marked by the recovering officer with his initials on the OGIVE
and NOSE, its anterior portion (BASE) together with the corresponding date of recovery. In case
of deformed, damage, or disfigure bullets, marks at the base.
*** Note: do not mark at the cylindrical or peripheral surface because in this portion contains the
rifling marks or striations.
HOW TO MARK THE FIRED SHELLS

1. Inside, near the open mouth.
2. Outside, near the open mouth.
3. On the body untie shell.
HOW FO MARK A SUSPECTED FIREARM

For Short Arms - Revolvers, Automatic Pistols, Single Shot Pistols:
a. barrel
b. cylinder
c. frame
d. receiver
e. magazine
For Shoulder Arms – Rifles, Shotguns, Machine guns:

a. barrel
b. frame
c. breechblock
ON MAKING THE TAG, THE FOLLOWING DATA SHOULD BE INDICATED:

type of firearm
make or model
caliber
serial number (most important)
date of recovery
place of recovery
name of suspect (if known)
name of victim (if known)
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Pointed instruments like scriber, needle or sharp knife could be used in marking. Do not
use “X”. Scratch initial the of the recovering officer or the initials of the victim with the date of
recovery, in the gun barrel cylinder, frame of receiver and/ or on the magazine.
HOW TO MARK IN CASES OF SHOTGUN SHELLS

--- Scratch with knife and mark with ink or an indelible pencil.
WRAPPING OR PACKAGING MATERIALS

The following are very ideal for packing physical evidences:
1. typewriter ribbon in tin can
2. plastic container/plastic envelopes
3. cleaning tissue or box
4. thick brown envelope/s
5. cotton
6. match box
SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENTS GENERALLY USED IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

1. Bullet Comparison Microscope
A piece of optical equipment frequently employed by firearms identification experts is the
comparison microscope with camera attachment. This instrument is specially designed to permit
the firearms examiner to differentiate between two fired bullets or two fired shells, by
simultaneously observing their magnified image in a single microscopic field. It is actually two
microscopes coupled together by a single of monocular eyepiece, so that when one looks through
this comparison eyepiece, he is seeing one half of what is under one microscope, and one half of
what is under the other – in other words, half of the evidence bullet and half of the test bullet.
Today, with this instrument, the firearms examiner can make a complete and thorough
examination and comparison of the so-called class characteristics and individual characteristics
between two fired bullets and two fired shells. With this microscope, the examiner can take
photomicrographs of his observation and findings under the eyepiece of the bullet comparison
microscope. These photomicrographs are needed for court presentations to substantiate the
examiner’s findings as seen under the bullet comparison microscope.
The most significant contribution to firearms identification is the introduction of this bullet
comparison microscope in April 1925. DR. CALVIN H. GODDARD was the first one to own and
use the “first” bullet comparison microscope. Dr. Goddard was a Doctor of Medicine in the
Medical Corps, U.S. Army, in the First World War, who later transferred to the Ordnance Service
of the U.S. Army. He is known as the “Father of Modern Ballistics”. He not only had a brilliant
scientific mind, but also a thorough knowledge of firearms or ordnance that has known few
equals. He once headed the AFWESPAC Crime Laboratory in Tokyo, Japan, under the late Gen.
Douglas MacArthur in 1947 and was in Manila in early 1949 and took active participation in the
examination of the fired shells in the famous GEN. CASTANEDA- COL. SALGADO Ambuscade
Case in Kamias Road, Quezon City.
2. Stereoscopic Microscope – No camera attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for court
representation.
- Close-up examination tampered serial numbers.
- For so-called orientation purposes.
3. Shadowqraph - A series of microscopic lenses of different magnifications use to determine class
characteristics of fired bullets and shells.
Also for orientation purposes. It can take photomicrograph of the observations and
comparisons made in the circular ground glass.
4. CP-6 Comparison Projector - Very much similar with the bullet comparison microscope.
No eye strain because the magnified image appears on the large screen. What can be seen
in the screen can be photographed by any kind of camera.
5. Bullet Recovery Box – Long box (12” x 12” x 96”) tilled with ordinary cotton and separated into
sections by cardboard partitions.
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6. Helixometer - Used in measuring “pitch of riffling” — distance traveled by the bullet in one
complete rotation.
Charles E. Waite - after 5 years solid toil, had a formidable bank of information at his disposal.
He also realized that because of the wearing down of the machine tools, their marks on the inside
of the barrel, made during, the cutting of the rifling, out to be individual if a way could be found
in examining them. He explained the problem to a Physicist named JOHN H. FISCHER, who
made worked on the development of the CYSTOSCOPE, a medical instruments used to insert
line tubes carrying tiny lamps into the bladder and kidneys in order to facilitate their inspection
without resorting to an operation. A similar instrument, decided Fischer, would be ideal or
Waite’s purpose. After period of experiment Fischer came up with HELIXOMETER, a long
hollow probe fitted with, a lamp and magnifying apparatus at its tail end. With a few
modifications the Heliometers is still a fixture of every firearms laboratory.
ROBERT CHURCHILL – the first modern British Firearm Examiner of real expertise. A sporting
gunmaker.
7. Micrometer – similar in use as calipers
8. Caliper – used for making measurements such as bullet diameters, bore diameter, barrel length,
etc.
9. Analytical or Torsion Balance – Used to determine weights of bullets and pellets for possible
determination of type, caliber and make of firearms from which it was fired.
10. Onoscope – small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the gun
barrel – in determining the irregularities inside the bore of the gun barrel. It has a tiny lamp at the
terminal portion and is inserted inside the bore for internal examinations.
11. Taper Gauge – Use primarily for determining bore diameter.
12. Electrical Gun Marker – used in the laboratory for marking fired bullets, fired shells and
firearms submitted for examination.
13. Gunsmith Tools – Generally used in the repair of firearms and also for marking physical
evidence like firearms, fired bullets, and fired shells.
TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION
Physical: Evidence bullets, cartridge cases and suspected firearms once submitted by the
requesting party will be physically examined to determine its markings or initials made by the
investigators for identification purposes.
Test Firing: The firearm is test fired from a bullet recovery box in order to obtain test
bullets and test cartridge cases. But before firing, the cartridge will be marked at the side of the
case on the nose portion of the bullet with letter T (test) followed by the last two digits of the
serial number of the firearm (e.g. T-77-1 to T-77-3) in their order of firing to distinguish the
number 1 test from 2 and 3.
Microscopic Examination After the recovery of the test bullets and test cartridge cases,
they will be compared with the evidenced bullet and evidence cartridge cases under the bullet
comparison microscope to determine whether or not they have the congruency of striations or the
same individual characteristics.
Under the bullet comparison microscope, the two fired bullets or fired shells are examined
in JUXTAPOSITION – that is, the two objects – evidence and the test bullet are examined and
compared:
01. at the same time;
02. at the same plane or level;
03. at the same direction;
04. at the same magnification; and
05. at the same image.
FOR CONCLUSIVENESS OF FINDINGS, there shall be at least 3 TEST BULLETS that should
be compared.
First, 1 for comparison / preliminary
Second, 1 for confirmation
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Third, 1 for conclusions
PERIPHERY - these are the sides of the bullet that are in contact with the inner surface of the
barrel.
STRIATIONS - are individual characteristics of the cartridges found at the base portion and of
the side or the bullet that come in contact with the inner surface of the barrel.
The rifled gun barrel leave distinctive marks upon the bullet called STRIATIONS from the
Latin “STRIA” originally meant the fluting on an architectural column, and bullet striations
resemble these to a remarkable degree; even air weapons leave rifling striations on their pellets.
The only firearm that do not are smoothbore guns such as shotguns and antique weapons of the
flintlock type plus such home made weapons as ‘replica’ guns which had their barrels bored
through.
TEST BULLETS – are those recovered from bullet recovery box for comparison with the
evidenced bullets under the bullet comparison microscope.
Test firing of a weapon must be done in such a way that the bullet can be recovered
undamaged. For all jacketed bullets and most types of lead bullets, a cotton wad box or water
trap is used to stop the bullet. With a cotton wad box, as a consequence of its rotation, the bullet
twists itself up in the waste, which finally forms a ball around the bullet, and the velocity
progressively decreases until the bullet is finally held in the cotton waste.
FIRED OR EVIDENCED BULLETS OR CARTRIDGE CASES

- are those recovered from the crime scene.
*** 8 or more striations - accepted by the court
3 POINTS OF BASIC POSITIVE IDENTIFICATION

THE MARKING MUST BE:
-Prominent
-Significant; and are
-Consistent
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Other Means of Test Firing than Recovery Box
1. water tank 5. darak

2. sawdust with oil 6. banana trunk
3. sand 7. rubber strips
4. wasted threads
GUNSHOT RESIDUE ANALYSIS

When the primer is detonated, microscopic particles of gunshot residue (GSR) are
deposited on the hands of the shooter. These particles adhere to the hands in the pockets and
even handcuffing behind the back. Studies have shown that the GSR material will remain on the
shooter’s hand for up to about 6 hours. The particles are in the highest concentration
immediately after shooting and all are eventually lost over time, depending on what actions the
shooter takes. Because of time factor it is particularly important that GSR evidence be collected
quickly as possible.
Today there are 3 methods used for testing GSR evidence, Neutron Activation Analysis
(NAA); Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS; and Scanning Electron
Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis SEM/EDX).
GSR evidence collected in one of two ways: by means of cotton-tipped applicators or
other substrates and dilute nitric acid solution for collecting the residue in, the case of NAA and
AA, and by Aluminum stubs with double-sided cellophane tape attached to the surface for
SEM. The so-called “dermal nitrate” or “paraffin test” is no longer used and is generally
considered unreliable in GSR testing because of its nonspecificity. The main problem, it was
recently realized, lay in the fact that nitrates are increasingly used in substances such as
fertilizers, cosmetics and other everyday preparations as well as being present in cigarettes and
cigars, so that the value of a swab as a positive indication of recent gun handling is lost.
CHAPTER XI
PRINCIPLES IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
The man who expect to appear in court as an expert on firearms should know as much as
possible about them and their ammunition, and about everything connected with their use and
effects, for he must realize that very likely an attempt will be made to discredit the extent of his
knowledge and if he is not the possessor of a lot of collateral information regarding matters of
this kind, he may himself the victim of his own lack of broader knowledge of his subject.
Two things mark by one and the same tool will bear the same markings; likewise two or more
things mark by different tools will have different markings.
PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (FIRED BULLET)

1. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surfaces of their bore all possess
individual characteristics and marking of their own.
2. When a bullet is tired from a rifled barrel it becomes engraved by the riffling and this
engraving will vary its minute details with every individual bore. So it happens that the
engraving on the bullet fired from one barrel will be different from that of the bullet fired from
another barrel. And conversely, the engraving on, the bullets fired from the same barrel will be
the same.
3. Every barrel leave its thumb mark on every bullet which is fired through it, just as every
breech face leave its thumb mark on the base of every fired cartridge case.
PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (FIRED SHELL)

1. The breech face and the striker of every single firearm leave microscopically individuals of
their own.
2. The firearm leaves its fingerprints or thumb marks on every cartridge cases which it fires.
3. The whole principle of identification base on the fact that since the breech face of every
weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge cases, which it fired, are imprinted with,
this individuality. The imprinted on all cartridge cases fired from the same weapon are always
the same, those on cartridge cases fired from different weapons must always be different.
TYPES OF PROBLEMS:
1. Given a bullet, to determine the caliber type and make of the firearm from which it was fired.
2. Given a fired cartridge cases, to determine the caliber, type and make of the firearm from
which it was fired.
3. Given a bullet and suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the bullet was fired from
the suspected firearm.
4. Given a fired cartridge case and suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired
cartridge case was fired from the suspected firearm.
5. Given two or more fired cartridge cases, to determine whether or not they were fired from the
same firearms.
6. Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from the same
firearms.
7. Given a firearm, to determine whether the firearm is serviceable or not.
NOTE: Bullets and even fragments of bullets may be used to determine the type of the
weapon used, both from the sized and weight of the projectile and an examination of the
striations on the outside surface. Thus, for example, the number, direction of twist, and
measurements of lands and groove markings can be useful in determining the type, make,
model and caliber of firearm.
TECHNICAL EXAMINATIONS OF BALLISTIC EXHIBITS

This is the job performed by the Firearms Examiner within the Police Crime Laboratory
involving marking of evidence fired bullets, cartridge cases or firearms in order to obtain test
bullets and test shells for comparative purposes. Photomicrograph under the bullet comparison
microscope and the preparation of laboratory reports regarding the findings, conclusion on the
examination.
LEGAL PROCEDURES – Court Trials – Wherein the Ballistics report of the Firearm Examiner
the ballistic exhibits fired bullets, firearms and allied exhibits are presented during the trial of
the case in a Court or Justice. It also includes the presentation of the Ballistics Expert, to give
testimony regarding his findings/conclusion.
LIMITATIONS:
Shooting incidents resulted to murders, homicide, physical Injuries, bank robberies and
indiscriminate firing of guns continue to exist. The suspects remain unidentified and the only
traces that could possibly identity them are the bullets extracted from their victims, shell and
bullets recovered from the crime scene.
The only means the police investigators could rely is the scene of firearms identification
or Forensic Ballistics at the Police Crime lab. However, the examination of the submitted
ballistics specimens, no matter how complicated could only be examined with in the province of
the so-called 7 problems in forensic Ballistics or firearms Identification.
One must realize, however that Forensic Ballistics or the science of Firearms
Identification remained essentially unchanged since 192O, using the Traditional Bullet
Comparison Microscope.
The process is so slow and painstaking and because the evidence is often
deformed/mutilated and difficult to view on the microscope, examiners fatigue cuts down on
tie number of specimens that can be processed or examined.
It takes Firearms Examiners nearly 30 minutes to one hour to several days before making
a conclusion. The most difficult task for an examiner to accomplish is to identify bullet or shell
was fired. Cases where there is no firearm submitted.
AUTOMATION OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Ballistics and fingerprints Examiners have a similar job; they take seemingly random
information patterns, classify them then much of these patterns to others that are similar or
identical. The matching of fingerprints to those already in the database or file was a
monumental risk until the introduction of “AFIS” (Automated Fingerprint Identification
System). Until recently Ballistics Examiners were left behind. Comparing bullets markings one
by one in the hope that they would happen on a match.
Now a new system offers the same kind of speed and accuracy in ballistics that
fingerprint examiners have found in “AFIS”. The new system was developed by MICHAEL
BARREL, a firearms examiner of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the forensic
Technology, called “Bulletproof and Brass Catcher”.
In an effort to assist investigators in linking firearm evidence to suspects, the Federal
Bureau of Alcohol. Tobacco and Firearms recently originated a sophisticated new computer
database termed the BALLISTICS IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM. The computer electronically
compares and catalogs bullets and shell casings located in the crime scenes. The computer
comparison is far quicker than the former human method, as the system examine a bullet or
casing 1.7 seconds, whereas a criminalist takes 20 minutes to 1 hour. The computer searches a
federal database for matches between crime scene firearms evidence and test bullets. When
criminal investigators find gun at the crime scenes or obtaines them through search warrants
test evidence is obtained for comparison and storage to clear past firearms cases because
recovered bullets or shells can be compared to present or future test firings.
BULLETPROOF – is a field proven automated bullet image analysis system. It captures the
image of the microscopic features found on a fired bullets surface in a highly repeatable
manner. The markings or signature are analyzed by the computer and can be compared to those
of other fired bullets or to an entire database if fired.
BRASSCATCHER – Is an automated cartridge case image analysis system. It incorporate the

exacting forensic science software required to extract marking of signature from an expended
cartridge case, similar in operation to Bulletproof. It has the ability to automatically search
database of cartridge cases and rank in descending order the most likely hits.
Bulletproof and Brasscatcher together form a fully integrated and automated image
analysis system that permits firearms examiners to enter and review large number of fired
bullets and fired cartridge cases and cross reference hits made from each system within seconds.
Both system have been designed to be simple to operate, no previous computer
experience is required. The firearm Examiner interface utilizes minimal typed commands and is
extremely user friendly.
The systems are fully networkable. A remote site can be connected with a central Hub
system, the Central Hub System can link to a Regional database server and the regional
database serve can be connected to a National Site. This approach interlinks data from different
jurisdictions into one powerful database.
Bulletproof and Brasscatcher represent a giant leap forward in technology for us,
Criminologists and the Forensic Firearms Examiners. These are the tools we need to effectively
combat crime achieving measurable benefits in terms of efficiency.
Together, Bulletproof and Brasscatcher represents the new generation of Technology in
the field of forensic firearms identification. This program will become unbeatable team in our
war against crime identification. This program will become unbeatable team in our war against
crime by linking previously unlikable crimes, generating leads for investigators, efficiently
compiling searching vast database for possible hits, exchanging electronic evidence with other
similar installations and complementing the time proven comparison microscope.
These systems can make multiple matches in about 5 seconds, the system can be used to
trace bullets and shells that will link criminals, especially serial killers to several unsolved
crimes. The systems would uncover several identified killers, or, at the very least, a gun that has
been passed from one hand of one killer to another.
Criminologists, consider these systems as technological wonders that catapults forensic
ballistics from nineteenth century to the twenty first.
Criminologists who worked and devoted their time and efforts in this discipline must
recognized that peace and order requires law enforcement agencies particularly the Police
Crime Laboratory to be fully equipped and well trained scientifically in the modern methods of
combating crimes in all its form. Classroom instructors are not all that required to become
efficient. Suitable and adequate On-the-Job-Training in the Crime Laboratory, authoritative
books, references and other materials are needed to update the scientific knowledge and skills
of the police personnel and criminologists in crime detection and investigation.
SOME GUIDE QUESTIONS IN QUALIFYING A BALLISTICS EXPERT WITNESS

1. State your name and other personal circumstances.
2. Are you presently connected with any police investigative agency?
3. Since when you have been connected with Such an investigative agency?
4. As a member or this investigative agency, what are your present specific functions?
5. Did you have any formal training and experience in this kind of work? Where?
6. For how long have you studied and trained in this kind of work?
7. What books have you read and/or used in this work?
8. Have you ever testified in court in connection with your work?
9. Since when? Where? For how many times?
I0. How many ballistics cases have you examined?
11.In connection with your job as a ballistics expert, do you remember having received some
ballistics specimens or exhibits in your office which are related to this particular case?
12. From whom did you receive these ballistics exhibits?
13. When were these exhibits received in your office?
14. For what purposes were these exhibits submitted to you?
15. What are these exhibits? Do you still remember?
16. Do you still have these exhibits?
17. Did you personally perform the examinations requested for?
18. How did you conduct your examinations?
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++end+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
“I can do all things through God who strengthens me”,

without God we can do nothing but in Him we hall live
Phi 4:13
“But blessed is the man who trust in the Lord,

whose confidence is in him.
He will be like a tree planted by the water
that sends out its roots by the stream.
It does not fear when heat comes;
its leaves are always green.
It has no worries in a year of drought
and never fails to bear fruit.”
Jeremiah 17:7-8

BALLISTICS

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BALLISTICS

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NOTES ON FORENSIC BALLISTICS

FACILITATOR: ROLAND N. RESURRECCION, M.S. Crim., C.C.S.

Projectile identification is older than most people realized

BALLISTICS - In general or in its broadest sense, it is defined as the science of motion of

IS FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION A SCIENCE?

REACTIONS/ATTRIBUTES THAT TAKES PLACE WHILE THE BULLET IS STILL INSIDE

2. MUZZLE ENERGY - Energy generated at muzzle point of the gun.

5. VELOCITY – Rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.

CONDITIONS: refers to natural laws

6. AIR RESISTANCE - Resistance encountered by the bullet while flight.

Ill. TERMINAL BALLISTICS

IV. FORENSIC BALLISTICS

FORENSIC BALLISTICS - The science of investigation and identification of firearms and

BALLISTICS, FORENSIC BALLISTICS AND FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION have

02. Technical Examinations of the ballistics exhibits - refers to the work of

F. As to the Manner of Firing and Reloading

VI. WOUND BALLISTICS

Factors Responsible for the Injurious Effect of Missile:

2. Nature of the Target:

2. Determination of Entrance Wounds in the Body of the Victim:

3. Number of Shots Heard by Witnesses:

THREE (3) BASIC KINDS OF GUNSHOT WOUND (GSW) DISTINGUISHED BY THE

BRIEF HISTORY OF SMALL ARMS:

01. CANNON LOCK TYPE

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIREARM

IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

Penal Provisions of Laws Relative to Firearm.

Art. 155, Revised Penal Code:

Art. 254, Revised Penal Code:

First Sentence: (Shoulder Arms)

Classification of Small Firearms:

Types of Small Firearms which are of Medico-legal Interest:

Kinds of Revolver as to Construction or Mechanism:

PISTOLS – a handgun that is magazine feed.

MECHANISMS OF REVOLVER AND PISTOL

Other Parts of a Firearm:

In a Self-loading Firearm, the following are the Additional Parts:

Classification of Firearm Based on Trigger Mechanism:

How to Determine the Caliber of Firearm:

* To convert millimeter calibration to inches, multiply the caliber in millimeters by 0.03937 or

Third Sentence – barrel of complete firearm

TWO GENERAL CLASSES OF FIREARM

MAIN TYPES OF FIREARMS (according to Caliber of Projectiles Propelled)

TYPES OF FIREARMS (according to mechanical construction)

TYPES OF FIREARMS (according to use)

UNUSUAL OR MISCELLANEOUS TYPE – those types of firearms that are unique in

THREE MAIN PARTS:

RIFLE – Cal. 30 SHOTGUN – Gauge 12

2. Cylinder Assembly 2. Slide Assembly

3. Frame Receiver 3. Frame Receiver

ADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL:

DISADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL:

EVERY POLICE OFFICER SHOULD FREQUENTLY CHECK HIS REVOLVER FOR:

NOMENCLATURE AND FUNCTIONS:

Generally, cartridges or ammunitions may be classified as follows:

Accordingly, cartridges maybe further classified as follows:

II. ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF FIREARMS WHEREIN IT WAS USED

III. ACCORDING TO THE LOCATION OF PRIMERS

TYPES OF CENTER FIRE CARTRIDGES:

IV. ACCORDING TO CALIBER

Definition: It is a metallic or non-metallic, cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by

Projectiles propelled from shotguns are termed SHOTS or PELLETS.

Layman’s Term of bullet is SLUG.

A jacketed bullet may be: