3.3 Surds UPM p.

8 - 10

3.3.1 Definition and characteristics of surds (root forms)

A surd is a number that can only be expressed exactly using the root sign ( ).
Therefore, a surd is a root of a number.

EXAMPLES
2 = (1.4142...) is a surd
3 = (1.732...) is a surd
4 = ( 2 ) is not a surd
5 = ( 2.236...) is a surd

A surd has an infinite number of non-recurring decimals. So, surds are irrational numbers.

The symbol b denotes the nonnegative square root of b and the symbol 3 b denotes the real-
number cube root of b. Then the symbol n z denotes the nth root of z. From the symbol n z ,
the symbol is called a radical and the expression under the radical symbol is called the
radicand and n is called index.
Properties of Surds (Root forms / Radicals)

Let a and b be any real non negative numbers and m and n are positive integers, the rules of
radicals are given as:
n
(a) ( )
If n is even, n a = a
n
(b) If n is odd, ( n a ) = a

(c) n a  n b = n ab
n
(d) na = a (b  0)
b nb
n am = n a m
(e) ( )
(f) m n a = mn a
1 1 1
2 2 2
eg. ab = ( ab ) = a b = a  b
2
a =a

16
Simplification of root forms/ surds
A surd is said to be in its simplest form if the number under root sign has no perfect square as a
factor. Eg. 2 , 5 , etc
We know that:
1 1 1
2 2 2
ab = ( ab ) = a b = a b
4  9 = 23 = 6
Also 4  9 = 36 = 6
Then 4  9 = 49

EXERCISE 3.3.1
Simplify the following surds without using a calculator:
1. 12 2. 18 3. 32
4. 98 5. 5 18 6. 2 63  3 40
7. 2 3 3 8. 5  10
4  a2b2 6
a4b6 4 3 x24 y12  
9. 10. 11.
3 9 12
a b a5b7  a−2b−4

3.3.2 Simplification of surd expressions

To simplify surd expression, note that only like surds can be added or subtracted.
Always simplify surds before adding or subtracting them.

EXERCISE 3.3.2
Simplify without the use of a calculator:
(leave your answer in root form where necessary)

1. 3 2 + 5 2 2. 5 3 + 2 5 − 3 3 − 7 5
3. 18 − 50 −2 2 4. 2 2 + 3 18 + 2 32 19 2

8 + 18 27 − 12
5. 3 3  3 9 6. 7.
2 3

Rationalising a denominator
When fractions are involved with surds, it is normal practice to eliminate the surds from the
denominator; this is called rationalising the denominator.

17
 1
For expressions of the type ,
a
1 1 a a
We multiply the top and the bottom by a giving: =  =
a a a a
1
And for expressions of the type we multiply the top and the bottom by b − a , giving:
b+ a
1 1 b− a b− a
=  =
b+ a b+ a b− a b2 − a

EXAMPLES
Rationalise the denominators of the following:
16 1 5+ 3
1. 2. 3.
3 2 3− 2 5− 3
2 2+ 3 4−3 2
4. 5.
2 2− 3 5−3 2

Answers:
8 2 3+ 2 11 + 4 6 2−3 2
1. 2. 3. 4 + 15 4. 5.
3 7 5 7

EXERCISE: UPM p 10 Ex C q.4

EXERCISE 3.3.3
Simplify without the use of a calculator:
16 + 2 18
1. 4  25 8.
2
243 + 27 − 48
2. 3
6 3 4 9.
2 3
3. 2 3 + 3 27 + 6 12 10. 4
16a 4b8
4. 2 2 + 3 18 + 2 32 11. 12 + 48 − 27
−32 x 2 y 7
5. ( 3 + 2) 2 12. 3
4 x5 y
6. ( 2 − 3)( 2 + 3) 13. 8a5 + 18a3
1
7. 3( 2 − 3) 2 14. a( a + )
a3

EXERCISE: UPM p 10 Ex C

18
3.4 Multiplication
- Multiplication of binomials and polynomials
- Expansion of products of algebraic expressions
Like and unlike terms are multiplied or divided by multiplying or dividing both the coefficients
and variables.
When multiplying algebraic terms we consider the following rules:
Multiply numerical coefficients and add the exponents of like variables.
EXAMPLE
4 4
2a2b2c  4a2b3c3 = 8a b5c

The term outside the brackets is multiplied with every term inside the brackets.
EXAMPLE
1. 2a ( a + b ) = 2a 2 + 2ab

( )
2. 2b + 2a a + b = 2b + 2a 2 + 2ab

Every term inside the left brackets is multiplied with every term inside the right brackets.
EXAMPLE
( )( )
2b + 2a a + b = 2ab + 2b 2 + 2a 2 + 2ab
= 2a 2 + 4ab + 2b 2

Square the first term; double the product of the two terms; square the second (last) term.
EXAMPLE

2
1. (a + b) = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
2
2. ( 2a − 5b ) = 4a 2 − 20ab + 25b2

EXERCISE 3.4
Simplify
2
4. ( )
9a + 3b 2a − 6b
( 3a + 4b )
( 4a − 2b ) (3a −5b )
1.
5.
3
2. ( 2 x + 3)
( 2a − 4b )
2
3. ( x − y)
2
(
− xy + y 2 ) 6.

( )
3
7. 2 a − 2b

UPM p. 7 Ex B q 1; 2
19
3.5 Factorisation

Factorisation is the opposite action to multiplication by expanding brackets.

The multiplication signs, x , and ( ) separate factors.

3.5.1 Use of Brackets, extraction of common factor and grouping:

This is done by grouping terms with common factors, then taking out the HCF

Example
Factorise 4x + 6.

The first stage is to find break up 4x and 6 into factors, so that you can find everything that goes
into both 4x and 6.
In this case 2 is the highest factor of both 4x and 6, so 2 will go outside the brackets.
The remaining factors of each term are left inside the brackets, where they are recombined.

We can check the answer by multiplying out the brackets: 2(2x+3) = 4x+6

Example
Factorise 4x² + 6x.

In this case 2x is the highest factor of both 4x² and 6x, so 2x will go outside the brackets.
The remaining factors of each term are left inside the brackets, where they are recombined.

We can check the answer by multiplying out the brackets: 2x(2x+3) = 4x²+6x

Example
Factorise 3xy² + 12x²y.

20
In this case 3xy is the highest factor of both 3xy² and 12x²y, so 3xy will go outside the brackets.
The remaining factors of each term are left inside the brackets, where they are recombined.

Example
eg. factorise ah + ak + bh + bk
- Divide into pairs (in each pair must have a variable in common)
e.g. ah + ak + bh + bk here a is common to the first pair and b is common to the
second pair, therefore, we factorise each factor as follows:
a(h + k ) +b(h + k ) . Since ( h + k ) is common to both terms, thus we have (h + k ) (a + b)

EXAMPLES
Factorise the following expressions completely:
1. 16 p − 4q + 12r
2. 2 x 2 y3 − xy + 4 x3 y
2
3. 8 xy 2 − 12 x3 y 4 + 16 x 4 y
4. km − 4m + kn − 4n
5. 4 x 2 − 6 xy + 6 xk − 9 yk

EXERCISE 3.5.1.1
Factorise the following expressions: NOTE: a (b − c) = − a (c − b)
1. 6mx − 3nx + 2my − ny
2. as − ay − xs + xy
3. 6ax + 2bx + 3ay + by
4. 2ax − 2ay − bx + by
5. ms + 2mt 2 − ns − 2nt 2
6. 28ab + 2cd − 8ad − 7cb
7. 15nb2 − 10na − 8b 2 a + 12b 4
8. 20 x 2 y3 − 8 xp 2 − 6 p 2 + 15 xy3
9. ax + 3 x + 2a + 6
10. xa − 2 xb + ya − 2 yb
11. ab 2 − b3 − ad 2 + bd 2
12. 6a 2 + ab − 2b 2 + 2a − b
EXERCISE: UPM p 7 Ex B q.3
21
EXAMPLES
A. Take out x as a common factor in the following expressions:
1. x 2 + 4
4
2. 3 − x +
x
Solution:
 4
1. x 2 + 4 = x x +
 
 x

4 3 4 
2. 3 − x + =x −1+
 x x2 
x  
B. Take out x2 as a common factor:
1. 5x + 6 x2
6
2. 4 −
2
x
Solution:
5 
1. 5 x + 6 x 2 = x 2
 x +6 
 
6  4 6 
2. 4 − = x2
2  x2 − x4 
x  
1
C. Take out as a common factor:
x2
1. 6 + x
Take out x −2 as a common factor:
4
2. 2 x − x3 −
2
x
Solution:

1. 6 + x =
x
1
2 ( 2 3
6x + x )
2. 2 x − x3 −
x
4
2 (3 5
= x −2 2 x − x − 4 )
22
EXERCISE 3.5.1.2
1. Take out x as a common factor:
1 3
(a) + +4
2
x x
p
(b) 2 x − 3 +
x
1
2. Take out as a common factor:
x
4 6
(a) 3x + − x2 +
3
x x
2
(b) x3 − 5 +
2
x
1
3. Take out as a common factor:
3
x
r
( a ) x3 + 3 − x + 2 x 2
x
1
(b) 2 x + y −
x
−3
Take out x as a common factor:
1 2
(c ) 4 x5 + 6
−3+ 3
x x

4. Take out x −2 : x +
2
+3
x
1
5. Take out x3 : x 2 − 3 x3 +
x
answers
1 3 4 3 p
1.( a ) x( 3 + 2 + ) (b) x(2 − + )
x x x x x2
1 6 1 4 2
2.(a ) (3 x 2 + 4 − x 3 + 2 ) (b ) ( x − 5x + )
x x x x
1 1
3.( a ) 3 ( x 6 + r − x 4 + 2 x 5 ) (b ) 3
(2 x 4 + yx 3 − x 2 )
x x
1
(c) x −3 (4 x8 + 3 − 3 x 3 + 2)
x
1 1
4. x −2 ( x3 + 2 x + 3x 2 ) 5. x3 ( − 3 + 4 )
x x

23
3.5.2 Factorisation of difference between two squares:

This expression is called a difference of two squares.

(Notice the subtraction sign between the terms.)

You may remember seeing expressions like this one when you worked with multiplying
algebraic expressions. Do you remember ...

If you remember this fact, then you already know that:

The factors of
are and

Do not get confused with expression like ( x − 6)2 , which gives ( x − 6 )( x − 6 ) when wefactorise .
These are called Perfect Square Trinomials.

EXAMPLES:

Factorise the following expressions completely:

1. 36 y 2 − 9b 2
2. x8 − 25b 4
3. 32ab 2 − 8ax 4
4. 72b3 − 50a 2b + 6b + 5a

EXERCISE 3.5.2

Factorise the following expressions fully:

1. 16a 4 − b8 8. x −2 − y −2

2. 1 − 4 z 2 9. sin 2  − cos 2 

3. z8 − p10 10. d 6 − p10

4. z 2n − 9 11. x3 − y5

5. 4r 2 − 25a 2 12. 32ab2 − 8ax 4

6. a 4 − b 4 13. 18b3 − 50a 2b + 3b − 5a

7. 16d 4 − 4c 4

24
3.5.3 Factorisation of quadratic trinomials

SIGNS IN TRINOMIAL SIGNS IN BRACKETS OPERATION TO OBTAIN THE

MIDDLE TERM
+ and + + and +
addition
- and + - and -
+ and - Sign of middle term in
subtraction
- and - front of biggest combination

EXAMPLES
Factorise completely:
1. a 2 + 5a + 6
2. r 2 − 8r + 12
3. 4a 2 − 27ab + 18b 2
4. 30 x 2 − 9 xy − 12 y 2 3(2 x + y )(5 x − 4 y )

EXERCISE 3.5.3.1
Factorise completely:
1. r 2 + 10r + 25 6. 6a 2b + 26ab − 20b
2. p 2 − 9 p − 36 7. 6 x 2 + 11xy − 10 y 2
3. b 2 − 17b + 30 8. 3r 2 + 23rt + 14t 2
4. 3a 2 − 13a − 10 9. 10a 2 + 17ab + 3b 2
5. 8a 2 − 2ab − 10b 2 10. 2a 2 + 3ab − 9b 2

answers
1. (r + 5)(r + 5)
2. ( p − 12)( p + 3)
3. (b − 2)(b − 15)
4. (3a + 2)(a − 5)
5. 2(4a − 5b)( a + b) 9. (5a + b)(2a + 3b)
6. 2b(3a − 2)(a + 5) 10. (a + 3b)(2a − 3b)
7. (2 x + 5 y)(3 x − 2 y)
8. (3r + 2t )(r + 7t )

EXERCISE 3.5.3.2
Factorise completely:

1. 16a 4 − 81b 4 2. 6a 2 + ab − 2b 2 + 2a − b
3. ab 2 − b3 − ad 2 + bd 2 4. x4 − y6
5. 8ad + 6bd + 4ac + 3bc 6. 6 x 2 − 5 xy − 4 y 2
2
7. 6 p 2 + 15 pt − 21t 2 8. Take out x −2 : x + +3
x
1
9. 10a 2 − 3ab − 18b 2 10. Take out x 3 : x 2 − 3x3 +
x
11. (4 x − 3 y ) 2 + 48 xy 12. ( x −1)4a + 11a( x −1) + 6( x −1)
2

13. 3(2 x − 3 y )(2 x + 3 y ) + 27 xy 14. b( a + b 2 + b ) + a

15. 20a 2 − 10b(4a − 2b) 16. a( x − y ) − bx + by
25
17. 4b2 − 3a(4b − 3a) 18. ( x + y ) 2 − 25 y 2
19. (a 2 − 8a + 15)2 − 8a(a 2 − 8a + 15) 20. (a + b)2 − 16b2
21. (a 2 − 6a + 9)2 + 12a(a 2 − 6a + 9) 22. 64a 2 − (a + 1)2
23. 9a (7a − 2b) + 5b(2b − 7 a) 24. (a + 1)a 2 − b 2 (a + 1)
25. 6(a 2 + b 2 ) − 13ab 26. 4a 2 − 9b 2 + 2a + 3b

answers
1. (2a − 3b)(2a + 3b)(4a 2 + 9b 2 ) 2. (2a − b)(3a + 2b + 1)
3. (a − b)(b − d )(b + d ) 4. ( x 2 − y 3 )( x 2 + y 3 )
5. (4a + 3b)(2d + c) 6. (3 x − 4 y )(2 x + y )
7. 3(2 p + 7t )( p − t ) 8. x −2 ( x 3 + 2 x + 3 x 2 )
1 1
9. (5a + 6b)(2a − 3b) 10. x 3 ( − 3 + 4 )
x x
11. (4 x + 3 y )(4 x + 3 y) 12. ( x − 1)( a + 2)(4a + 3)
13. 3(4 x − 3 y )( x + 3 y ) 14. (b + 1)(b 2 + a)
15. 20(a − b)(a − b) 16. ( x − y )(a − b)
17. (2b − 3a)(2b − 3a) 18. ( x − 4 y)( x + 6 y)
19. (a − 5)(a − 3)(a − 15)(a − 1) 20. (a + 5b)(a − 3b)
21. (a − 3)(a − 3)(a + 3)(a + 3) 22. (7a − 1)(9a + 1)
23. (9a − 5b)(7a − 2b) 24. (a + 1)(a − b)(a + b)
25. (3a − 2b)(2a − 3b) 26. (2a + 3b)(2a − 3b + 1)

3.5.4 Expressions in the form a( x + p)2 + q and maximum /minimum values

To write a quadratic expression ax 2 + bx + c , in the form a( x + p)2 + q is called completing the

square.

Examples of the form of expressions which are perfect squares are:

8
( x + 4)2 = x 2 + 8 x + 16 ……….notice 4 is
2
6
( x − 3)2 = x 2 − 6 x + 9 ……….notice -3 is −
2
2 k
( x + k )2 = x 2 + 2kx + k 2 ……….notice k is
2
The constant contained in each bracket = half the coefficient of x.

26
Two Actions to be taken:

- To complete the square for expressions of the form ax 2 + bx + c :

2
b b
Put   (half of the coefficient of x) at the end of the bracket and subtract   (it’s square).
2 2
2
Note that the coefficient of x has to be 1.

- To determine the maximum or minimum value of the expression a( x + p)2 + q :

Turning point ( − p; q ) …………… x + p = 0  x = − p
Maximum /minimum value is q.

EXAMPLES
Complete the square for each of the following expressions and find the maximum or minimum value
of the expression:
2
1. x 2 + 8 x = ( x + 4 ) − 16 min value − 16 at x = −4
2
2  3 9 9 3
2. x − 3x =  x −  − min value − at x =
 2 4 4 2
2
3. ( )
x2 − 2 x + 4  x − 1 − 1 + 4 min value = 3 at x = 1
2
 ( x − 1) + 3
2
2  5 25 29 5
4. x + 5x −1   x +  − −1 min value − at x = −
 2 4 4 2
2
 5 29
x+  −
 2 4
5. (
3 x 2 + 12 x + 27  3 x 2 + 4 x + 9 ) min value15 at x = −2

 3 x+2
( ) −( 2 ) + 9
2 2

 
2
 3 ( x + 2 ) + 15

27
  1
6. 2 x 2 + 12 x + 1  2  x 2 + 6 x +  min value − 17 at x = −3
 
 2

 1
( x + 3) − 9 +
2
2
 2
 
 2 1
 2 ( x + 3) − 8
 2
 
2
 2 ( x + 3) − 17

 7
7. −3 x 2 − 6 x + 7  −3  x 2 + 2 x −  max value10 at x = −1
 3

 −3  x +1 −1− 
( )
2 7
 3
 −3  x +1
( ) − 
2 10

 3
2
 10 − 3 ( x + 1)

EXERCISE 3.5.4
Write the following expressions in the form a( x + p)2 + q (complete the square) and find the
maximum or minimum value of the expression. Also write down the turning point:
b
1. x 2 + 8 x 2. x 2 + x
a
3. x 2 + 6 x − 8 4. x 2 − 3x
5. − x 2 − 6 x + 7 6. 2 x 2 − x − 13

(
7. 3 f − 2 f 2 − 1 ) 8. 3 + 7 x − 2 x 2

9. 2 x 2 + 6 x − 8 10. 1 + 12 x − 6 x 2

EXERCISE: UPM p 12 Ex D q. 5 - 13

28
EXERCISE 3.5.1.1
EXERCISE 3.5.1.2
Factorise the following expressions:
1. Take out x as a common factor:
1. 6mx − 3nx + 2my − ny
2. as − ay − xs + xy 1 3
(a) + +4
3. 6ax + 2bx + 3ay + by 2
x x
4. 2ax − 2ay − bx + by p
(b) 2 x − 3 +
5. ms + 2mt 2 − ns − 2nt 2
x
6. 28ab + 2cd − 8ad − 7cb 1
2. Take out as a common factor:
7. 15nb2 − 10na − 8b 2 a + 12b 4 x
8. 20 x 2 y3 − 8 xp 2 − 6 p 2 + 15 xy3 4 6
(a) 3x + − x2 +
9. ax + 3 x + 2a + 6 3
x x
10. xa − 2 xb + ya − 2 yb
2
11. ab 2 − b3 − ad 2 + bd 2 (b) x3 − 5 +
2
x
12. 6a 2 + ab − 2b 2 + 2a − b
1
EXERCISE: UPM p 7 Ex B q.3 3. Take out as a common factor:
3
x
r
( a ) x3 + 3 − x + 2 x 2
x
1
(b) 2 x + y −
x
−3
Take out x as a common factor:
1 2
(c ) 4 x5 + 6
−3+ 3
x x

4. Take out x −2 : x +
2
+3
x
1
5. Take out x3 : x 2 − 3 x3 +
x
EXERCISE 3.5.2

Factorise the following expressions fully:

1. 16a 4 − b8 8. x −2 − y −2

2. 1 − 4 z 2 9. sin 2  − cos 2 

3. z8 − p10 10. d 6 − p10

4. z 2n − 9 11. x3 − y5

5. 4r 2 − 25a 2 12. 32ab2 − 8ax 4

6. a 4 − b 4 13. 18b3 − 50a 2b + 3b − 5a

7. 16d 4 − 4c 4

29
EXERCISE 3.5.3.1
Factorise completely:
1. r 2 + 10r + 25 6. 6a 2b + 26ab − 20b
2. p 2 − 9 p − 36 7. 6 x 2 + 11xy − 10 y 2
3. b 2 − 17b + 30 8. 3r 2 + 23rt + 14t 2
4. 3a 2 − 13a − 10 9. 10a 2 + 17ab + 3b 2
5. 8a 2 − 2ab − 10b 2 10. 2a 2 + 3ab − 9b 2

EXERCISE 3.5.3.2
Factorise completely:

1. 16a 4 − 81b 4 2. 6a 2 + ab − 2b 2 + 2a − b
3. ab 2 − b3 − ad 2 + bd 2 4. x4 − y6
5. 8ad + 6bd + 4ac + 3bc 6. 6 x 2 − 5 xy − 4 y 2
2
7. 6 p 2 + 15 pt − 21t 2 8. Take out x −2 : x + +3
x
1
9. 10a 2 − 3ab − 18b 2 10. Take out x 3 : x 2 − 3x3 +
x
11. (4 x − 3 y ) 2 + 48 xy 12. ( x −1)4a + 11a( x −1) + 6( x −1)
2

13. 3(2 x − 3 y )(2 x + 3 y ) + 27 xy 14. b( a + b 2 + b ) + a

15. 20a 2 − 10b(4a − 2b) 16. a( x − y ) − bx + by
17. 4b − 3a(4b − 3a)
2
18. ( x + y ) 2 − 25 y 2
19. (a 2 − 8a + 15)2 − 8a(a 2 − 8a + 15) 20. (a + b)2 − 16b2
21. (a 2 − 6a + 9)2 + 12a(a 2 − 6a + 9) 22. 64a 2 − (a + 1)2
23. 9a (7a − 2b) + 5b(2b − 7 a) 24. (a + 1)a 2 − b 2 (a + 1)
25. 6(a 2 + b 2 ) − 13ab 26. 4a 2 − 9b 2 + 2a + 3b

EXERCISE 3.5.4
Write the following expressions in the form a( x + p)2 + q (complete the square) and find the
maximum or minimum value of the expression. Also write down the turning point:
b
1. x 2 + 8 x 2. x 2 + x
a
3. x 2 + 6 x − 8 4. x 2 − 3x
5. − x 2 − 6 x + 7 6. 2 x 2 − x − 13

(
7. 3 f − 2 f 2 − 1 ) 8. 3 + 7 x − 2 x 2

9. 2 x 2 + 6 x − 8 10. 1 + 12 x − 6 x 2

EXERCISE: UPM p 12 Ex D q. 5 - 13

30