Manning, M Lee - Bucher, Katherine T - Classroom Management - Models, Applications, and Cases-Pearson (2013 - 2014)

Classroom Management: Models, Applications and Cases Manning et al.
Third Edition
Classroom Management
Models, Applications and Cases
M. Lee Manning Katherine T. Bucher
Third Edition
ISBN 978-1-29204-179-7
9 781292 041797
Pearson New International Edition
Models, Applications and Cases
M. Lee Manning Katherine T. Bucher
Third Edition
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P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y
Table of Contents
1. Introducing the Concept of Classroom Management

M. Lee Manning/Katherine T. Bucher 1
2. Behavioral Approaches to Classroom Management
3. Ecological Approaches to Classroom Management
4. Self-Regulating Approaches to Classroom Management
5. Exploring the Process-Outcomes Approaches to Classroom Management
6. Supportive Approaches to Classroom Management
7. Community Approaches to Classroom Management
8. Whole-School Approaches to Classroom Management
9. Classroom Management in Inclusive Classrooms
10. Developing Your Personal Classroom Management Philosophy
11. Applying a Management Philosophy in Your Classroom
12. Appendix
13. Glossary
I
14. References
Index 243
II
Introducing the
Concept of Classroom
Management
From Chapter 1 of Classroom Management: Models, Applications, and Cases, Third Edition. M. Lee Manning, Katherine T. Bucher.
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading and reflecting on Chapter 1, you 4. explain how inclusion policies challenge classroom
should be able to managers;
1. explain the major types, causes, and effects of student 5. explain why and how educators should develop a
misbehaviors; personal philosophy of classroom management,
one on which they can base their daily management
2. discuss how teachers unknowingly contribute to
practices and strategies;
students’ misbehaviors or make existing misbehaviors
worse; 6. define the safe schools movement, and explain how
can educators combat school violence and work to
3. explain how student diversity (cultural, gender, social
create safe schools; and
class, and developmental differences) affects behavior
and perspectives of behavior; 7. identify additional sources of information on classroom
management.
Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com
2
Introducing the
Concept of Classroom
Management
VIGNETTE: Ms. Lacomba’s Classroom Management Challenges

Ms. Maribel LaComba, a teacher in an urban school, is in her first year of teaching and faces serious classroom
management challenges. As she was glad to explain:
Look, I never wanted to teach fifth grade. I knew these kids would be tough. When I applied for
a teaching position, I asked for a third grade. Then, they called to offer me a fifth-grade job in a
school where few teachers want to work. I needed a job and didn’t know what else would come
along, so I took it. What else was I supposed to do? Now, I am not sure I can control these fifth
graders—they are so bad.
Ms. LaComba did face serious challenges. Some of her students demonstrated relatively minor behav-
iors, such as goofing off, speaking out of turn, and continually getting out of their seats. She felt she could deal
with these behaviors, but she was more concerned about other students who were rowdy and more aggressive.
Some students, boys and girls, even bullied others and threatened them physically and psychologically. What
was even more frightening was that the students’ behavior seemed to grow worse each week, and they listened
to her less and less.
When she tried contacting parents, she met with mixed results. Some parents suggested that she was to
blame; others promised to speak to their children, but she doubted they did. Some parents seemed to imply that
students always had misbehaved and that teachers just had to deal with the problem.
“I don’t know what to do,” Ms. LaComba said. “Maybe I can finish out this year, but I’m not sure after
that. I really want to teach, but maybe I need to look for other options and give up teaching.”
OVERVIEW
Whether they were present in the nation’s earliest classrooms or teach in the
contemporary schools of the 21st century, educators have had the professional
responsibility to practice effective classroom management. To do this, educators
must manage student behavior, establish safe classrooms, and provide teaching and
learning experiences for a diverse student population in an orderly and student-
friendly manner. Although educators still deal primarily with relatively minor
misbehaviors that interrupt their instructional activities and students’ learning, more
schools are seeing the need to adopt safe schools policies to deal with or prevent
serious misbehaviors. Whether you are a preservice educator (preparing to teach) or
an inservice educator (already teaching), you should realize that the classroom
management strategies that you develop and implement play a tremendously
3
Introducing the Concept of Classroom Management
important role in fostering student learning and providing safe learning environments
for you and all of your students. Although some schools have potentially fruitful
proposals for well-managed and safe schools, it is the individual classroom teacher
who makes classroom management efforts work and ultimately provides a safe and
productive learning environment for all students.
In this chapter, you will read about the types, extent, and causes of misbehavior
in the classroom, the types of diversity found in contemporary classrooms, and the
emphasis on providing safe schools for all students and teachers. You will also see
that because management and instruction are linked, both management and
instructional planning are necessary. Thus, you will begin to examine your philosophy
of teaching and develop a personal management plan.
KEY TERMS
Table 1–1 identifies the key terms related to classroom management.
TABLE 1–1 Key Terms Related to Classroom Management
• Classroom management • Safe schools movement

• Diversity • Sense of community
• Inclusion • Target behaviors
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
The Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) has developed a set of
standards that identify the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that all educators, especially beginning teach-
ers, should have (the INTASC Standards). In addition to understanding their subject matter, educators
must also understand diverse learners and student development and must be able to use multiple instruc-
tional strategies to motivate learners while creating a learning environment that allows all students to
participate fully in both the social and the instructional activities of the classroom. Thus, in this chapter,
you will examine the meaning of the term classroom management and the relationship between classroom
management, instructional strategies, and your specific philosophical beliefs. In doing so, you must
strive to develop a rationale for your own management and instructional strategies based on your per-
sonal beliefs and on the research and theories provided by experts in the educational field.
Defining Classroom Management

We prefer a broad definition of classroom management—one that encompasses more than just
“convincing students to behave.” To us, classroom management consists of
strategies for assuring physical and psychological safety in the classroom; techniques for
changing student misbehaviors and for teaching self-discipline; methods of assuring an
orderly progression of events during the school day; and instructional techniques that con-
tribute to students’ positive behaviors.
Connecting Classroom Management to Philosophy and Instruction

As you begin your exploration of classroom management, it important to remember two points.
First, an educator’s decision about classroom management should be based on the educator’s
philosophical beliefs. Second, classroom management strategies should be “connected” to instruc-
tional practices.
4
MANAGEMENT TIP 1–1

Setting the Stage for Success
Good classroom management begins before the students Here are some additional suggestions to help you prepare:
arrive. Here are some things you should consider doing:
• Arrange your room.
Pre-K and Elementary
• Obtain the supplies you need. Meet with other teachers to determine general expectations
• Review the faculty/staff handbook. for behavior and to identify successful management
• Go over the school procedures. approaches.
• Prepare all the materials that you will need for the first
week of school. Secondary
• Make a seating chart for the classroom. Identify extracurricular activities and exploratory programs
• Prepare a checklist of supplies that students should have, that will help to develop your students’ interests in specific
and make it available to parents and local businesses. learning areas.
It may surprise you to see that we link classroom management and instruction. The two are
not separate entities. Indeed, they must go hand in hand, with the management plan providing the
setting and support in which good instruction exists. An educator who does not have good manage-
ment skills will have a difficult time instructing students. Conversely, even a teacher who uses a wide
variety of instructional strategies will have problems teaching students without a good management
plan to support desired behaviors in the classroom. For example, a teacher who keeps learners on
task (e.g., correct developmental level, proper instructional pace, physical and psychological safety,
appropriate curricular content) will be less likely to have students who misbehave. In contrast, teach-
ers who are unprepared and disorganized contribute to students’ misbehaviors. All teachers can take
specific steps to set the stage for a successful school year. Management Tip 1–1 offers some general
suggestions for Pre-K, elementary, and secondary teachers.
In developing classroom management and instructional strategies, educators need to base their
practices on research and educationally sound beliefs. However, they also need to examine their own
personal beliefs or philosophies about education and classroom management. Rather than “doing
whatever someone else does” or “doing what our teachers did when we were in school,” educators
need to determine their philosophical beliefs (e.g., their core beliefs about how teachers should
“manage” students) and then base their classroom management decisions on these beliefs. For exam-
ple, teachers need to decide whether they think discipline should be taught or imposed, whether
teachers should be democratic or autocratic, and whether punishment works to improve or hinder
students’ behavior. Teachers should always know why they, personally, use specific management
techniques and strategies.
This does not mean that educators can ignore research on classroom management. Rather, it
means that each educator can examine the theories and research in a framework of personal beliefs
and select the proven strategies that most closely reflect his or her philosophy. In the same way, an
educator needs to look at a model of classroom management and see how the theory can be applied
to the specific grade levels being taught. Although the theory remains the same, the educator tailors
the application to the specific teaching situation.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE

IN CONTEMPORARY SCHOOLS
Before we begin an exploration of classroom management theories and models in Chapters 3 through
10 of this book, and before you begin to develop a personal philosophy of classroom management
and consider an actual implementation plan, you need to have a solid grasp of the most common
5
types of misbehaviors, the extent to which students misbehave, and the effects of misbehaviors on
teachers and students, as well as on the teaching and learning process.
Types of Student Misbehaviors

Both practicing teachers and preservice teachers who have observed in schools can attest to our belief
that the list of misbehaviors is nearly endless. In fact, a website from The Master Teacher (www.
disciplinehelp.com/parent/list.cfm?cause=All) provides a long list of common misbehaviors ranging
from relatively minor off-task behaviors to more serious acts of violence and bullying. Jones (1987a)
identifies the most common misbehaviors as goofing off, walking around the room, and talking and
disturbing others.
Although all educators experience some behavior problems, variation occurs with individual
schools, grades, and teachers. For example, rural, urban, and suburban schools probably experience
different problems, although all classes have some students who misbehave at times. Also, Pre-K,
elementary, middle, and high school students demonstrate different behaviors and react differently
to classroom management strategies. Although younger students’ behavior problems might be both-
ersome, in most cases these students neither pose a threat nor act violently. However, depending on
the individual situation, some of their behaviors need to be addressed because they distract the
teacher and other students.
In some cases, educators’ actions and decisions contribute to student behavior problems.
When educators impose zero-tolerance policies, post strict rules, demand immediate obedience, lack
planning and organizational skills to implement effective instruction, and generally frustrate stu-
dents, students are more prone to test the limits and misbehave.
Extent and Effects of the Problem

One of our university students asked, “Aren’t behavior problems unique to each student and each
school? How can we make general statements about behavior problems and their effects?” These are
perceptive questions, but this student missed several important points:
• Behavior problems challenge all teachers, regardless of the school, grade level, or geographic
location.
• Behavior problems differ in frequency and intensity, yet they are similar in type. Although
some schools do not experience any violence (albeit the threat continues to loom), all schools
have some students who generally goof off and disturb others.
• Behavior problems disturb teachers and students, negatively affect the teaching and learning
process, and ultimately hinder academic achievement.
One step toward preventing misbehaviors is for teachers to learn more about the students in
their classrooms and schools. Management Tip 1–2 suggests some strategies all educators can use to
learn more about the students they teach.
Effects on Teachers and Students

Just as the list of behavior problems is nearly endless, the effects of misbehaviors are also limitless.
Unfortunately, as a result of classroom management problems, some teachers change professions dur-
ing their first 2 or 3 years of teaching. They did not realize that just as time and effort must be spent
on organizing and implementing instruction, time and effort must be spent on managing behavior
(e.g., devising a classroom management program or learning the adopted schoolwide model).
Behavior problems affect both students and teachers. When behavior problems arise, teachers
often avoid creative instructional approaches because they have to deal with the increased misbehav-
iors. Disturbed and distracted, students who want to learn will lose valuable teaching and learning
time. Still other students are bullied, threatened, and harassed. Thus, the lack of effective classroom
management presents problems for everyone in a school.
6

Learning About Your Students and School
Before you have a discipline problem, you need to learn about • Meet with assistant principals to learn school policies
the students you will be teaching and about your school’s on acceptable student behavior and management strat-
policies for student behavior and disciplinary procedures. egies. What problems should a classroom teacher han-
dle, and what problems should be referred to others?
• Review the developmentally appropriate instructional
• Meet with parents to learn their behavioral expectations
and classroom management strategies for the age
and convey your expectations to them either in person
group you will teach.
or through a newsletter, e-mail, or classroom website.
• Meet with other grade-level, interdisciplinary team
• Review developmentally appropriate classroom manage-
members or subject-area teachers to discuss success-
ment efforts, for example, advisor–advisee programs,
ful management strategies.
sense of community, and differentiated instruction.
I dread the days when Mr. Pickett brings his class to the library. He doesn’t have any control, and the
students just bounce off the walls. I was a classroom teacher before I became a librarian, so I know ex-
actly what to do to calm the students down and get them working on task. But when I have to spend so
much time managing Mr. Pickett’s class, the students don’t have as much time to complete their research
assignment as the other classes do. These aren’t bad students; they just need to know the rules and the
limits. —A school librarian
Causes of Classroom Management Problems

Some teachers might wonder why it is important to know the causes of misbehavior. It might seem
that if students misbehave, the teacher should be more concerned with stopping the misbehavior
than with looking for the causes. Some misbehaviors do demand immediate attention. However,
teachers who look for causes of student misbehavior might have a head start on improving classroom
management. As you will read in Chapter 8, Dreikurs and Grey (1968) identified four causes or
mistaken goals (revenge, attention getting, inadequacy, and power seeking) for student misbehav-
iors. We accept his ideas, but we also believe that misbehaviors can result from multiple causes and
that in addition to personal causes, society in general and families in particular can contribute to the
likelihood of a student’s misbehaving. Thus, when considering misbehaviors, teachers should try to
determine the causes and then work to eliminate them rather than focusing only on correction.
Mr. Filby and his students were disturbed by Whewanna, who constantly interrupted everyone. Often,
as Mr. Filby asked a question, Whewanna interrupted with an unrelated question. At other times, she
would blurt out the wrong answer or “accidentally” drop her books. Mr. Filby constantly admonished
her to keep quiet; he put her name on the board, followed up the warnings, and carefully considered
punishments. Nothing worked. Whewanna continued to talk out of turn and disturb others. Finally, Ms.
Lubo, another teacher, suggested that warnings and punishments might not be the answer. Ms. Lubo
thought the cause of Whewanna’s misbehavior might be to gain attention or because she felt inadequate.
When Mr. Filby spoke with Whewanna, he found out that she was afraid he would call on her to answer
a question she did not know. To help Whewanna, Mr. Filby did extra work with her and made sure he
asked her some questions that he knew she could answer. As a result, Whewanna’s behavior did improve,
not because Mr. Filby inflicted harsh punishments but because he identified and addressed the cause.
Society sometimes contributes to students’ misbehaviors. Some students see sarcasm, ridicule,
and violence as a way of life or as a means of responding to others. Mimicking behaviors seen on
television and in the community, students often act out, use statements heard on television, and
resort to aggressive and violent behaviors, such as bringing weapons to school to impress peers or to
harm or threaten other students. Although schools always have had fighters and bullies, most schools
have been considered safe or immune from serious violence. Now, however, violence plagues some
schools and challenges the goals of the safe schools movement (the topic of Chapter 2).
7
APPLYING CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT IDEAS 1–1

Determining Causes of Misbehavior
For each of the following misbehaviors, identify what you • A student plays rough and demonstrates other aggres-
might consider as possible causes of the misbehavior. The sive behaviors.
first one is completed as an example. How might your • A student brings a bag of a white powder to school
responses change if the student were in Pre-K? Elementary and shows it to other students.
school? Middle school? High school? • A student responds to every request with the comment,
“I won’t do that, and nobody’s going to make me.”
• A student refuses to do class work, talks to friends,
• A student refuses to wear a coat at recess even though
and plays with things at her desk rather than listening
it is cold outside.
to the lesson.
• A student has drastic behavior changes and has
Possible causes: Feelings of inadequacy, need for atten-
become antisocial.
tion, more concerned with social aspects of school than
• A student throws spitballs at other students during class.
with learning
In other cases, misbehaviors can be rooted in familial causes. Students who experience family
disruptions often vent their anger and frustration at school.
Tyrone came to class wearing one blue sock and one brown sock. He was obviously angry and ready to
strike out at anyone who mentioned his socks. Finally, he asked Ms. Berganio, his teacher, whether she
noticed the different-colored socks. When Ms. Berganio voiced a sympathetic comment and offered to
listen, Tyrone poured out the problems he was experiencing at home. As Tyrone learned that Ms. Ber-
ganio would be a compassionate yet objective listener, his behavior in class improved.
When students see violent and aggressive behaviors at home, they might begin to consider such
behaviors as acceptable methods of dealing with problems. Also, some parents teach inappropriate
behaviors. They say to their children, “Don’t you take anything off anyone!” or “That teacher can’t
make you do that—you tell him I said so.” Others who do not teach such behavior condone it
because they do not want their children to be victimized. Familial causes of misbehavior are often dif-
ficult to address because students usually have a strong allegiance to family expectations. In addition,
teachers often feel frustrated and unsuccessful as they try to reason with parents who fail to teach
appropriate behavior and respect for teachers and others. However, students should be held account-
able and responsible for their behaviors, regardless of the cause. Applying Classroom Management
Ideas 1–1 looks at several misbehaviors and possible causes.
STUDENT DIVERSITY AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Diversity can be defined as the differences among students that teachers must consider as they
develop appropriate classroom management strategies. These differences include but are not limited
to cultural and intracultural, gender, social class, linguistic, and developmental differences. For
teachers, the keys to success are to understand these differences and their effects on behavior and to
plan and implement classroom management strategies that accommodate diversities while taking
extreme caution to avoid stereotypes. Although we discuss diversity in more detail in Chapters 11
and 12, the following sections provide an overview of this important subject.
Cultural, Intracultural, and Gender Differences

All teachers must be aware of cultural and gender diversity and its impact on classroom management.
With our nation and schools growing more diverse each year, rapidly increasing cultural diversity is
the norm in many parts of the United States as schools continue to be enriched by African Americans,
8
TABLE 1–2 Selected Cultural and Gender Differences
Students might have differing perceptions about:

• Making eye contact
• Standing closer to others
• Competing with others
• Receiving attention, positive or negative, in front of peers
• Behaving appropriately and inappropriately
• Working collaboratively toward group goals and working individually toward individual goals
Hispanics, and Asian Americans, just to name the most populous groups. No longer can educators
plan classroom management procedures for the majority culture (whatever the majority culture is)
and their own perspectives of appropriate behavior.
Educators must also address issues of gender diversity. For example, for years educators have
known that male and female students differ in their responses to classroom management methods.
However, many teachers have done little to address these differences. Table 1–2 identifies some pos-
sible cultural and gender differences.
Educators must look at several classroom management techniques from cultural and gender
perspectives.
• Educators often make eye contact to get students’ attention in the hope that they will correct
the inappropriate behavior, yet members of some cultures avoid making eye contact and, in
fact, consider the practice rude or insubordinate.
• Educators sometimes stand closer to students (perhaps after eye contact did not work) in an
effort to correct misbehaviors, yet some students value their personal space and find this too
intrusive.
• Educators sometimes call attention to students and their behaviors. However, students in
some cultures feel embarrassed when teachers put their names on the board as a corrective
measure. Others even feel uncomfortable with positive recognition, especially when they excel
at others’ expense or think the recognition places others in a negative light.
• Educators sometimes ask students or groups of students to compete with one another. For
example, the students on the right side of the classroom might be asked to compete with those
on the left side to see which group can be more successful demonstrating appropriate behav-
ior. This can be a problem for individuals who value cooperation over competition.
In light of these and other cultural differences, individual cultures and individual students must be
considered when planning classroom management strategies.
In addition, when working with students from various cultural groups, educators must also
consider intracultural differences. It is a fallacy to believe that all members of any given group will
act in exactly the same way. Thus, knowing general group preferences is just one part of understand-
ing individual differences.
Linguistic Differences
As educators plan classroom management practices, they often must make accommodations for
individuals with linguistic diversity. Unfortunately, many teachers are not adequately prepared to
work with and manage diverse English-language learners. While Holmes, Rutledge, and Gauthier
(2009) wrote about linguistic differences and language learning strategies, their conclusions are just
as valid for classroom managers as for learners. They maintain that students in the United States do
not speak with one voice; they come to school speaking more than 149 different languages. Even in
the smallest school systems, it is common for teachers to have one or more students with limited or
9

Understanding Differences and Avoiding Stereotypes
There is a fine line between identifying cultural preferences management strategies on cultural differences or ster-
and creating stereotypes. Consider the following scenario eotypes. I still think treating all students the same is
and then respond to the questions that follow. the best idea.”
Mr. Henry, a European American teacher, taught in an Respond to the following questions:
urban school that was 98% African and Hispanic
1. Should teachers modify their classroom management
American, yet he showed little concern for students’
styles to take cultural differences into consideration?
diversities. In fact, he told another teacher that he
Why or why not?
thought the most effective classroom management
2. What is the difference between cultural preferences
strategy was to treat all students the same. Another
and stereotypes?
teacher, Mrs. Hill, casually mentioned cultural differ-
3. How can a teacher respond to cultural preferences and
ences such as eye contact, physical proximity (standing
not create stereotypes?
closer to misbehaving students), expecting student
4. Select one type of diversity mentioned in this chapter,
competition, and differing ideas about appropriate and
and indicate aspects from that type of diversity that you
inappropriate behavior. Mr. Henry disagreed and
would need to take into consideration when develop-
argued against basing classroom management plans
ing your own management style. Compare this with the
on stereotypes. He said, “There are too many intracul-
items identified by others in your group or your class.
tural and individual differences for educators to base
no command of the English language. Teachers planning classroom management practices have to
consider students’ prior world knowledge, experiences, and fluency in their native languages. Man-
aging linguistically diverse students requires educators to build a strong sense of community in the
classroom and to instill an appreciation of linguistic diversity. In building a sense of community,
Pre-K, elementary, and secondary educators should strive to create a feeling of togetherness—in
which all students, teachers, and administrators know each other—and to create a climate for intel-
lectual development and shared educational purpose. Applying Classroom Management Ideas 1–2
asks you to consider differences and stereotypes.
Socioeconomic Level
If a group of individuals has particular characteristics that are valued by a society, this group will
usually enjoy higher status. The reverse is also true. Thus, when speaking of upper and lower classes,
we are referring to groups of individuals who either have or do not have qualities in common that are
prized by a larger society.
For example, upper classes have wealth, advanced education, professional occupations, and
relative freedom from concern about their material needs. In contrast, lower classes live in or on the
edge of poverty, have little education, are irregularly employed or employed in jobs requiring little or
no training, often require assistance from government welfare agencies, and are constantly con-
cerned with meeting the basic needs of life. Because socioeconomic differences often play a signifi-
cant role in determining how a person acts, thinks, lives, and relates to others, educators who come
from middle and upper classes may have difficulty understanding the social and economic problems
facing children and adolescents from homes on a lower socioeconomic level.
Significant numbers of children and adolescents in the United States live below the poverty
line. Unfortunately, some people look at an individual’s socioeconomic class and make judgments
about that individual’s ambitions, motivations to achieve, and ability to demonstrate acceptable
behavior. It is a serious mistake for any educator to make assumptions about expected behavior
based on a student’s wealth and social class. Teachers should never stereotype by social class and
should never assume that students from lower socioeconomic classes have less desire to behave. Just
10
as many learners from higher socioeconomic classes may fail to achieve and behave, students from
lower socioeconomic classes often demonstrate excellent behavior.
One might ask, “What do socioeconomic status and conditions have to do with classroom
management and student behavior?” We think a lot because socioeconomic status affects students’
worldviews, behavior, and perceptions of appropriate behavior. We are not saying socioeconomically
poorer learners misbehave worse than students from higher socioeconomic classes, but we do think
socioeconomic status affects both student achievement and behavior.
Developmental Differences
Developmental differences among Pre-K, elementary, and secondary students are often easy to detect,
and educators do not expect the same misbehaviors from 4- and 5-year-olds as they do from 16- and
17-year-olds. Although these educators may use the same research and classroom management mod-
els, they adapt the strategies to suit the general age group. However, more subtle differences exist
among students in a particular grade and should be considered when developing classroom manage-
ment strategies. For example, some seventh-grade students might react positively to certain manage-
ment strategies, but others in the same grade might react in an immature or perhaps aggressive fashion.
Inclusion and the Management of All Students

Simply put, inclusion is the policy of educating a learner with special needs in the school, and,
whenever possible, in the class that the learner would have attended without the disabling condition.
Although inclusion is a relatively new term, the concept of educating students with disabilities has
been around for decades. In 1975, Congress passed the Education for All Handicapped Children
Act, which was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990. The intent
of IDEA was to provide access to educational services for approximately half of the 8 million stu-
dents with disabilities who were not receiving a free and appropriate public education.
Inclusion is based on the belief that all students have a right to be educated in a general educa-
tion setting with appropriate support services. In addition to benefiting special needs students aca-
demically and socially, inclusion helps to improve their self-concepts and helps all students learn to
accept differences. In addition, the student role models in the general education classroom can help
students with special needs improve their own behavior and social skills.
Thus, educators teach significant numbers of students with special needs in regular classrooms
alongside their peers without disabilities. Teachers often feel challenged to provide classroom man-
agement strategies that are appropriate for these “inclusive” students. In fact, current practices of
many schools are at odds with the disciplinary provisions of IDEA. In many instances, educators
address problem behaviors with negative consequences that are aimed at eliminating the problem.
Unfortunately, this action does not address what the student accomplished by engaging in the
behavior (e.g., student disrupts a science class to avoid a difficult academic demand). In addition, the
use of punishment to teach students more appropriate behavior sometimes worsens an already-difficult
situation, especially for students with special needs.
The disciplinary provisions of IDEA place the emphasis on understanding why the student
misbehaves. Then, educators can use this knowledge to reduce future occurrences of the behavior
and to promote the use of an alternative behavior that serves the same purpose but that is more
socially acceptable or appropriate. General education teachers must work with special educators to
address student misconduct that is sufficiently serious to evoke disciplinary action (i.e., suspension
or expulsion). Together they can provide positive behavioral interventions and strategies.
Soodak (2003) maintained that the inclusion of children with disabilities in general education
classes provides an opportunity for teachers to identify classroom management policies and practices
that promote diversity and community. Management strategies that enhance the overall quality of
the classroom environment can minimize discipline issues because students feel welcomed, safe, and
supported. Educators should create an inclusive community for all students by promoting member-
ship, facilitating friendships, and proving collaborative opportunities for learning and socialization.
11
DEVELOPING A PERSONAL CLASSROOM

MANAGEMENT MODEL
With the diversity of students in a contemporary classroom and the many needs that they bring to
school with them each day, it is important for all educators to examine their beliefs about students
and learning, to develop or revisit their philosophy of education, and to review the research and
theories about classroom management. The goal is for each educator to develop a personal strategy
for classroom management. This should be started long before an educator meets students on the
first day of school and should continue, with modifications and refinements, throughout the educa-
tor’s professional career.
Thus, as you read this book, you should look critically at each model or theory of classroom
management. However, developing a personal management model is more complicated than
blindly following a given model, theory, or practice. To move from theory and research to a per-
sonal philosophy and model of classroom management, you also need to identify student misbe-
haviors that you want to address, review existing models and theories to identify the parts that you
believe you would be able to use in your own classroom, and develop a personal classroom manage-
ment model that works for you. The philosophical beliefs and tenets of your personal model must
match your perspectives about the way students learn and behave and the way you will foster learn-
ing in your classroom.
Identifying Target Behaviors to Address

Target behaviors are those behaviors that educators decide to address because they violate class or
school policy or those that interfere with teachers teaching or students learning. Addressing all mis-
behaviors is not an efficient use of instructional time. Thus, in developing a philosophy and a model
of classroom management, you need to identify the target behaviors in your classroom. Unless the
school as a whole has a rule against specific behaviors, or unless teachers are working together as a
team or working with a group of students on a departmentalized basis, we believe teachers should
decide for themselves which misbehaviors to address in their individual classrooms. In this book, we
place value on students’ diversities, but we maintain that diversity exists among teachers, too. Some
misbehaviors bother some teachers and not others. For example, some teachers object to any talking
with friends, but others address the misbehavior only if it becomes a serious interruption. Teachers’
perceptions of behavior, specific misbehaviors to be addressed, and characteristics of well-managed
classrooms should be considered when identifying target misbehaviors. In addition, students have
the right to know what those target misbehaviors are and how flexible the teacher is in enforcing the
rules. Unfortunately, individuality in teacher expectations may present a problem when teachers
work together in teams or with the same group of students at different times during the day or during
the week. Applying Classroom Management Ideas 1–3 focuses on identifying what you consider
target misbehaviors.
Teachers’ Contributions to Behavior Problems

As we noted earlier in this chapter, some teachers use instructional and management behaviors that
contribute to students’ misbehaviors. This is not to say that the students always would have been well
behaved if the teachers had been more careful with their teaching techniques. However, the actions of
educators, the policies they establish, their instructional expertise, and their beliefs about students
have a direct impact on classroom management. Applying Classroom Management Ideas 1–4 looks at
ways in which teacher behaviors affect classroom management.
Unfortunately, some teachers believe their classroom management strategies are effective even
though they are not. Others are unconscious that their instructional and management techniques
contribute to student misbehavior. It is hoped that these occurrences are rare, but all teachers need
12

Identifying Target Misbehaviors
To identify a target misbehavior, ask yourself the following 4. Does the behavior break a stated school or class rule—
questions: one that I have a professional responsibility to enforce?
5. Does the behavior give indications that it might esca-
1. Does the behavior disturb me as I conduct instruction
late into a larger or more disturbing problem?
and manage the class?
2. Does the behavior disturb students as they engage in What other questions might you ask? Now, think
the learning process? about some of the misbehaviors you have seen in schools.
3. Does the behavior place students in physical or psycho- Use these questions to identify examples of your target mis-
logical harm? behaviors.
to be aware of the instructional and management strategies that they use, periodically assess these
strategies, and evaluate their effectiveness.
Developing Your Own Philosophy and Model

Some schools have adopted a schoolwide classroom management model such as the Canters’ Asser-
tive Discipline program or the Positive Behavior Support framework. In these situations, teachers
usually are required to adhere to the philosophy and mandates of the model. One advantage of a
schoolwide model is the consistency that should be found from teacher to teacher. Rather than one

Examining Teachers’ Behaviors
Examine each of the following examples. Explain why each • Ms. Kabayshi relies on the lecture method and con-
might contribute to misbehaviors or help students to act ducts instruction for long periods of time.
appropriately. • Ms. Denosta uses sarcasm and techniques that rely on
ridicule and harassment.
• Mr. Henson believes that students must obey every
• Mr. Lezzi is too lenient, and his students have no clear
rule at all times.
understanding of his expectations, expected behav-
• Mr. Sevilla tries to identify the misbehaviors in his
iors, and the consequences of misbehaving.
classroom that might threaten other students physi-
• Mr. Strempski tries to establish a positive classroom
cally or psychologically.
environment where his students feel safe.
• Ms. Whitlock tries to deal immediately with any mis-
• Ms. Durant uses teaching methods that rely heavily
behavior that she believes might escalate.
on competition with a lot of active games in her
• Ms. Jernigan provides work that is either unduly chal-
classroom.
lenging or not challenging enough for her students.
• Mr. Sullivan has several zero-tolerance policies that
• Mr. Tow uses teaching techniques that rely on collabo-
eliminate the need to consider individual students and
ration and encourages students to work cooperatively.
individual behaviors.
• Mr. Lopes gives his class work that frustrates the stu-
• Ms. Toselli allows power struggles to develop with
dents or fails to capture their interest.
individual students whereby she and a few students
• Ms. Cadle uses positive reinforcement rather than
struggle to demonstrate their power to control situa-
threats or punishments.
tions in the classroom.
• Mr. Culliton tries to avoid calling negative attention to
students.
13
teacher being strict and another lenient, students benefit from having teachers with similar expecta-
tions. However, all teachers might not enforce all management expectations and strategies equally.
Also, problems can result if the philosophical perspectives of the classroom management model do
not reflect those of the teachers. In this case, the teachers might need to change their beliefs to coin-
cide with those of the adopted model.
Although schoolwide classroom management models work effectively in some circumstances,
we find that many teachers prefer to develop their own management philosophy and then build a
model that reflects their beliefs. This process is discussed extensively in Chapters 13 and 14 and is
presented briefly here.
How do you develop a philosophy of classroom management? Bosch (1999) maintains that
classroom management must reflect the personality and teaching style of the individual teacher
and is a skill that must be learned, practiced, evaluated, and modified to fit the changing situa-
tions in contemporary classrooms. Too often, beginning teachers try one management strategy
and become discouraged if it does not produce the desired effects immediately. Just as teachers
modify and adjust teaching strategies to match students’ needs and learning styles, so must teach-
ers modify and adjust their management strategies. In order to develop a plan for classroom
management, teachers must identify their own personal and professional strengths and weak-
nesses and examine and evaluate their instructional practices. Then they should develop a man-
agement plan, implement it, and, finally, evaluate and revise that plan (Bosch, 1999). As you
think about your philosophy of classroom management, remember that classroom management
is not a synonym for discipline. Management looks at the organization and operation of a class-
room, including classroom arrangement, the individuals in the classroom, the behavior of the
teacher and students, the instructional strategies used by the teacher, the interactions of the stu-
dents and teacher, the atmosphere of the school, and the community in which the school is
located (Bosch, 1999).
You can begin to develop your personal philosophy of classroom management by referring
to your answers to the questions in Developing Your Personal Philosophy. Finally, as you read
about the theories and models in Chapters 3 through 10 and consider the information on inclu-
sion and diversity in Chapters 11 and 12, you need to continue to think about these questions and
to explore the models and theories and their relationship to your personal beliefs. Finally, in
Chapters 14 and 15, you will be able to work more intensely on the development of your own
philosophy and plan for classroom management. You can use the forms that are contained in
Appendix A of this book to help you in the process.
Just as we do not advocate any one model or theory of classroom management, we do not
advocate any specific philosophical position. We believe teachers should develop their own philoso-
phy and then implement classroom management strategies that reflect the philosophy they choose.
DEVELOPING YOUR PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY

Examining Your Beliefs
To form the basis for your personal philosophy of classroom 4. What should be the goals of a classroom management
management, answer the following questions to reflect your plan?
current beliefs. Later, as you explore the ideas, theories, and 5. What misbehaviors do you want students to avoid?
models presented in this book, you might want to revise or 6. What classroom misbehaviors are worth addressing?
modify your responses. 7. How can you address diversity in a management plan?
8. What are your personal strengths and weaknesses?
1. What is the purpose of education? 9. What instructional strategies do you prefer to use?
2. What is a good teacher, and what is good teaching? 10. Do you believe it is more effective to impose discipline
3. What role should a teacher play in a classroom? or to teach self-discipline?
14
AGGRESSION, VIOLENCE, AND THE SAFE SCHOOLS MOVEMENT

Educators have always faced the challenge of relatively minor misbehaviors that were disturbing and
distracted students from the educational process. In addition, educators have always had to deal with
bullies. Now, they also face more serious problems of aggression and violence. Guns, knives, and
other weapons are found in some schools all too often. Supported by individuals, professional asso-
ciations, and governmental agencies, the safe schools movement places a priority on making schools
safe for students and educators by focusing on the problem of violence and proposing possible rem-
edies. Chapter 2 looks at school violence and the safe schools movement in more detail, but this
section takes a brief look at the problem and efforts to make schools safe.
The Problem of Aggression and Violence

Mendler and Curwin (1997), the theorists discussed in Chapter 8, maintain that although school
and societal violence is a sad reality, schools also remain perhaps one of the safest places for chil-
dren and adolescents. However, violence occurs and deserves to be addressed. Mendler and Cur-
win identified three forms of violence: bodily (physical injury), esteem (verbal harassment, such as
name calling), and property (damage to things one owns). All three breed an atmosphere of hostil-
ity and aggression in which it feels and looks better to hurt others more so than to resolve issues
and tolerate others.
Violence has many causes. Some children grow up abused and assume that abuse is a way of
life, and others do not have a nurturing family structure. For still other students, the absence of
fathers, the increasing depersonalization of communities, and the diminishing role of values and
community play a major role (Mendler & Curwin, 1997). Additional causes include gang presence
and activity, hate-motivated behavior, and drugs and alcohol (National Education Association,
1998). Other instances of violence can be attributed to bullies, their victims, and loners who feel
anonymous or disliked by peers.
The Safe Schools Movement

Understanding the causes of school violence is a viable starting point for ending it, but the challenge
is to identify a way to reduce its physical and psychological harm. As the name suggests, the safe
schools movement places a priority on making schools safe for students and educators. Rather than
simply the efforts of one organization, the safe schools movement is supported by many people,
professional associations, and governmental agencies. As books, articles, and reports on safe schools
focus more sharply on the problem of violence and possible remedies, the effort to prevent and
reduce school violence gains momentum daily.
The Role of Effective Classroom Management

Teachers might believe that their classroom management methods and strategies are appropriate
only for routine misbehaviors—those misbehaviors that disturb students and educators but do
not cause physical or psychological harm. They might see violence or aggression as the responsi-
bility of administrators (at the school level and the district level). When we asked about safe
schools programs, one teacher said, “Efforts to reduce school violence are made at the school
level; the principal has a safe schools plan. I think the associate superintendent sent it to her.”
Another teacher maintained that it was best to “call the police and get the hoodlums out of
here.” Such mindsets disavow the role of classroom management in the efforts to reduce school
violence. Management Tip 1–3 shows several strategies teachers might take in individual class-
rooms to promote safe schools.
Each teacher needs to become involved in creating and maintaining safe schools, and educa-
tors also need to adopt a collaborative approach to create a safe environment throughout the school.
In addition, as teachers develop a classroom management plan, they need to focus on management
components that make classrooms safe.
15

Promoting Safe Schools
All teachers need to promote safe schools. Teachers can do • Help students to develop a sense of community, in
the following: which they learn to be concerned about each other’s
overall well-being.
• Model cooperation and collaboration with students • Teach students conflict-resolution skills to replace vio-
and other educators. lence and aggressive responses to problems.
• Identify and work with students who have potential
for becoming bullies or for demonstrating aggressive Pre-K and Elementary
behaviors. Work with parents and family members of young children
• Hold class meetings and help students to identify and and elementary students who are experiencing academic,
address possible interpersonal problems before they social, or behavioral difficulties.
escalate.
• Work with parents and family members of young chil- Secondary
dren and elementary students who are experiencing Maintain constant vigilance for weapons or any object that
academic, social, or behavioral difficulties. students might use as weapons.
Summary
Although considerable research and writing have focused on As you continue in your study of classroom manage-
classroom management and the various models and theorists, ment, remember that classroom management is a process rather
little evidence suggests that educators’ classroom manage- than a product. Educators’ perspectives evolve; students and
ment challenges will decrease in the future. For any number their behaviors change. Therefore, you will need to improve
of reasons, educators will continue to deal with students who and revise your management model continually to make class-
misbehave and interrupt the teaching and learning process. rooms productive and safe learning environments. To help you
In addition, educators and students will face aggressive, vio- as you begin your study of classroom management, consult the
lent, and bullying behaviors. Unfortunately, easy answers Internet resources listed in “Reaching Out with the Internet,”
and solutions to this violence do not exist. as well as the suggested readings at the end of this chapter.
In this chapter, you have looked at the field of class- Now, revisit the opening vignette for this chapter and
room management in general and its connection to an edu- respond to the following questions:
cator’s philosophy and to instruction. You have also examined 1. Ms. LaComba faced significant challenges that many
types of student misbehaviors, their effects on teachers and teachers face. Should she try to find a third-grade
students, and the causes of classroom management problems. teaching position, which was her original plan? Why?
In addition, you have read about student diversity and its 2. Should she give up and pursue another career? Why?
impact on classroom management and the importance of 3. What help should she expect from the school adminis-
developing your own management philosophy. To do this, tration?
you must understand classroom management theorists and 4. How might Ms. LaComba be at fault?
models and then select the ideas that work for you to develop 5. If you were in Ms. LaComba’s situation, what would
a comprehensive classroom management plan. Once you do you do?
this, you still need to implement classroom management 6. After you have read the theories and models in this
strategies that reflect your personal preferences for managing book, revisit this case study and give Ms. LaComba
students. Finally, you read some general information about some specific advice about classroom management
aggression, violence, and the safe schools movement. techniques she might use.
Suggested Readings
O’Neill, S. C., & Stephenson, J. (2011). The measurement of 31(3), 261–299. The authors provide a comprehensive review of
classroom management self-efficacy: A review of measurement the relationship between classroom management and teachers’
instrument development and influences. Educational Psychology self-efficacy.
16
Poplin, M., Rivera, J., Durish, D., Hoff, L., Kawell, S., Pawlak, P., Taylor-Fox, H., & Rose, D. (2011). A class preamble. School Library
Hinman, I. S., Straus, L., & Veney, C. (2011). She is strict for a Monthly, 27(7), 14–15. In this practical article, the authors de-
good reason: Highly effective teachers in low-performing urban sign a classroom preamble that contains objectives, resources,
schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(5), 39–43. Studying the work of procedures, assessment, and professional reflection.
highly effective teachers can help other teachers better understand Trump, K. S. (2011). Managing bullying in politically charged
what really works to improve student learning and help teachers climates. Education Digest, 76(9), 9–11. Along with suggesting
avoid practices that are complicated, trendy, and expensive. ways to work with law enforcement authorities, the author looks
Roache, J. E., & Lewis, R. (2011). The carrot, the stick, or the rela- at political and media considerations of antibullying policies.
tionship: What are the effective disciplinary strategies? European Wubbels, T. (2011). An international perspective on classroom
Journal of Teacher Education, 34(2), 233–248. This report ex- management: What should prospective teachers learn? Teaching
amines the results of a student to identify effective management Education, 22(2), 113–131. Wubbels reviews international ap-
strategies. proaches to classroom management.
Reaching Out with the Internet

Visit the following websites for additional information on under- The Metamorphosis of Classroom Management
standing the need for classroom management. www.mcrel.org/pdf/noteworthy/learners_learning _schooling/
franm.asp
Classroom Management: Information from Answers.com
National Alliance for Safe Schools
www.answers.com/topic/classroom-management/
www.safeschools.org
Education World: Classroom Management
Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools
www.educationworld.com/a_curr/archives/classroom_
www.ed.gov/offices/OESE/SDFS/
management.shtml
Discipline Help: You Can Handle Them All: List of Behaviors
Dr. Mac’s Behavior Management Site
At School
www.behavioradvisor.com
www.disciplinehelp.com
Building the Legacy: IDEA 2004
idea.ed.gov
Manual of Rules and Procedures for Improving School Order and
Safety from the Cather School and Grant School, public schools
in Chicago
www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/envrnmnt/drugfree/
sa2cathe.htm
17
18
Behavioral Approaches to
19
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading and reflecting on Chapter 4, you 4. discuss Nelson’s Think Time™ strategy and the steps
should be able to required to use it in a classroom;
1. discuss the characteristics of the “behavioral 5. critique the “behavioral approaches” to classroom
approaches” to classroom management; management, including their use with a diverse
population; and
2. describe the key concepts of Lee and Marlene Canter’s
Assertive Discipline model and explain how these 6. consider all the behavioral approaches and
concepts should be implemented in a classroom; identify concepts to include in your own personal
philosophy.
3. explain the Good Behavior Game developed by
Barrish, Saunders, and Wolf and describe how to
implement it in a variety of school settings;
Creatas/Thinkstock
20
Behavioral Approaches to
VIGNETTE: Confronting Management Problems in the First Grade
While Sabrina Price, a first-grade teacher in a suburban school system, was preparing for the new school year,
she thought back to the disaster of her first year. She had taken this teaching job because she did not feel she
could handle older children or the challenges of inner-city schools. However, at the end of the most recent
school year, she had almost quit the profession. As Ms. Price said:
I couldn’t make my students behave. They just would not listen to me! The principal discussed
the situation with me on several occasions, but I just didn’t know what to do. My first-grade class
was often chaotic. No one was ever in danger; but most of the time, the students were loud,
ignored my admonitions, walked around the room, played among themselves, yelled to one
another, and, generally speaking, just goofed off. I was good at working with small groups, but
then the others in the class would make so much noise that no one could concentrate. I know I
had students who wanted to learn, but it was too noisy in the room.
Although I tried several techniques, such as bribing them with candy, threatening them,
and saying I would call their parents, nothing seemed to work. Oh sure, some days were better
than others and I was able to get them to do their work; but, on other days, I basically just gave
up and let them do what they wanted to do.
I want my students to like me; I want to be their friend. But right now, I’ve got to figure
out a way to manage my classroom or I’m leaving teaching at the end of the year, if not before!
OVERVIEW
In the opening chapter vignette, Sabrina Price found that classroom management is a
major reason some teachers decide to leave the profession. Looking over various
approaches to management, Ms. Price might consider using a behavioral model. As
Landrum and Kauffman (2006) indicated, these models constitute “a dominant and
influential paradigm in . . . educational research” (p. 47) and in classrooms.
By focusing on changing observable behaviors such as talking, these approaches
require teachers to identify desired and undesired behaviors without looking for their
causes. In general, behavioral approaches rely on the basic operations identified by
B. F. Skinner (1948, 1971) in his work on operant conditioning or behavior
modification, including positive and negative reinforcement. His findings evolved into
the field of applied behavior analysis or “systematic efforts to change socially
important behaviors in positive ways through the application of behavioral principles,
21
Behavioral Approaches to Classroom Management
with strict reliance on the frequent, repeated assessment of observable and

measurable behavior” (Landrum & Kauffman, 2006, p. 53).
These behavioral approaches have their detractors who believe that these clinical
models of management are better suited to laboratory settings with animals than to
classrooms with young people. However, there is a wide body of research that shows
that when these models are used “skillfully . . . [and] with understanding of the social
contexts in which they are applied” (Landrum & Kauffman, 2006, p. 67), they can be
very effective for classroom management.
INDIVIDUAL MODELS FOR BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES

In this chapter we look at several models that follow a behavioral approach to classroom manage-
ment: Canter and Canter’s Assertive Discipline; Barrish’s, Saunders’s, and Wolf’s Good Behavior
Game; and Nelson’s Think Time. Relying on the behavior modification work of Skinner and others,
these models focus on observable behaviors in the classroom. Some, such as Assertive Discipline,
focus on increasing desired behaviors, while others, such as the Good Behavior Game, focus on
decreasing undesired actions.
KEY TERMS
Table 4–1 identifies the key terms related to behavioral approaches to classroom management.
TABLE 4–1 Key Terms Related to Behavioral Approaches to Classroom Management

Barrish, Saunders,
Canter and Canter and Wolf Good
Assertive Discipline Behavior Game Nelson Think Time™
• Assertive style • Baseline for misbehaviors • Behavior debriefing
• Broken-record response • Class rules • Cognitive-behavioral time-out
• Class rules • Monitoring behavior • Cooperating teacher
• Consequences • Natural reinforcers • Early intervention
• Discipline hierarchy • Positive peer relationships • Precision request
• Hostile style • Rewards • Self-management
• Negative consequence • Team membership • Think Time™ desk
• Nonassertive style
• Positive reinforcement
• Severe clause
LEE CANTER AND MARLENE CANTER: ASSERTIVE DISCIPLINE

Following the behavior modification (sometimes called operant conditioning or stimulus-response
theory) work of B. F. Skinner (1948, 1971) and others, Lee Canter and Marlene Canter (Canter,
1974; Canter & Canter, 1976, 1992, 2001) proposed a classroom management model called Asser-
tive Discipline. Studied by a number of researchers (Desiderio & Mullennix, 2005; Ferguson &
Houghton, 1992; Swinson & Cording, 2002), it follows the belief that positive reinforcement and
negative consequences will foster appropriate behavior in the classroom.
22
FIGURE 4–1
• Rewards and punishments are effective.
Key Concepts of the
• Both teachers and students have rights in the classroom. Canters’ Assertive
• While giving rewards and punishments, teachers must work toward creating an optimal learning Discipline
environment.
• Teachers must apply rules and enforce consequences consistently without bias or
discrimination.
• Ideally, teachers should have their discipline plan in place when the school year begins and
should communicate classroom behavior expectations to the students along with the conse-
quences for misbehavior.
• Teachers should use a discipline hierarchy with consequences that are appropriate for the
grade level.
• Rather than using a nonassertive or hostile response style, teachers should be assertive.
Overview of the Canters’ Model

To use this model, teachers must be assertive rather than passive or hostile, state rules consistently and
clearly, follow through appropriately, apply positive consequences when students meet behavioral
expectations, and apply negative consequences when they do not. Punishment or unpleasant conse-
quences should follow negative behavior, with the penalty system having increasingly severe sanctions.
Figure 4–1 provides an overview of the key concepts of the model (Canter, 1974; Canter & Canter,
1976, 1992, 2001).
Practical Applications of the Canters’ Model

Gerra Meador was a student teacher with a teacher who used Assertive Discipline for classroom
management. While teaching a social studies lesson, Ms. Meador asked a question. A girl answered
without raising her hand. Ms. Meador wrote the student’s name on a clipboard (that was her first
warning) and continued teaching. The girl did not speak again without raising her hand, and because
Ms. Meador never gave a public reprimand, instructional time was not lost.
The Canters’ Assertive Discipline model can be translated into practical application in all lev-
els of schools as both a schoolwide (Keiper, 2004) and an individual classroom model for manage-
ment for a wide range of students. With its emphasis on clear and positive limits, rules, rewards and
consequences, and on teachers acting in an assertive rather than a nonassertive or hostile manner, the
Canters’ model can address many routine but prevalent classroom management problems. Let’s look
at some of the components of the model.
THREE RESPONSE STYLES. The Canters (Canter, 1974; Canter & Canter, 1976, 1992, 2001)
identified three response styles, or philosophical stances, that teachers use to manage a classroom.
The first, the nonassertive style, is usually ineffective and is used by teachers who fail to establish
clear standards of behavior or who fail to follow through on threats with appropriate actions. In
addition to Sabrina Price in the opening vignette, the following are examples of a teacher using a
nonassertive style:
• “I’ve asked you repeatedly to stop talking, and you continue to do it. Please stop.”
• “Why do you and Bill continue to fight? You’ve been told time and again to stop it.”
• “Sarah, the rules are clearly posted on the wall. I don’t know why you continue to break them.”
In contrast to nonassertive teachers, teachers with a hostile style use an aversive approach,
shout, and use threats and sarcasm. Although results might be instantaneous, this style has the
23
potential for emotional harm and possible abuse. For example, a hostile teacher might say one of the
following:
• “Sit down and shut up!”

• “Put that comic book away or you’ll wish you had!”
• “Do that again, Nelson, and see what you get. I’ve had my fill of you!”
In opposition to those who believe that firm control is stifling and inhumane, the Canters
praise teachers with an assertive style who clearly and specifically place limits and rewards or conse-
quences on students. Making their expectations known to students, parents, and administrators,
assertive teachers not only insist that their expectations be followed but also provide reasonable con-
sequences that are appropriate for the misbehavior for students who choose not to comply with
expectations. Likewise, they provide positive consequences for students who do comply. Assertive
teachers often use the Canters’ broken-record response by repeating the same or a similar request
for compliance a maximum of three times before invoking the consequence. Examples of comments
from an assertive teacher include the following:
• “We do not ask questions without permission—you must raise your hand.”
• “Justin, that is your warning for leaning back in the chair. Put the chair down now or you will
face a loss of classroom privileges.”
• “Quentina, you did a good job leading your cooperative learning group.”
For a message to have full effect, the Canters recommend that assertive teachers maintain eye
contact with the student. This lets the student know the teacher is in control, but it may not be
appropriate with some cultural groups.
TEACHERS’ ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES Teachers must accept the role of giver of re-
wards and punishments, and they must be consistent regardless of the student or the situation.
According to the Canters (1992), teachers must not show prejudice toward any student. This is
especially important in contemporary schools, where respect for diversity and the need for effec-
tive instruction within a safe school environment are essential. Unfortunately, Jef Unger did not
believe in this philosophy.
• Mr. Unger had many behavior problems in his class that resulted from his lack of consistency. One week he
would allow students to walk around the classroom; the next week he would get upset about it. Even in the
same day, he would punish Vilay for talking to Stuart when he should be working on his homework but ignore
the same behavior when Shavondria talked to Delores. As Mr. Unger said, “I know which students are good
ones, and Shavondria shouldn’t have to follow all the rules. The bad ones, well, when they’re like Vilay, I really
make them toe the line. And sometimes, when things are going well, I just ignore some misbehaviors. I don’t
want to break the flow by enforcing rules.”
Like Jef Unger, some teachers have preconceived or even negative expectations for a few stu-
dents. This means that a teacher might make excuses for the behavior of some students while con-
demning the behavior of others. After reading the following comments, which illustrate an excuse and
a negative expectation held by teachers, evaluate the actions of Louisa Del Campo in Applying Behav-
ioral Ideas 4–1.
• “She’s usually a good student but she’s been sick. That probably explains why she’s been act-
ing up.”
• “Look at his brothers and sisters. How can you expect any better behavior from him?”
Finally, teachers must be willing to work toward positive interactions with students in part by creat-
ing an optimal learning environment within the classroom that allows students to work and socialize
together in a comfortable environment (Smith, 2001).
24
APPLYING BEHAVIORAL IDEAS 4–1

Acting Like Hoodlums
The Canters believe that teachers must not show prejudice. stayed together in school and were in the two teach-
Instead, they must be fair to all students and be consistent in ers’ middle school team. Glenda knew these students
their actions. Although most teachers follow these beliefs, lived in a lower socioeconomic area where crime statis-
sometimes they work with others who do not keep an open tics were higher than average, but she still shuddered
mind and who rely on stereotypes. Read the following sce- when she heard Louisa’s comment. Glenda had two
nario; then respond to the questions. concerns: first was that another member of her teach-
ing team would make such a comment, and second
As Glenda Gonzales entered the teachers’ lounge, she was her concern for the students.
heard Louisa Del Campo remark, “All the students
Respond to the following questions:
from that neighborhood act like hoodlums. I just
ignore them in my class most of the time. After all, 1. What, if anything, should Glenda Gonzales do? How
students from there are just problems waiting to hap- should she handle the situation?
pen.” Glenda was sure Louisa was referring to a group 2. Review the key concepts of the Canters’ model. If you
of boys and girls who all lived in the same section of had these students in your classroom, which strategies
town. Sometimes rowdy and often rough looking, they from the Canters’ model could you try?
RIGHTS OF STUDENTS AND TEACHERS The Canters (Canter, 1974; Canter & Canter, 1976,
1992, 2001) believe that students and teachers have rights in the classroom, as shown in Figure 4–2.
Noting the connections between classroom instruction and management, the Canters believe that
teachers who fail to teach and who deny students opportunities to learn usually have an inability to
manage or control the class.
The Canters (1992, p. 58) believe that a system based on positive interactions and positive
recognition will “encourage students to continue appropriate behavior.” As a result, students’ self-esteem
will improve, behavior problems will be reduced, and there will be a positive classroom environment for
FIGURE 4–2
Students have the right to
Basic Rights of
• have an optimal learning environment, Students and
• have teachers who help them reduce inappropriate behavior, Teachers
• have teachers who provide appropriate support for appropriate behavior,
• have teachers who do not violate the students’ best interests, and
• choose how to behave with the advance knowledge of the consequences that will consistently
follow.
Teachers have the right to
• maintain an optimal learning environment,
• expect appropriate behavior,
• expect help from administrators and parents, and
• ensure students’ rights and responsibilities are met by a discipline plan that clearly states expecta-
tions, consistently applies the consequences, and does not violate the best interests of the students.
Sources: Developed from L. Canter. (1974). The ways and hows of working with behavior problems in the classroom.
San Rafael, CA: Academic Therapy Press; L. Canter & M. Canter. (1976). Assertive Discipline: A take-charge approach for
today’s educators. Santa Monica, CA: Lee Canter & Associates; and L. Canter & M. Canter. (1992). Assertive Discipline:
Positive behavior management for today’s classrooms. Santa Monica, CA: Lee Canter & Associates.
25
the teacher and students. It is especially important for this positive recognition to be grade appropri-
ate; for example, verbal praise might be appropriate for a second grader, but something more private
probably is better for an older student.
Along with building a classroom based on positive interactions and reinforcement, teachers
should develop trust and respect in their classrooms and should also model the behaviors they want
their students to develop. Sometimes, however, situations occur that test the extent of trust and
respect in a classroom.
• When Drew Nash confronted one of her seventh-grade students who had broken a class rule, the student
pulled a knife out of his desk. Using the broken-record technique, Ms. Nash said in a calm and matter-of-fact
way, “Stan, put the knife on the desk.” Stan did not, and the entire class watched to see the actions of Stan
and the teacher. Again, Ms. Nash said, “Stan, put the knife on the desk.” Stan did not. For a third time, Ms.
Nash said, “Stan, put the knife on the desk.” This time, Stan placed the knife on the desk. Ms. Nash never
raised her voice, never threatened, and never said please.
REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS The Assertive Discipline classroom management plan consists of
a few simple yet specific rules along with age and grade-level appropriate rewards (see Management
Tip 4–3 later in this chapter) for following the rules and the consequences of breaking them. The
plan should be displayed in the classroom and distributed to parents. The Canters recommend that a
teacher, perhaps with the assistance of the students, make and post the class rules. (See Management
Tip 4–1.) In addition to being age and grade-level appropriate, the rules need to be specific (“Raise
your hand before speaking”) rather than general or vague (“Be good”), and they should clearly spell
out the behavior expectation (“Keep your hands to yourself”). Assertive teachers often remind stu-
dents of expectations before beginning each lesson: “I expect you to be prepared. That means you
should raise your hand before speaking, listen attentively so you will know what to do, and have only
your book and notebook on your desk.”
Consequences, or punishments, might include exclusion from certain classroom privileges, a
time-out, contact with the parent or guardian, referral to an administrator, or detention. Conse-
quences accumulated by a student one day are never carried over to the next day.

Developing Rules
General rules might include the following: Secondary

• Treat others the way you want to be treated. Be in your seat with your book and homework on your
• Respect the property of others. desk when the class bell rings.
• Be polite and courteous to each other. Listen and follow directions.
• Keep your school clean. Leave your seat only with permission from the teacher.
Specific rules might include the following:
When Using Rules
• Raise your hand before speaking. Establish the rules,
• Ask for permission before leaving your seat.
set the consequences,
Pre-K and Elementary determine what will happen if the penalty is not com-
pleted,
Wash your hands before eating your snack.
determine what will happen if the behavior contin-
Keep your eyes on the teacher when the teacher is talking.
ues, and
Always be a good listener.
teach the rules and consequences to the students.
26

Practicing Assertive Discipline
The Canters maintain that teachers should assertively take • practicing assertive responses;
charge of classroom management by • setting limits;
• following through on limits; and
• recognizing and removing roadblocks such as nega-
• implementing a system of positive assertions such as
tive expectations based on
personal attention from the teacher,
Culture,
positive notes/phones calls to parents,
socioeconomic status,
special awards or privileges, and
gender, and
material rewards.
other diversities;
Teachers can maintain a record of consequences by adopting whatever manner they consider
easiest. In some instances, a name on a clipboard or bulletin board or chart and a series of check
marks beside the name for misbehaviors can serve as a visual reminder to a student. However, Canter
and Canter (2001) caution against humiliating students.
DISCIPLINE HIERARCHY The Canters (1992) suggest that teachers use a discipline hierarchy
that informs students of consequences and the order in which they will be imposed. For example, a
student may receive a verbal warning for the first rule violation, a time-out for a second or third
disruption, a parental notification for a fourth offense, and a trip to the principal’s office for a fifth
offense during a single day. The hierarchy should include a severe clause which is implemented
when students demonstrate behavior that the teacher considers threatening or severe. These students
are sent directly to the principal (Canters & Canter, 2001). As the Canters (1992, p. 87) explain,
when a student begins to hit a classmate, the teacher calmly and assertively says, “There is no fighting
in this classroom. You know the rule. You have chosen to go to the principal’s office immediately. We
will discuss this later.”
APPROPRIATE CONSEQUENCES The Canters (2001) maintain that consequences should be ap-
propriate for the grade level and should reflect the difference in the developmental and psychological
levels of the students. For example, in Pre-K through third grade, a second misbehavior might result
in the teacher keeping the child near but apart from the group for a short time. Should the child mis-
behave a third time, the teacher removes the child from the group for a longer period. The hierarchy
for fourth and fifth and grades might be the same except that a second offense brings 10 minutes
away from the group (but near the teacher), and a third offense results in 15 minutes away from the
group as the misbehaving student writes in his or her behavior journal, an effective consequence
for grades 4–12. Management Tip 4–2 looks at additional advice for teachers who are practicing
Assertive Discipline.
HARRIET BARRISH, MURIEL SAUNDERS, AND MONTROSE WOLF:

THE GOOD BEHAVIOR GAME
Beginning with a study of misbehaviors in a fourth-grade classroom by Harriet H. Barrish, Muriel
Saunders, and Montrose M. Wolf (1969), the Good Behavior Game (GBG) has become a widely
used management model in both the United States and Europe. The GBG uses behavior modifica-
tion to diminish negative behaviors by focusing on peer encouragement, following rules, and dem-
onstrating good learning skills.
27
Overview of Barrish’s, Saunders’s, and Wolf’s Model

The Good Behavior Game is a “classwide intervention that can have an effect on behavior—and
ultimately, on the learning—of many students” (Conroy, Sutherland, Snyder, & Marsh, 2008,
p. 28). The GBG rewards student teams for demonstrating proper classroom behavior such as
following directions, showing courtesy to others, and keeping on-task. Although developed pri-
marily for students in grades 1–6, the GBG has also been used successful with preschoolers and
secondary school students, students with special needs, and students from different cultures
(Huizink, van Lier, & Crijnen, 2009; Kleinman & Saigh, 2011; Tingstrom, Sterling-Turner, &
Wilczynski, 2006). Kellam and others have conducted long-term studies of the GBG in the Bal-
timore public schools and have followed students from elementary school into secondary school
(Kellam et al., 2008; Kellam, Ling, Merisca, Brown, & Ialongo, 1998; Kellam, Rebok, Ialongo,
& Mayer, 1994).
Using the principles of behavior modification, the GBG is designed to reinforce self-control
and a work ethic by stressing group solidarity and cooperation. By using peer influence to promote
positive behavior, the GBG increases pro-social behaviors and diminishes instances of students
laughing at the disruptive behavior of others.
Practical Application of Barrish’s, Saunders’s, and Wolf’s Model

The GBG uses a group-oriented strategy for classroom management. A teacher, sometimes assisted
by the students, develops rules and identifies inappropriate classroom behavior. The class is divided
into teams and plays a game in which marks or points are given for demonstrating inappropriate
behavior, breaking rules, or both. The teacher establishes a time period for playing the game. Dur-
ing the game, if a student on a team displays a disruptive behavior, the team receives a mark. The
team with the fewest marks, or all teams if the scores are below a set level, receives a reward when
the game is over.
TEAM MEMBERSHIP According to Witvliet, van Lier, Duijpers, and Koot (2009), positive peer
relationships provide “a social context in which [children] . . . can practice social skills, learn social
norms and roles, experience social support and validate a sense of self worth . . . [while they promote]
behavioral adjustment” (p. 905). The GBG reinforces social responsibility among the team members
as they monitor their own behavior as well as the behavior of others on their team. In addition, the
emphasis on teams does not single out any student or treat any student differently from the group.
However, there is always the problem that peer influence can “produce undue peer pressure verging
on harassment toward the individual who does not exhibit the requisite behaviors” (Tingstrom
et al., 2006, p. 247).
Team membership is usually assigned at random. In the instances where a single stu-
dent continues to be disruptive or sabotages the game by intentionally breaking the rules
(Tingstrom et al., 2006, p. 248), a student can be given special tutoring or placed in a single-
member group.
CLASSROOM RULES Rules for the GBG can be as simple or complex as needed and should be
appropriate for the ages and developmental levels of the students. Simple rules include no tattling,
not bothering your neighbor, remaining in your seat, following directions, or not talking. Teachers
can supplement the GBG with daily or weekly class meetings that focus on social problem solving
and rule clarification (Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy, 2010).
MONITORING BEHAVIOR The teacher identifies the time period for the game and establishes
the baseline for the number of rule violations. During the game, the teacher must be consistent
28

Establishing Rewards
There are many different types of rewards: Secondary

• Social reinforcers: Word, Smile, Gesture Give students a stamp when they are prepared for class each
• Graphic reinforcers: Star, Sticker, Checkmark day. To receive the stamp, a student must
• Activity reinforcers: Free time, Special game • Be on time to class,
• Tangible reinforcers: Bookmark, Pencil or other sup- • have supplies, including textbook, notebook, and pen
plies, Certificates or pencil, and
• have homework completed.
Give each stamp a point value and count a week’s worth of
The Canters advocate a “marble jar” as a reward. When eve-
stamps as a quiz grade.
rything goes well, add a marble to the jar. When the jar is
filled, provide the entire class with a reward.
in awarding marks for misbehaviors. Teams may receive rewards for having the lowest number of
checkmarks or points without exceeding the baseline, for not exceeding the baseline even though
they do not have the lowest total number of points, or both.
The time period can be the length of a certain class or class period or a portion of a day (the
morning between recess and lunch), and it should be appropriate for the students. For example,
elementary teachers can begin with a short time such as 10 minutes when the GBG is first imple-
mented and then gradually increase the amount of time. After students are accustomed to the
GBG, the teacher can start and stop the game without warning as Cammy Reed does in the follow-
ing example.
• As her students started to get ready for math instruction, Cammy Reed turned to her fifth-grade class and
announced, “The Good Behavior Game begins now. Remember our rules about talking, following directions,
not bothering your neighbor, and staying in your seat. Our target is four or fewer marks for each team for the
game, which will last through our math class.”
REWARDS Rewards are given as positive reinforcement. Teachers are encouraged to use “rein-
forcers that occur naturally in the school setting (Tingstrom et al., 2006, p. 244) such as having free
time, being the teacher’s helper, doing something for a set time that is not normally allowed such
as tapping a pencil, working on a special project, listening to music, having a special privilege such
as lining up first for lunch, or receiving a letter of praise to take home to parents. In the beginning,
the rewards should be tangible such as a special badge or a sticker and should progress to intangi-
ble or delayed rewards. Older students may benefit from weekly rewards in addition to daily ones.
Management Tip 4–3 contains additional information on rewards.
VARIATIONS AND EXTENSIONS OF THE GOOD BEHAVIOR GAME Initially, the GBG focused
on teachers awarding marks for rule violations. An alternative approach focuses on rule following.
Tanol, Johnson, McComas, and Cote (2010) found that both variations were effective and that
GBG reinforcement or rule following was preferred by kindergarten teachers.
The PAX-GBG format applies the model to grades K–5 (Domitrovich et al., 2010). In this
format, the game begins with the teacher and students collaboratively describing the ideal classroom
and the behaviors that would create it. Teachers assign students to teams so that all teams have a
chance to win. The PAX-GBG also includes the “exchange of written compliments” (p. 76) and the
29

Adapting to Eighth Grade
Although a classroom management model may present a Respond to the following questions:
number of valid points, the implementation of these points
1. In general, how appropriate is a smiley face sticker for
is very important and may vary with the age and develop-
eighth-grade students? Are there circumstances in
mental level of the students. In the following example, a
which it would be appropriate?
teacher forgets the level of the students she is teaching.
2. What would be appropriate rewards for the GBG for
Grace Hoffler was earning her teacher’s license for students in the eighth grade?
grades K–8. After completing her experience in a pri- 3. How might Ms. Hoffler adapt her positive recognition
mary classroom, she moved into a middle school set- if she were teaching in a fourth- or fifth-grade class? In
ting. One day, Ms. Hoffler forgot she was teaching an a high school?
eighth-grade class and said, “Today when we play the
Good Behavior Game, the reward will be a smiley face
sticker for each person on the winning team.”
use of behavioral cues and strategies to “engage students in the learning process, make more time for
instruction, and create a positive classroom environment” (p. 76).
To use the GBG in a multiethnic urban high school, researchers modified it. For example, the
teacher told students that they would have an “‘opportunity’ to participate in a ‘competition’ for
prizes” (Kleinman & Saigh, 2011, p. 102). Classroom rules were identified as expectations rather
than rules and students were able to use a “reinforcement preference questionnaire . . . to select daily
and weekly prizes” (p. 95). The researchers found “marked reductions in the rate of seat leaving,
talking without permission, and aggression” (p. 95). Applying Behavioral Ideas 4–2 asks you to
adapt the GBG to an eighth-grade classroom.
Educators have implemented the GBG in various settings. In addition to using elementary
and secondary schools and regular and special educational classrooms (Kleinman & Saigh, 2011),
they have relied on the GBG to promote good oral hygiene skills (Tingstrom et al., 2006) and
positive behavior during physical education (Patrick, Ward, & Crouch, 1998). McCurdy, Lannie,
and Barnabas (2009) found that the use of the GBG deceased disruptive behaviors in an
elementary cafeteria. While some studies have found more significant results with the GBG for
males, others show the same results for both males and females (Leflot, van Lier, Onnghena, &
Colpin, 2010).
Researchers have also linked the GBG to behaviors outside the classroom. In a long-term
study in Baltimore, Maryland, Kellam et al. (2008) found that the GBG has a significant positive
impact on reducing antisocial behaviors as well as alcohol and drug dependence of males. Research-
ers in Europe have also linked the use of the GBG to reductions in attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) symptoms and early-onset smoking (Huizink et al., 2009).
J. RON NELSON: THINK TIME™

Think Time™ began as an effort to “work with students who exhibit disruptive or externalizing
behavior . . . [and] to develop a school environment that . . . is] both preventative and remedial”
(Nelson, 1996, p. 148). Basically, it is a “systematic response to disruptive behavior” (Nelson, Martella,
& Galand, 1998, p. 156) that uses “cognitive-behavioral time-out” (Nelson, 1996, p. 150) as
well as rules, routines, other management strategies, and good instructional practices (Nelson &
Carr, 2000) to help students to develop self-management strategies.
30
Overview of Nelson’s Model

J. Ron Nelson (1996) believed that some management practices such as checkmarks and repeated
warnings might promote misbehaviors rather than extinguish them. Instead, he favored “establish-
ing, teaching, and reinforcing . . . rules and behaviors and . . . [providing] systematic response[s] to
disruptive behavior” (Nelson et al., 1998, p. 154).
Eliminating warnings and raising behavioral expectations, the Think Time™ model relies on
“Patterson’s coercion theory on adult-child interactions” (Freiberg & Lapointe, p. 763) in which
the conduct of a child is established or maintained by adult–child interactions. Disruptive behav-
ior leads to a negative consequence in which the student receives feedback and an opportunity to
plan for the future. A negative social exchange between the student and the teacher is eliminated
by a positive one. Instead, the student receives a time-out or withdrawal of attention as a result of
the misbehavior. After the time-out, the “debriefing process helps students achieve self-directed
behavior and ensure[s] that every misbehavior . . . [is viewed as] an instructional opportunity”
(Nelson, 1996, p. 151).
Practical Applications of Nelson’s Model

Like other behavioral models of classroom management, Think Time™ relies on teachers to estab-
lish rules and routines, discuss inappropriate behaviors with students, identify and model accepta-
ble behaviors and misbehaviors, and provide corrective feedback to students. However, rather than
using a hierarchy of warnings, Think Time™ has an early intervention strategy that includes a
time-out procedure that removes the student from the disruptive situation and uses the misbehav-
ior as a learning experience (Nelson, 1996). It also provides consistent consequences for disruptive
behavior, feedback to the student, and a positive social exchange between the teacher and student.
Its implementation requires the cooperation of two or more teachers, and it is designed to be used
with other management strategies such as eye contact and physical proximity. Let’s examine Think
Time™ in more detail.
EARLY INTERVENTION Think Time™ expects teachers to catch misbehavior early and to reduce
or eliminate threats, repeated warnings, ultimatums, or all three. Nelson (1996) believes that low-
level disruptive behaviors should not be ignored because they can lead to more serious misbehav-
iors. When the teacher sees misbehavior, he or she prompts with a precision request or short oral
cue to encourage the student to change the behavior. If the student complies, the teacher provides
positive reinforcement. However, if the student does not comply, the teacher sends the student to
a designated place for Think Time™ in the room of another teacher. For example, when Akisha
Bandura saw Harper misbehaving, she said, “Harper, I need to see your good learner skills.” When
Harper did not respond, Ms. Bandura sent Harper to Think Time™ in Mr. O’Leary’s room. In
cases of serious misbehavior, the teacher sends the student directly to Think Time™ without a
prompt to change the behavior.
Think Time™ setting. When using Think Time™, each teacher has a cooperating teacher
who will host the Think Time™ If a student misbehaves, the teacher sends the student to the coop-
erating teacher’s classroom. For serious misbehaviors, an escort is provided for the student.
TIME IN THINK TIME™ In the cooperating teacher’s classroom, the cooperating teacher directs the
student to the designated Think Time™ desk. There are two rules for Think Time™: The student
must remain silent and must respond only to an adult.
There is no set amount of time for a student to remain in Think Time™. The wait depends
on the cooperating teacher’s schedule and on the student’s ability to self-manage or to reflect and
regain self-control. When time allows, the cooperating teacher asks the student to describe his or her
misbehavior objectively. If the student is unable to do this, the cooperating teacher lets the student
remain in Think Time™ and continues the regular classroom work.
31
DEBRIEFING PROCESS When the student has regained control, the cooperating teacher pro-
vides a behavior debriefing form, which can be modified for young students. On this form, the
student
1. identifies the misbehavior;
2. explains the reason for the misbehavior (e.g., gain attention, avoid schoolwork, get even with
another student);
3. explains whether the expected results were achieved by the misbehavior;
4. explains what he or she should do upon returning to the regular classroom; and
5. estimates how successful he or she will be in the future.
After the student finishes the debriefing form, the cooperating teacher checks only to see that
it is completed properly. If it is, the student can return to the regular classroom. If not, the student
remains at the Think Time™ desk. The cooperating teacher does not judge the accuracy of the
form. This will be done later by the regular classroom teacher.
RETURN TO THE REGULAR CLASSROOM When the debriefing form has been completed prop-
erly, the cooperating teacher allows the student to return to the regular classroom. The student waits
at the door until acknowledged by the regular classroom teacher. The teacher reviews the debriefing
form. If the form is accurate, the student returns to the regular class. If the form is inaccurate, the
student returns to Think Time™ in the cooperating classroom.
SPECIAL PROVISIONS Extreme or repeated misbehaviors can bring additional consequences. If

a student continues to be disruptive or will not go to Think Time™, the teacher sends the student
to Administrative Think Time™ with a designated school administrator. When a student receives
repeated Think Time™ during a week, the teacher can assign the student to lunch detention and
notify the parents. Read Applying Behavioral Ideas 4–3 and see if the ideas of Think Time™ could
help a fifth-grade teacher.

Establishing Limits
Throughout his school years, happy-go-lucky Art Brady Teaching became so frustrating and dissatisfying that Art
hated to follow rules. Thus when beginning his first year as a considered leaving the profession. Then a fellow teacher
teacher, he transferred his feelings into his classroom. He suggested that they team up to implement a management
believed that his fifth-grade students would behave if he strategy called Think Time™.
allowed them freedom and gave them lots of choices. As Art Respond to the following questions:
was fond of saying, “Students are creative and should be
1. According to the Canters, which type of teacher was
free to express their individuality in both schoolwork and
Art Brady?
behavior.” Although he conveyed to students that he
2. Would Think Time™ help Art Brady to manage his
expected them to act their best, he refused to place specific
class? Why?
rules on the classroom wall. “That’s too confining” was all
3. What would he have to do to implement Think Time™?
Art would say about it.
4. Would Think Time™ alone be a sufficient manage-
By the third month of school, Mr. Brady’s class bor-
ment strategy, or would Art Brady need additional
dered on chaos. Students talked incessantly, walked around
strategies?
the room, and picked on each other. Art could not conduct
instruction, and students who wanted to learn could not.
32
CRITIQUE OF BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES

TO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Everyone has seen and heard of acts of violence in schools, but most educators do not encounter
these problems on a daily basis. Instead, most misbehavior includes students sitting idly or talking
with friends, disturbing neighbors who want to learn and obey rules, and walking around the class-
room without permission. Thus, although educators must continue their efforts to promote safe
schools, they also must deal with the time-wasting that occurs on a regular basis.
Seeking to help teachers manage the daily misbehaviors in classrooms, the behavioral
models “emphasize not only the principles of behavior but . . . [an] understanding of the social
contexts in which they are applied” (Landrum & Kauffman, 2006, p. 67 ). Some educators
(Curwin & Mendler, 1988, 1989; Kauffman, Pullen, Mostert, & Trent, 2011; Keiper, 2004;
Palardy, 1996; Render, Padilla, & Krank, 1989; Walker, Ramsey, & Gresham, 2004) have
questioned various aspects of behavioral approaches to classroom management. However, a
number of researchers (Desiderio & Mullennix, 2005; Domitrovish et al., 2010; Kleinman &
Saigh, 2011; Leflot et al., 2010; Swinson & Cording, 2002; Tingstrom et al., 2006) and thou-
sands of educators have attested to the effectiveness of behavior models when implemented and
used appropriately.
There are numerous examples of the efficacy of the behavioral approaches. The U. S. Depart-
ment of Education, Office of Special Educational Research and Improvement, Office of Reform
Assistance and Dissemination (2001) designated Think Time as a “Promising Program” (p. 137).
Further, Embry (2002) noted that the Good Behavior Game has been named as a best practice by
several federal agencies and has been “documented to have long-term effects” (p. 273) in a number
of studies including randomized field trials in Baltimore, Maryland. As a result, he calls the GBG a
“behavioral vaccine” (p. 293) because it can have “broad community impact” (p. 293) and can be
easily used by a variety of individuals in diverse circumstances. Huizink et al. (2009) found that the
GBG reduced ADHD symptoms and protected “children from early-onset smoking” (p. 1).
Finally, Desiderio and Mullennix (2005) cited 15 studies demonstrating the positive results of
Assertive Discipline.
As advantages, some educators cite the insistence of the behavioral models upon consistency
and clear limits, with the same classroom rules applying to all students. Most students like to know
how far the teacher will allow their behavior to go.
• Rikki Tiiko liked to wad up his paper into a ball and shoot it to the trashcan in a make-believe game of
basketball. Steve Hudson, his teacher, chose to ignore the behavior in the hope that it would stop. Unfortu-
nately, it did not, and two other students joined the game. Finally, everything escalated to a point where the
learning environment was disrupted, and Mr. Hudson had to correct three students instead of one. Rikki and
the other students knew the limits, but as Rikki later said, “Mr. Hudson didn’t do anything, so we thought it
was all right.”
By setting clear and specific limits, teachers are not acting mean or harsh. They are, however, setting
clear behavior expectations and helping students feel psychologically safe.
In addition, behavioral models provide sufficient flexibility to address the behavior of
elementary, middle, and secondary school students with an emphasis on understanding indi-
vidual students and meeting their needs whenever possible. For example, in Assertive Disci-
pline, the key to successful implementation is for the teacher to determine appropriate behavior,
rewards, and consequences for each of the school levels to reflect the students’ psychological
and developmental maturity levels. Assertive teachers do not damage students’ self-esteem with
statements such as “How can you be so dense to make the same mistake again? Can’t you ever
learn one simple rule?” By understanding the psychological and developmental needs of their
students, they plan appropriate assertive statements, rewards, and consequences. Applying
33

Reviewing Antonio’s Day
As you read the following scenario, ask yourself whether the rybody a good laugh when you came to school with
teacher is practicing Assertive Discipline. If she is not, what one green and one blue sock. Guess you left your
should she have done differently? How would her response brains in the bed last night, right? When you spilled
vary if the student was in second grade? Sixth grade? Ninth your soup on you at lunch, you reminded me of a
grade? Would this situation have occurred with the other first grader I used to know—a real klutz. Then, you
behavioral models? Why? just couldn’t stop yapping, could you? You talked all
day, didn’t you? Try to get your head on right before
It was the end of a long day for Antonio and Ms.
you come to school tomorrow so you won’t seem so
Hunley, his teacher. As Antonio’s after-school deten-
stupid. I don’t want to waste my time sitting here
tion was ending, Ms. Hunley turned to him and said in
with you again.”
a friendly way:
All this time, Antonio sat silently at his desk.
“Well, it sure wasn’t your day, was it, Anto-
nio? Boy, you did some dumb things. You gave eve-
Behavioral Ideas 4–4 illustrates a teacher who was not taking the needs of a student into
consideration.
Finally, with the behavioral models, the students know that their behavior affects the
teacher’s reaction. If they behave appropriately, they are rewarded. If they behave inappropri-
ately, they must endure the consequences, which are dealt out consistently without subjective
consideration. However, it must be emphasized that although a behavior modification strategy
can establish on-task behavior, high-quality instruction is needed to maintain appropriate
discipline.
Educators are often concerned about whether a classroom management model imposes or
teaches discipline. It is a student’s choice to misbehave, but some educators believe that as the teacher
imposes rewards and punishments, students ultimately learn self-discipline. Others, however, believe
that if teachers assign the warnings and consequence, the teachers are imposing discipline more than
they are teaching discipline.
J. Michael Palardy (1996, p. 69) maintains that a behavior modification model “devalues self-
discipline as an ultimate goal in favor of management of conduct.” Self-discipline can be achieved
only when students search for appropriate methods of meeting all types of personal and social situa-
tions. Thus, to foster self-discipline in students, educators need to give students more opportunities
to make their own decisions about behavior. Educators also must structure environments in which
students learn to hold themselves responsible for the consequences of their behavior. According to
Palardy (1996), neither of these responsibilities is considered relevant in classroom management
models that emphasize behavior modification.
Consider the following example:
One day during the Good Behavior Game, Tim walks around the room, supposedly to discard his trash in the
wastebasket. On the way, he disturbs others by knocking one student’s books off the desk and hitting another
in the back of the head. When his team receives a mark for his misbehavior, he does not walk around again
that day. However, the next day, an almost-identical scenario occurs.
Has discipline been taught? Is the teacher just imposing discipline? One might say that if
Tim’s behavior occurs every day for 2 months and then stops, Tim has learned to discipline himself.
Admittedly, a fine line exists; however, the insistence of the behavior modification models on moni-
toring observable behavior and using rewards and consequences will continue to raise the issue of
whether students learn self-discipline or merely try to avoid negative consequences.
34
Although the reliance of the behavioral models on consistency and clear limits is commenda-
ble, teachers need to be aware of two characteristics that could be damaging to students from some
cultures. First, students in some cultures have been taught that maintaining eye contact with an
adult is disrespectful, rude, or threatening. Thus, teachers using eye contact as part of a behavioral
model, just like teachers using any management model, must be aware of and remember to make
allowances for cultural differences.
While reprimanding a student for inappropriate behavior, a principal looked directly in the eye of a
ninth grader as he demanded, “You look at me when I talk to you!” The principal assumed the lack of
eye contact meant a lack of respect or interest for what he was saying. Instead, the student was being
respectful.
Second, problems could arise with the use of rewards and punishments. Students in some
cultures will feel uncomfortable receiving a reward publicly, especially if it is at the expense of
other students. They might not want to excel or stand out from their peers. Students in grades
5 or 6 through 12 also might feel less than honored to receive a reward, especially if it is given
in front of the entire group. Likewise, students in some cultures will be distressed and embar-
rassed even to have a warning. For example, Manning and Baruth (2009) reported that Asian
Americans often avoid having attention drawn to themselves, especially if that attention could
reflect negatively upon themselves or their families. This could also affect teachers who keep
names on a chart or whiteboard. Thus, teachers must know and consider the students in their
classes.
As you consider the behavioral models as well as other models in this book, you must deter-
mine what works for you. For example, what works for a first-grade teacher probably will not work
for an 11th-grade teacher without modifications. Also, what works for educators who believe in the
authority of the teacher might not work for educators who believe in establishing democratic class-
rooms. However, regardless of the classroom management system, teachers must believe the system
works, and they must believe it works for them. Developing Your Personal Philosophy provides
several questions that you can ask yourself to determine whether behavioral models align with your
philosophical and psychological beliefs.

Do the Behavioral Models Reflect Your Beliefs?
If you are considering using a behavioral model in your class- 7. Do I believe all students are capable of behaving appro-
room, ask yourself these questions: priately?
8. If I use Assertive Discipline, am I able to forego all non-
1. Do I see a need (and am I willing) to place clear and assertive and hostile behaviors and adopt only assertive
specific limits on students’ behavior? behaviors?
2. Do I agree with rewards for appropriate behavior and 9. Am I willing to treat the symptoms rather than the
consequences for inappropriate behavior? causes of misbehaviors?
3. Am I able to be consistent with all students and with all 10. Am I willing to place less emphasis on self-disciplined
situations? and responsible students and more on external con-
4. Do I believe my students will respond better to intrinsic trols of rewards and punishments?
or extrinsic motivation? 11. Am I willing to use tangible rewards such as pencils,
5. Do I see the behavioral models as providing too much stickers, or certificates as a means of rewards or posi-
or just enough structure for me? tive reinforcers?
6. Do I have the ability and motivation to be as consistent 12. Am I willing to adopt a program that provides little, if
as the behavioral models require? any, teacher discretion in solving behavior problems?
35
Summary
This chapter has provided an overview of three behavioral some researchers are critical of the behavioral approaches to
models of classroom management: Canter and Canter’s management, these models hold considerable potential for
Assertive Discipline; Barrish’s, Saunders’s, and Wolf’s Good use in classrooms.
Behavior Game; and Nelson’s Think Time. Additional infor- To review the concepts of the behavioral models,
mation about these models and their applications can be revisit the situation of Sabrina Price in the opening vignette.
found in the suggested readings and on the Internet sites See if you can help Ms. Price to prepare for a successful sec-
identified in “Reaching Out with the Internet.” ond year of teaching with a behavioral model of classroom
Each of these models can be applied in modern classmanagement by responding to the following questions:
rooms. Following behavior modification research and class-
1. What would the proponents of the behavioral models
room observations, the Canters developed their classroom
suggest is wrong with Ms. Price’s current approach to
management system to focus on assertive teachers using a
management?
system of positive reinforcement and negative conse-
2. Which of the behavioral models could Ms. Price use to
quences. Barrish, Saunders, and Wolf began the GBG to
help with classroom management?
diminish negative behaviors, focus on peer encouragement,
3. What actions and changes should Ms. Price initiate in
and reward student teams for following rules and class rou-
her classroom to use a behavioral model of management?
tines. Finally, Nelson created Think Time™ to reinforce
4. How would your suggestions change if Ms. Price were
rules, provide early intervention, and encourage a positive
in a fifth-grade classroom? An eighth-grade classroom?
social exchange between teachers and students. Although
Suggested Readings
Carter, D., Norman, R., & Tredwell, C. (2011). Program-wide disruptive behavior in the kindergarten classroom. Journal of
positive behavior support in Preschool: Lessons for getting start- Applied School Psychology, 26(3), 247–261. The authors report
ed. Early Childhood Education, 38(5), 349–355. The authors on the use of the Good Behavior Game with kindergarten stu-
review the Program-wide Positive Behavior Support system as dents in an at-risk school district.
a behavior modification model for dealing with misbehaviors in Morawska, A., & Sanders, M. (2011). Parental use of time out re-
early childhood programs. visited: A useful or harmful parenting strategy? Journal of Child
Hulac, D. M., & Benson, N. (2010). The use of group contin- & Family Studies, 20(1), 1–8. Although the study focused on
gencies for preventing and managing disruptive behaviors. the use of time-outs by parents, the findings have relevance for
Intervention in School and Clinic, 45(4), 257–262. The authors teachers as well.
examine the effects of groups on classroom management and Paciotti, K. D. (2010). Caring behavior management: The spirit makes
how teachers can use groups to improve behavior. the difference. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 76(4), 12–17. Paciotti
McGoey, D. E., Schneider, D. L., Rezzetano, K. M., Prodan, T., describes a behavior management model that uses rubber ducks as
& Tankersley, M. (2010). Classwide intervention to manage positive reinforcement in kindergarten through fifth grade.

Visit the following websites for additional information on theorists www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-yearbook/94_docs/
and their theories of management. COVALESK.htm
“Reviewing Dewey’s Concept of Discipline”—This essay is a re-
ASSERTIVE DISCIPLINE sponse to Covaleskie by Jeanne Connell of the University Illinois
Assertive Discipline at Champaign-Urbana
www.behavioradvisor.com/AssertiveDiscipline.html www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-yearbook/94_docs/CONNELL.
HTM
Canter
www.canter.net/
GOOD BEHAVIOR GAME
“Dewey, Discipline, and Democracy”—This essay is a critique of
Assertive Discipline by John F. Covaleskie of Northern Michigan American Institutes for Research: Good Behavior Game Research,
University. Training, and Support
36
www.air.org/reports-products/index. www.teachervision.fen.com/teaching-methods/classroom-
cfm?fa=viewContent&content_id=785 management/9167.html
Child Trends: The Good Behavior Game
www.childtrends.org/lifecourse/programs/ THINK TIMETM STRATEGY
GoodBehaviorGame.htm
Biography of Ron Nelson
Intervention Central: Good Behavior Game
www.unl.edu/barkley/faculty/rnelson.shtml
www.interventioncentral.org/index.php/classroom-
mangement/131-good-behavior-game Mrs. Thornton’s Citizens of the World—this page contains an
example of a debriefing form from Davis School District
“Medical News—Good Behavior Game dramatically reduced
aggressive behavior and helped children stay on task in the www.davis.k12.ut.us/staff/wthorson/thinktime.html
classroom” Think Time: Responding Effectively to Disruptive Behavior
www.news-medical.net/news/2005/02/21/7855.aspx www.cecp.air.org/resources/success/think_time.asp
PAX Good Behavior Game The Think Time Strategy
www.hazelden.org/web/public/pax.page www.auburn.wednet.edu/homepages/leahill/About%20Us/
Variation of the Good Behavior Game: A Behavior Management Think%20Time%20Procedures%20Flow%20Chart%20-
Strategy for Teachers %20handbook.pdf
37
38
Ecological Approaches to
39
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading and reflecting on Chapter 5, you 5. describe the Lions Club International Foundation’s
should be able to Lions Quest and its three levels of lessons;
1. discuss the characteristics of the ecological 6. explain Allred’s Positive Action program and its unit
approaches to classroom management; topics for classroom lessons;
2. describe the key concepts of Kounin’s model and 7. discuss Schuyler’s, Elias’s, and Clabby’s Social
explain how these concepts could be implemented in Decision Making and Problem Solving Program and
a classroom; the program’s decision-making process;
3. discuss Shriver’s Community of Caring and how it is 8. critique the ecological approaches to classroom
applied in a classroom; management; and
4. explain the basis for the Boy Scouts of America’s Learning 9. consider all the ecological approaches and identify
for Life program and its eight core character traits; concepts to include in your own personal philosophy.
Digital Vision/Thinkstock
40
Ecological Approaches to
VIGNETTE: Committing to an Ecological Approach
Dr. Terence Eubanks was asked to provide a series of inservice sessions for an urban school division. The pre-
liminary report on the condition of the school division showed that scores were down dramatically, even lower
than they had been several years earlier; absenteeism and discipline referrals were up; and several schools had
experienced serious misbehavior, including a knifing in a middle school. In spite of this, Dr. Eubanks felt he
could help and decided to focus on an ecological management approach to improve academic achievement as
well as behavior.
Dr. Eubanks planned his first sessions as follows:
Session 1: Discussion of the teachers’ perceptions of the school system’s problems and introductory
overview of ecological behavior management.
Session 2: Discussion of Kounin’s ideas on teacher behaviors, movement management, and group focus.
Session 3: Discussion of various management models using an ecological approach that would focus on
social and emotional learning.
Follow-up: Dr. Eubanks and the various directors and supervisors would visit as many classrooms as they
could to answer individual questions, check the use of Kounin’s ideas, and get feedback before deciding
on a specific ecological management program to implement.
After the first two sessions, teachers were concerned. They felt that learning Kounin’s Instructional Man-
agement model was the equivalent of learning how to teach all over again. Although Dr. Eubanks explained that
Kounin’s techniques were what many good teachers already did, the teachers were still apprehensive. They also
worried about the selection and implementation of an ecological model. As one experienced teacher remarked,
“Whatever is decided, it will just mean more work for us.”
OVERVIEW
Emerging from the research of Jacob Kounin (1970) and Paul V. Gump (Gump 1969;
Kounin & Gump, 1958; 1974), ecological approaches to management focus on the
physical “habitat” (Doyle, 2006, p. 98) or behavior setting such as a classroom or the
entire school that has an impact on the behavior of the individuals in that habitat.
Management becomes the process of establishing and maintaining order in the
habitat by examining the physical design of the environment; the rules, routines, and
procedures in the environment; and the conduct of activities there.
A classroom, or “ecobehavioral unit” (Doyle, 2006, p. 100), consists of segments
such as individual lessons, tests, discussions, group activities or seat work that help
41
Ecological Approaches to Classroom Management
to regulate behavior. To Gump, these segments of classroom life “surround and

regulate behavior” (Carter & Doyle, 2006, p. 385). Each segment has its own pattern
of teacher–student interactions that define what is acceptable behavior for that
segment. Although routines provide stability and help with management, teacher
action and student involvement within the segments are important regulators of
behavior (Doyle, 2009).
To manage a classroom successfully, a teacher must understand what happens
in the various segments and the “actions he or she can take to invite and secure a
pupil’s cooperation in these programs of action” (Carter & Doyle, p. 385). Because
these segments change as instruction changes, and because management and
instruction are intertwined, the dynamics in the classroom are constantly changing.
Thus, classroom management is not a once-and-done process. The teacher needs to
modify and adjust management and instruction depending on the situation.
Order is created by the actions of teachers and students. When students
misbehave, the teacher tries to educate the students about the consequences of their
actions and to restore order.
From examining the actions of the teacher (Kounin, 1970), the ecological
approach has expanded to include a “continuum of deliberate interventions designed
to assist students in developing the social awareness [skills and capabilities they
need in order to] . . . “function as effective, caring participants in school and in their
lives” (Carter & Doyle, 2006, p. 395). Thus, some ecological management approaches
focus on building social skills and improving school or classroom climate (Freiberg &
Lapointe, 2006). Others are designed to create “a caring classroom environment . . .
[that contributes] to a student’s sense of belongingness and motivate[s] engagement
in appropriate classroom behavior” (Wentzel, 2003, p. 319). See also Chapter 8 for
more information on caring classroom environments.
Ecological management models build on the ideas of social and emotional
learning (SEL). “[W]hen schools address children’s social and emotional needs,
children become more engaged in school, demonstrate reduced problem
behaviors, and increase academic performance” (Tanyu, 2007, p. 258). Reporting
on the results of 213 studies of SEL programs, Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki,
Taylor, and Schellinger (2011) found that when compared to students in non-SEL
programs, students who participate in SEL programs in schools improve
significantly in “social-emotional competencies, and attitudes about self, others,
and schools” (p. 417), have less emotional distress (stress and depression), and
show “behavioral adjustment in the form of increased prosocial behaviors and
reduced conduct and internalizing problems” (p. 417) while also improving
academic performance.
Many of these SEL ecological management programs are very structured. Others
are simple yet effective. For example, the Morning Program is a daily assembly
program for elementary schools that is designed to start each school day on a
positive note. Using songs, sharing information and achievements, and presenting
daily educational programs (Shenendehowa Central Schools, 2011), the Morning
Program helps students to feel pride in themselves, their classrooms, school, home,
and community by encouraging and reinforcing proper behavior. Recognized by New
York State as a state-validated program, the Morning Program also encourages
families and community members to attend the programs (Sharing Successful
Programs: New York State Education Programs That Work, 2010).
In contrast, Open Circle, another research-validated program for grades K–5,
relies on the use of the “Open Circle format in which students and teacher arrange
their chairs in a circle and keep one chair empty to symbolize that the circle is open to
anyone” (Taylor, Liang, Tracey, Williams, & Seigle, 2002, p. 260). Developed by
42
Pamela Seigle at Wellesley College (Hennessey, 2007), the program includes a series
of lessons on cooperation, self-esteem, positive relationships, and people problem-
solving skills to help students learn to cope with the challenges they face daily.
Many of these SEL ecological classroom management models are complete
commercial programs that are implemented at the school or school district level
rather than by individual teachers. They require teachers to use program specific
materials to introduce and reinforce core concepts (Beets et al., 2008). However,
these ecological approaches to management can be used with other management
models (Doyle, 2009). This chapter briefly presents five of these programs.
INDIVIDUAL MODELS FOR ECOLOGICAL APPROACHES

In this chapter, you will read about ecological models for classroom management. First, you will
explore Kounin’s groundbreaking Instructional Management model. Next, you will look at the fol-
lowing ecological management models that focus on values, character education, and SEL as an
ecological approach: Shriver, Community of Caring; Boy Scouts of America, Learning for Life;
Lions Club International, Lions Quest; Allred, Positive Action; and Schuyler, Elias, and Clabby,
Social Decision Making and Problem Solving Program.
KEY TERMS
Table 5–1 identifies the key terms related to ecological approaches to classroom management.
TABLE 5–1 Key Terms Related to Ecological Approaches to Classroom Management
Schuyler, Elias,
Boy Scouts of & Clabby—Social
Kounin— Shriver— America— Lions Club Decision Making
Instructional Community of Learning International— Allred—Positive and Problem
Management Caring for Life Lions Quest Action Solving Program
• Accountability • Core values • Career • Skills for • Being honest • Application phase
• Dangles • Coordinating exploration Adolescents with yourself • Decision-making
• Desists committee • Core character • Skills for Action • Improving process
• Service-learning traits • Skills for Growing yourself • Instructional
• Flip-flops
• Service-learning continually phase
• Fragmentation • Site facilitator
• Managing • Readiness phase
• Group alerting yourself
• Group focus responsibly
• Jerkiness Positive actions
for a healthy
• Movement body and mind
management
• Self-concept
• Overdwelling
• Thoughts-
• Overlapping Actions-Feelings
• Ripple effect circle
• Satiation • Treating others
• Slowdowns the way you like
to be treated
• Stimulus bound
• Thrust
• Truncation
• Withitness
43
JACOB KOUNIN: INSTRUCTIONAL MANAGEMENT

Jacob Kounin (1970) changed the focus of classroom management from discipline based on repri-
mands to management based on the dynamics in the classroom. He “focused attention on the dis-
tinctive properties of the classroom environment and the relationships between the demands of this
environment and the behaviors of teachers and students” (Doyle, 1985, p. 31). Testing his theories
over two decades of work, he found that teachers who demonstrate effective instructional behaviors,
are aware of their environment, and use effective instructional management procedures keep their
students focused on learning tasks and minimize behavior problems. He developed a set of terms to
discuss instruction and the teacher’s behavior in the classroom.
Overview of Kounin’s Model

Kounin (1970) advanced the idea that teachers’ behaviors have a positive and negative impact on
learners’ behaviors. The key concepts of his model are shown in Figure 5–1. Instead of looking for
psychological goals of student misbehavior or developing reward systems, teachers must look at what
they do in the classroom. William Wattenberg (1977, p. 261), one of the foundational theorists, said
of Kounin’s model:
It counteracts mischief by keeping people productively busy. There is minimum reliance on

negative experiences, a maximum reliance on activity and psychological alertness.
Practical Applications of Kounin’s Model

According to Kounin, in order to be effective instructors and managers, teachers have to demon-
strate appropriate teaching behaviors, maintain appropriate instructional momentum, work
toward group focus, and plan a learning environment that is conducive to learning and behavior.
Although Kounin did not relieve students of their responsibility to behave and achieve self-disci-
pline, he believed that the teacher was primarily responsible for the learners’ behaviors. Manage-
ment Tip 5–1 looks at instructional activities that contribute to classroom management. Kounin
identified several teacher behaviors that contribute to effective classroom management. Let’s look
at each in turn.
WITHITNESS Effective teachers demonstrate withitness, which means they are aware of all
events, activities, and student behaviors in the classroom and that they convey that knowledge
to students. Without hesitation, the withit teacher can tell whether behaviors contribute to or
take away from learning situations. At the same time, the students know that the withit teacher
detects inappropriate behaviors early and accurately (Kounin, 1970). The withit teacher knows
who is causing a disturbance even if that student likes to cause a disturbance and then fade into
FIGURE 5–1
Key Concepts of Kounin’s • Teacher Behavior: Withitness and other teacher behaviors such as desists, overlapping, and
Model satiation have an impact on student behavior.
• Movement Management: Pacing and the ebb and flow of instruction are important in the pres-
entation of a lesson and the maintenance of appropriate student behavior in the classroom.
Kounin used the terms jerkiness, stimulus bound, thrust, dangles, truncation, flip-flop, slow-
downs, overdwelling, and fragmentation to discuss the movement of instruction.
• Group Focus: The teacher who uses appropriate instructional strategies and activities can keep
the students focused on the lesson and can minimize behavior problems.
44

Managing a Classroom with Instructional Activities
Kounin believed that instructional behaviors are a very impor- Pre-K and Elementary
tant part of classroom management. With careful planning, Model your instruction. When you want students to
teachers can often use effective instructional activities to pre- learn a new skill, be sure that you model the skills for
vent behavior problems or to correct misbehaviors. students by working through a sample problem or
All teachers can use instructional techniques to pro- procedure first and verbalize your thoughts as you
mote good student behavior: complete the procedure.
• Establish clear procedures. Use music to designate transitions between lessons
• Develop lessons that are neither too difficult nor too and to set a calming tone in the classroom.
easy.
• Focus on the entire class, not dwelling too long on
one or two students. Secondary
• Pace instruction to maintain student interest. Know when to have the class take a break or when to
• Provide curricular content and instructional methods change instructional strategy.
that interest and challenge learners. During long block classes, build in a 5-minute break so
• Demonstrate appropriate instructional behaviors such that students can talk quietly, move around the room,
as withitness and group alerting, avoiding behaviors visit the restroom, and relax at their seats.
such as dangles, fragmentation, and satiation.
the background as if having nothing to do with the situation. Reflecting the old adage that teach-
ers have “eyes in the backs of their heads,” the withit teacher performs more than one task at a
time (overlapping) and knows all students’ actions regardless of the teaching or learning situation
(Gordon, 1997).
Bertneta and Jana quietly slipped a magazine back and forth between them as Ms. Anderson taught the les-
son. While continuing to teach, Ms. Anderson walked to the girls and took the magazine. Never speaking to
the girls and never stopping instruction, Ms. Anderson demonstrated that she knows what is occurring in all
parts of the room at all times.
Applying Ecological Models 5–1 suggests other ways teachers can demonstrate withitness and
asks you to suggest additional examples.
DESISTS Desists are efforts to stop a misbehavior, such as when a third-grade teacher says,
“Gene, please put your feet on the floor instead of on Scott’s desk.” Gene and all the other
APPLYING ECOLOGICAL MODELS 5–1

Demonstrating Withitness
The following examples demonstrate withitness: During instruction, the teacher has all needed materi-
als, is prepared to answer relevant questions, and is
While helping a student with a problem, a teacher
well prepared.
monitors the rest of the class, acknowledges other
requests for assistance, handles disruptions, and keeps What other ways can you suggest for teachers to
track of time. demonstrate withitness? Consider teachers you have had
During a discussion, a teacher listens to student (those who were withit and those who were not). How
answers, watches other students for signs of compre- might you demonstrate withitness in the grade levels you
hension or confusion, formulates the next question, plan to teach?
and scans the class for possible misbehaviors.
45
students in the class know the expected behavior. Although desists are necessary at times and
have the potential for a ripple effect (the effect when a teacher corrects one student who is mis-
behaving and the behavior “ripples” to other students, causing them to behave), they also can
be threatening. In one of his studies, Kounin found that desists resulted in less-relaxed students
and reduced feelings of teacher helpfulness and likability (Kounin, 1970). He also found that to
be most effective, teachers should ensure that desists are spoken clearly and that they are under-
stood. Firmness and roughness do not impact the effectiveness of desists as much as clarity does
(Morris, 1996).
When should you use desists and when should you just take action, as Ms. Anderson, a withit
teacher, did in an earlier example in this chapter? That can be answered only by looking at each
individual situation. Depending on the circumstances and the outcomes desired, a teacher must
determine quickly whether to handle the misbehavior with a desist or more subtly.
OVERLAPPING Overlapping is what teachers do when they have two matters to deal with at the
same time (similar to multitasking). For example, a teacher can work with one student or a group
of students and at the same time monitor or help another student who is working in another part
of the room. Kounin found that teachers who can overlap are better able to demonstrate withitness.
Examples of overlapping include:
• a middle school teacher correcting a student’s misbehavior and never breaking instructional
momentum,
• a kindergarten teacher distributing drawing materials while explaining the procedures and
behaviors she expects,
• an elementary teacher discussing an individual student’s problem while monitoring the class
on the walk back from lunch,
• a high school teacher acknowledging (e.g., through eye contact and proximity) a student’s
inattention as she continues teaching the social studies lesson, and
• a teacher correcting the behavior of a small group while he sees another student in the back of
the room take a student’s book bag. He motions with his hand to the student that the stu-
dent’s actions are being monitored.
Regardless of the cause of the interruption, the teacher who can overlap successfully can deal with
several issues simultaneously. Also, the students recognize the teacher’s ability to handle multiple
issues as an indication of awareness and control (withitness).
SATIATION As the term implies, satiation occurs when a teacher teaches the same lesson for so
long that the students grow tired of the topic. Their interest and enthusiasm wane as the “activity
becomes less and less positive then more and more negative” (Kounin, 1970, p. 126). The quality of
work decreases, the number of mistakes increases, the activity no longer is an intellectual challenge,
and a general breakdown of the activity occurs.
Mr. Hanna was teaching an above-average group of students. After he had clearly explained subordinate
clauses and all the students had mastered the topic, about 20 minutes of class time were left. To use the
time, Mr. Hanna continued to write sentences on the board and to ask the students to identify the subordi-
nate clause. However, satiation occurred. Students showed signs of lack of enthusiasm, and they started
misbehaving.
With a little thought and planning, effective teachers can avoid satiation and its accompany-
ing problems. However, once it becomes evident that satiation is occurring, teachers can take several
steps to stop it: (1) show a genuine zest and enthusiasm for the topic, (2) make a positive statement
about the activity [“This next one is going to be fun; I know you’ll enjoy it” (Kounin, 1970, p. 130)],
and (3) point out that the activity has a special intellectual challenge [“You’re going to need your
thinking caps on for the next one, it’s tricky” (p. 130)]. Applying Ecological Models 5–2 offers some
additional suggestions for avoiding satiation.
46

Avoiding Satiation
The following are some instructional techniques that you • If satiation occurs before mastery, change to another
can use to avoid satiation. After reading them, identify other activity that is designed to teach the same material, or
instructional strategies you could use to counteract satiation. break the class into groups.
• Ask higher-level questions that will motivate addi-
• “Read” the class to check for signs of satiation. Look
tional thought about the topic.
for students who are tired and for signs of growing
• Allow the students to put away their present work
disinterest.
and work on independent learning projects or person-
• Always have additional work available that will extend
alized reading programs.
or enrich the lesson.
JERKINESS Jerkiness refers to a lack of lesson smoothness and momentum. Some teachers dem-
onstrate jerkiness in the way they pace instruction or proceed with the lesson. For example, a teacher
might switch from one topic or activity to another without sufficiently notifying the students.
In the middle of the lesson, Ms. Overton, a teacher, glanced at the fish in the classroom aquarium. She stopped
instruction to ask Jesse whether he had fed the fish. The instructional momentum was lost, and the students’
interest had to be regained (Wattenberg, 1977).
To maintain an appropriate instructional pace, a teacher should avoid changing the learning topics,
avoid asking students questions that do not relate specifically to the lesson (e.g., whether the fish
have been fed), and ask students to hold off questions that do not relate specifically to the instruc-
tional topic.
STIMULUS BOUND When a teacher has the students engaged in a lesson and something else at-
tracts the teacher’s attention, that teacher is stimulus bound. The instructional focus and momen-
tum are lost while the teacher deals with another issue (e.g., the fish).
Just as Mr. Liffick started to teach, he noticed that police were in the hall frisking and handcuffing a man.
Because of the position of the classroom door, the students could not see what was going on. However, Mr.
Liffick clearly was distracted from the lesson he had planned. Knowing that something was going on that was
attracting Mr. Liffick’s attention, the students began to fidget and turn in their seats, trying to find out what
was happening.
To avoid becoming stimulus bound, a teacher needs to recognize its negative effects and make a
genuine commitment to maintaining the instructional focus.
THRUST A thrust consists of a teacher’s sudden “bursting in” (Kounin, 1970, p. 100) on students’
activities with an order, statement, or question without being sensitive to the group’s readiness to
receive the message. An everyday example of a thrust is when someone interrupts a conversation of
two or more people without waiting to be noticed. A thrust is similar to a stimulus-bound event
except that the stimulus-bound event is started by a stimulus outside the teacher, whereas the thrust
is initiated by the intent of the teacher (Kounin, 1970). In both instances, the result is that the
teacher and the students lose their instructional pace, jerkiness results, and the conditions become
ripe for misbehavior. Applying Ecological Models 5–3 asks you to suggest a professional response to
a practicum student’s thrusts.
DANGLES AND TRUNCATIONS A dangle occurs when a teacher starts an activity and then
leaves it “hanging in midair” (Kounin, 1970, p. 100) by beginning another activity. Later, the
teacher might resume the original activity. A truncation is the same as a dangle except that in a
47

Dealing with Thrusts
As you read the following scenario, think about the effect a interrupting their work with statements that were
thrust may have on instructional pacing and classroom man- unrelated to the lesson, such as, “Jill, how is your
agement. Then respond to the questions at the end. older sister doing? I went to school with her, you
know,” and, “Wasn’t that a great lunch we had in
Donica Redmon was doing her practicum in a math-
the cafeteria today?” As a result of Donica’s com-
ematics class. To Mr. Masucci, the teacher, it was evi-
ments, students began to talk about things other
dent that Donica did not understand the negative
than the class work they were supposed to be doing,
effects of thrusts. As she taught for about 1 hour, he
and the level of noise in the room escalated.
counted eight to 10 thrusts. During her lesson,
Donica made extraneous comments about the situa-
1. What effect have Ms. Redmon’s thrusts had on
tions in the word problems, such as “I’ve never
instruction and classroom management?
understood why people would want to drive big
2. If you were Mr. Masucci, what would you suggest to
cars.” Then, after breaking the class into cooperative
Donica?
learning groups, she interrupted their work with
3. What if Donica says, “I was just being friendly to the
comments such as, “Did anyone bring milk jugs for
students.” How should Mr. Masucci explain to Donica
the experiment we’re going to do tomorrow?”
the effects of her behavior on the students?
Finally, she walked around visiting each group and
truncation, the teacher does not resume the initiated, then dropped, activity. In other words, a
truncation might be described as a longer-lasting dangle (Kounin, 1970). Kounin (1970) provides
a good example (p. 101).
The students had just completed reading a story in their reading circle. As the teacher got up and walked
toward the board, she said something like, “Let’s look at these arithmetic problems on the board.” Halfway to
the board, however, she stopped, turned around, and walked to her desk to look at some papers there. Then,
after 10 seconds at her desk, she returned to the problems on the board.
The students were taking turns reading their answers to the arithmetic problems. After telling Jimmy
that his answer to the third question was correct, the teacher looked around and asked Mary to read her an-
swer to number four. As Mary was getting up, the teacher looked around the room and asked, “My, now. Let’s
see. Suzanne isn’t here, is she? Does anyone know why Suzanne is absent today?”
Because of the loss of momentum and the lack of smoothness in the instructional pace, stu-
dents are confused and unsure about what they are supposed to be doing. The result is that they goof
off and do not pay attention to the instruction. Confusion reigns due to the teacher’s lack of smooth-
ness in the instructional momentum.
FLIP-FLOPS Flip-flops occur only at transition points, such as when the teacher terminates one
activity and begins another and then reverts to the first activity. For example, a teacher says, “All
right, let’s everybody put away your spelling papers and take your arithmetic books” (Kounin,
1970, p. 101). The students put their spelling papers in their desk and, after most of the students
have gotten out their arithmetic books, the teacher asks, “Let’s see the hands of the ones who got
all their spelling words right” (p. 101). The results of flip-flops are the same as those of dangles
and truncations. The teacher confuses students, who then begin to lose their instructional focus
and misbehave.
SLOWDOWNS: OVERDWELLING AND FRAGMENTATION Kounin (1970) maintained that two

types of slowdowns occur: overdwelling and fragmentation. Both relate to instructional movement
and the need for smoothness, and consist of teacher behaviors that clearly slow down the rate of in-
structional movement. Overdwelling happens when a teacher dwells on corrective behavior longer
48
than needed or on a lesson longer than required for most students’ understanding and interest levels
(Kounin, 1970).
Ms. Rentz overdwelled as she corrected behavior. While she was teaching her lesson, Hirooshi wadded up
a piece of paper and threw it toward the trashcan, his imaginary basketball hoop. Ms. Rentz said, “Hirooshi,
don’t wad up paper and throw it in the trash like that. You have been told time and time again. Why do you do
that? And for the rest of you—I don’t like the way you have been behaving lately. LaToyia, you talk too much
and disturb others. Korey, you walk around the room too much. Rosa, well, you know how you are!”
To be more effective, all Ms. Rentz had to do was to ignore the paper incident or say “Hirooshi, the
others and I are annoyed when someone throws paper in the trashcan during a lesson.”
A teacher was explaining how to multiply by twos so that the students would be able to answer the questions
in their workbooks as a seatwork assignment. She walked to a large chart that had all the numbers from one
through 100. In unison, she and the students called out all the odd numbers from one to 99 (Kounin, 1970).
The teacher overdwelled and in all likelihood, the students grew disinterested and bored.
Management Tip 5–2 provides suggestions of activities that can be used in place of overdwelling.
Fragmentation, the other type of slowdown, is produced when a teacher breaks down an
activity or behavior into subparts even though the activity could be performed easily as a single unit
or an uninterrupted sequence. For example, the teacher tells each member of a group to do some-
thing singly that could be performed by the group as a whole. In this instance, students have to wait
for their turn and, while waiting, might begin to talk and engage in other misbehaviors. The follow-
ing are a few questions you could ask yourself to eliminate slowdowns in instruction.
Do the students look bored or disinterested?
Has it been too long since I asked questions or made encouraging comments?
Have I been dwelling on the same instructional point for too long?
Are students growing frustrated and disenchanted with the lesson?
How long have I spent on this lesson? Realistically speaking, how much time do I think
should have been needed to teach the lesson? Why it is taking me so long?
Should I stop the lesson and begin again during the next class (assuming the students still do
not know the information)?

Avoiding Overdwelling
Teachers are always warned that they need to have Pre-K and Elementary
backup ideas that they can use any time students finish a Assign class jobs so that students have something to
lesson in a shorter time than planned. Suggested activities do when lessons and activities end early or when they
include get done with in-class assignments.
writing in a journal, Assign jobs to student monitors who will keep every-
selecting free-choice reading from the classroom book one on task with their jobs.
collection, Rotate the jobs so that no one becomes bored.
reading a library book,
Secondary
doing homework,
Keep a set of brainteasers on PowerPoint presenta-
completing mini lessons that take 10 minutes or less, tions or worksheets and allow the students to solve
listening to the teacher reading a poem or short story, them as a class or in small groups.
and Save Sudoku or word puzzles from the newspaper or
listening to an audio book. Internet for students to complete.
49
GROUP FOCUS Group focus occurs when a teacher makes a conscientious attempt to keep the
attention of all members of the class at all times. When this happens, the teacher maintains efficient
classroom control and reduces student misbehavior (Kounin, 1970).
One aspect of group focus is group alerting, which, according to Kounin, refers to the degree
to which a teacher attempts to involve all learners in learning tasks, maintain their attention, and
keep them “on their toes” (Kounin, 1970, p. 117). When using positive group alerting, teachers cre-
ate “suspense” (Kounin, 1970, p. 117) before calling on a student to answer a question, keep stu-
dents in suspense regarding who will be called upon next, call on different students to answer
questions, and alert nonperformers that they might be called upon next. In contrast, teachers use
negative group alerting methods when they focus attention on the performance of one student
instead of the group, prepick a person before asking a question (e.g., putting the name first rather
than after a question—“Bill, what is a linking verb?”), and call on students in a predetermined
sequence, such as going down rows or the class roll.
Using group accountability, the teacher holds the students accountable and responsible for
their task performances. To do this, a teacher must know what the students are doing and commu-
nicate that knowledge to the students in some observable manner, including the use of record-
keeping devices such as checklists and task cards. When students know they are held accountable for
their learning and behavior and teachers know each student’s progress, student misbehavior
decreases. Although it is important to know about these instructional techniques, it is also important
to know when and how to use them. One of the authors was observing a practicum student teach a
fourth-grade class. She had done an excellent job of introducing instruction and moving smoothly
toward small-group work. Then, she made a serious mistake: She said, “Everyone get an encyclope-
dia, so you can begin working on your projects.” Immediately, about three-fourths of the class went
hurriedly to the back of the room for an encyclopedia. Chaos reigned. Management of the class
could have been maintained if she had said, “The leader of your group should get an encyclopedia.”
Kounin studied the ecological situation in the classroom habitat that is controlled by the teacher.
Dr. Eubanks, in the chapter’s opening vignette, included a session on other ecological management
models. These models build on the social and emotional learning of the students and the resulting
changes in the classroom. In the next several sections, you will read about some of these models.
EUNICE SHRIVER: COMMUNITY OF CARING

Founded by Eunice Kennedy Shriver and the Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. Foundation, the Community
of Caring program was originally started to provide a “nurturing and supportive environment for
pregnant adolescents and to reduce teen pregnancies” (Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Center for
Community of Caring, 2011). Based on the program’s success, it developed into a values and char-
acter education program for K–12 schools with a focus on creating a positive school environment for
all students, including those with special needs.
Overview of Community of Caring

By promoting a positive learning environment, positive attitudes, and respect for others, Commu-
nity of Caring is designed to combat violence, bullying, and cheating. As an integrated approach to
management that involves the entire school plus families and the community, it can be classified as
a schoolwide approach to management as well as an ecological one. The idea is to create a school
environment that teaches values throughout the school—from the classroom to the cafeteria, the
playground, or the athletic fields.
Evaluated by the Center for Health Policy Studies of Columbia, Maryland, Community of
Caring was endorsed by the National Association of Secondary School Principals (McCarthy, 1995).
The evaluation showed positive results including a reduction in unexcused absences, fewer written
disciplinary actions, more student interest in helping others, better attention to personal health, and
stronger relationships with family and peers (Building Partnerships for Youth, 2009).
50
Practical Applications of Community of Caring

The Community of Caring program is built upon five core values: care, respect, trust and moral con-
sciousness, responsibility, and family (Jones & Stoodley, 1999). Teachers infuse these core values into
existing lessons in the curriculum and use ethical discussions to help students make sound moral deci-
sions. Believing that the total culture of the school supports these values, students “recognize new
opportunities and positive alternatives to destructive behavior” (p. 49). In addition to cross-age groups,
learning circles, and friendship groups, student forums in secondary schools and class meetings in ele-
mentary schools provide opportunities for students to discuss issues and offer solutions to problems.
There are several essential components of a Community of Caring. These include training for all
teachers and staff and the designation of a site facilitator to work with the principal and coordinate the
program with the help of a coordinating committee. The principal, site facilitator, and coordinating
committee develop a comprehensive action plan that includes the goals and objectives of the program
and strategies and a timeline for implementing the plan. Next, teachers weave values and ethical discus-
sions into the existing curriculum and provide forums and class meetings where students can discuss
issues and problems. Finally, students participate in service-learning projects. Throughout the planning
and implementation of the plan, educators involve families and community members.
BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA: LEARNING FOR LIFE

Developed by the Boy Scouts of America, Learning for Life is a pre-K–12 program that integrates
character development and academics. Specially designed lessons for each level or grade focus on the
Common Core and state standards while incorporating life skills and character development (Learn-
ing for Life, 2011b).
Overview of Learning for Life

Used in more than 20,000 schools throughout the United States (Evaluation Systems Design, 2010),
the lessons in Learning for Life encourage “hands-on activities and cooperative learning in a nurtur-
ing open environment” (p. 1). These lessons support the core curriculum and reinforce academic
skills while fostering the ethical, social, and character development of students. The idea is to com-
bine life skills, character development, academic learning, and outdoor experiences to encourage
positive behavior. In a study of the program, teachers reported “significant improvement in the
observed behavior of students” (Syndics Research Corporation & Ryan, 2005, p. 2) following the
Learning for Life lessons.
Practical Applications of Learning for Life

Learning for Life consists of a series of age-appropriate lessons that are designed to be integrated with
reading, science, math, and social studies. With the lessons, a teacher uses small group discussions,
case studies, and other strategies to encourage student reflection. There are also activities for the
student to take home to extend learning.
For pre-kindergarten through sixth grade, there are a series of lessons for each level (Pre-K,
K–2, 3–4, and 5–6) that focus on the eight core character traits of respect, responsibility, honesty/
trust, caring/fairness, perseverance, self-discipline, courage, and citizenship (Learning for Life,
2011a). For example, a preschool teacher might use a lesson on sharing or special manners for
school, while a K–2 teacher could incorporate a lesson on accepting consequences or meeting dead-
lines. Although the same themes are central to the lessons, the lessons for grades 3 through 4 focus
on “critical thinking, conflict resolution, perseverance, courage, interpersonal skills, and ethical deci-
sion making” (Learning for Life, 2011a). By the fifth and sixth grades, life skills such as money
management and fire safety as well as antibullying and Internet safety are added to the lessons which
now are “geared to a higher-level of cognitive and developmental learning” (Learning for Life,
2011a). For Pre-K through grade 2 there is additional information in the lessons on personal safety.
51

Evaluating Learning for Life lessons
Visit the Learning for Life website for curriculum information grades you hope to teach. Evaluate the lessons. Are the
at: www.learning.learningforlife.org/programs/prek-12- plans easy to follow? Realizing that the lessons are designed
character-ed. Scrolling down the page, you will find links to to be used as part of an complete program, how effective do
sample lessons and activities in the curriculum. Examine the you think these lessons and this curriculum would be to fos-
curriculum content and lessons that are appropriate for the ter social and emotional learning?
Learning for Life changes slightly in the secondary school. In the seventh and eighth grades,
Learning for Life focuses on four character traits: respect (empathy and peer pressure), responsibility
(decision making and perseverance), honesty and trust, and self-discipline, including anger manage-
ment. In addition to lessons on building relationships and reinforcing character and citizenship, the
program’s emphasis expands to include career education and service-learning. Community members
come into the classroom to explain how academic courses relate to real life. This focus on career
exploration continues into the high school where Learning for Life provides lessons on postsecond-
ary education, career readiness, making the transition from high school into the real world, becom-
ing a productive citizen, and maintaining positive relationships.
Learning for Life provides a special Champions Program for students with special needs.
Included are lessons on daily living skills and personal and social skills as well as vocational skills.
Applying Ecological Models 5–4 explores Learning for Life in more detail.
LIONS CLUB INTERNATIONAL FOUNDATION: LIONS QUEST

Developed by the Lions Club International Foundation, Lions Quest has been designated a model
program by the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services and listed on the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service Administration’s National
Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (Ringwalt et al., 2009, 2010). It focuses on char-
acter development, social and emotional development, citizenship, violence prevention, and service-
learning by using resources of the school, home, and community.
Overview of the Lions Quest

Lions Quest is a “multicomponent life skills education program” (Eisen, Zellman, Massett, & Murray,
2002, p. 620) that promotes character education, drug prevention, and service-learning on the premise
that positive youth development inhibits problem behaviors. The program consists of three age-appro-
priate parts: Skills for Growing (kindergarten through grade 5), Skills for Adolescents (middle school
grades 6 through 8), and Skills for Action (high school grades 9 through 12) (Lions Quest, 2011).
Practical Applications of Lions Quest

Like other commercial ecological models, Lions Quest involves the family and community as well as
educators and encourages service-learning projects. Teachers learn to use a series of lessons on work-
ing cooperatively, developing communication skills, building self-esteem and personal responsibility,
making decisions, and resisting social pressures (Eisen et al., 2002). These lessons incorporate inquiry
learning, discussions, group work, guided practice, reflection, and service-learning projects. Teachers
can use the lessons as a separate life skills course, integrate them into academic subjects, use them for
advisory or guidance in individual classrooms or in an entire school, or all three (Lions Quest, n.d.).
In classrooms, the Lions Quest program expects teachers to develop rules and routines and main-
tain clear standards for student behavior. Depending on the grade level, students can help to develop
some or all of the class rules. Management Tip 5–3 provides additional information on class routines.
52

Using Beginning and Ending Routines
One way to manage a classroom is to develop routines for Secondary

many of the common events that happen in a classroom. In schools where no lockers are provided or where stu-
Teachers can use routines at the beginning and end of the dents have to go outside to portable or temporary
day in Pre-K and elementary school and the beginning and classrooms, establish a place for raincoats and umbrel-
end of class in secondary school. las as well as backpacks and projects.
Pre-K and Elementary Establish a procedure that students follow each day
Have a personal space for each student, such as a when they walk into the class. For example:
cubby or a crate. • Enter and take your seat quietly.
Establish a routine for greeting students each morning • Take out your textbook and open to the page indi-
and for saying goodbye each afternoon. cated on the board.
Create a special place for parents or guardians to pick • Begin working on the assignment listed on the
up messages if they come to get their children. board.
Develop a special “take-home” envelope for children
to use when they take papers or information home to
their parents or guardians.
Age-appropriate lesson materials in Lions Quest help the students to learn self-discipline as
well as problem solving, collaboration, communication, and conflict management skills. For exam-
ple, in the Pre-K/elementary program called Skills for Growing, kindergarten and first-grade stu-
dents have lessons on demonstrating ways to ask for help in the classroom and on making positive
statements about their classmates. By the time students are in middle school, Skills for Adolescents
includes lessons on peer relations and intimidation, as well as resisting pressures to use drugs. Finally,
Skills for Action lessons help high school students to prepare to become responsible citizens.
CAROL ALLRED: POSITIVE ACTION

Cited for its positive effects on both academics and behavior by the U.S. Department of Education’s
What Works Clearinghouse, the Positive Action program was developed by Carol G. Allred. The
model “teaches students . . . what positive actions are and how to do them holistically by including
the physical, intellectual, social and emotional domains” (Allred, 2008, p. 27). According to the
Positive Action model, there is a positive way to do everything. When people think and do things in
a positive manner, they feel good about themselves and are inclined to continue to think and do
things positively.
Overview of Positive Action

The basis of Positive Action is that “students’ self-concepts and characters are determined by how they
behave and how they feel about themselves when they do various behaviors” (Ji et al., 2005, p. 110).
By making healthy and positive behavior choices, students increase their feelings of self-worth. To do
this, students learn to identify positive behaviors, are given opportunities to practice them, and exam-
ine how they feel about themselves when they do positive things. Thus students have an intrinsic
motivation for change. The teacher and other adults at school and at home use repeated reinforce-
ment to help the students gain decision-making skills as they mature socially and emotionally.
A number of studies (Beets et al., 2008; Beets et al., 2009; Flay, Allred, & Ordway, 2001;
Ji et al., 2005) of Positive Action in elementary schools found that the program significantly
decreased behavior problems, increased academic achievement and improved attendance while
53

Using Positive Action
Visit the Positive Action website for curriculum informa- teach. Evaluate these materials using the questions in Apply-
t i o n at: www.positiveaction.net/programs/index. ing Ecological Models 5–4.
asp?ID1=1&ID2=22&ID3=290
By clicking on the links, you can view sample lessons
and activities in the curriculum for the grades you plan to
encouraging students to “demonstrate good character and engage in civic activities” (Allred, 2008,
p. 26). Students in the Positive Action program were “significantly less likely to engage in sub-
stance abuse, violent behaviors, and sexual activity than were students who did not” (Beets et al.,
2009, p. 1443).
Practical Applications of Positive Action

Positive Action is a K–12 classroom program that includes school, family, and community com-
ponents. The curriculum consists of age-appropriate lessons that can be integrated into core
academic classes as well as art, music, and physical education. The lessons target positive internal
behaviors including self-responsibility and positive self-concept as well as social relationships
including conflict resolution, respect for others, and kindness to others. There are also school
climate kits for principals and materials for parents and school counselors as well as for commu-
nity groups and individuals. For fifth grade and middle school, there are supplemental drug
education materials.
At each level, the curriculum consists of six units, each of which has a series of daily 15-minute
lessons for the classroom teacher to use with students throughout the school year. The unit topics
include: self-concept—what is it, how is it formed and why is it important; positive actions for a
healthy body and mind; managing yourself responsibly—managing time, energy, thoughts,
actions, money, feelings, talents; treating others the way you like to be treated—respect, fairness,
kindness, empathy, cooperation, caring; being honest with yourself and others—telling the truth,
doing what you say you’ll do, not blaming others, admitting mistakes, knowing personal strengths
and weaknesses; improving yourself continually—setting and achieving goals, persisting, and
believing in your potential (Allred, 2008; Beets, et al., 2008). Applying Ecological Models 5–5 looks
at these lessons in more detail.
Another key component of the Positive Action program is understanding the Thoughts-
Actions-Feelings (TAF) circle. Jason, a fifth grader, has a thought, acts on it, and feels some-
thing because of that action. This cycle repeats over and over. Rather than having negative
thoughts that lead to negative actions, Jason, with the encouragement of his teacher and other
adults, must learn to change the negative thoughts into positive ones. Using the principals of
positive reinforcement, adults can give ICU (I see you) positive recognition and tokens to stu-
dents (Beets et al., 2008).
THOMAS SCHUYLER, MAURICE ELIAS, AND JOHN CLABBY:

SOCIAL DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Developed in 1979 by Thomas Schuyler, an elementary school principal, and Maurice Elias and
John Clabby, two psychologists, the Social Decision Making and Problem Solving Program (SDM/
PS) began as the Improving Social Awareness—Social Problem Solving Program (Social Decision
Making/Problem Solving Program, n.d.). It consists of a curriculum for kindergarten through grades
5 and 6 designed to “promote social competence by focusing on critical social decision-making,
54
self-control, group participation, and social awareness skills” (Elias, Gara, Schuyler, Branden-Muller,
& Sayette, 1991, p. 409).
Overview of Social Decision Making and Problem Solving

SDM/PS is listed as a “Promising Program” (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special
Educational Research and Improvement, Office of Reform Assistance and Dissemination, 2001,
p. 131) for improving school discipline. As an elementary program, SDM/PS helps students to build the
skills to think clearly under stress and in socially and emotionally complex situations. SDM/PS tar-
gets four basic competencies: building skills for self-control, learning behaviors that are linked with
peer acceptance and the ability to work cooperatively in groups, developing problem-solving and
decision-making skills, and developing the ability to apply social and emotional capacities in response
to changing social situations and demands (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Educa-
tional Research and Improvement, Office of Reform Assistance and Dissemination, 2001).
Practical Applications of SDM/PS

Like many SEL models of ecological management, SDM/PS trains educators and parents to help
students develop self-control and social awareness skills through a series of scripted lessons which are
reinforced by guided practice, role playing, and problem-solving situations. After training, a class-
room teacher uses SDM/PS lessons once or twice a week with discussion, and other activities. The
idea is to foster “a critical-thinking, respectful, caring and problem-solving approach . . . [that]
permeate[s] all aspects of classroom life (Epstein & Elias, p. 160).
The curriculum is implemented in three phases. In the readiness phase, students learn self-
control, as well as social awareness and group participation skills in lessons on topics such as follow-
ing directions, listening, resisting and avoiding provocation, monitoring emotions, and working
with others. In the instructional phase, students learn a social decision-making strategy to help
them in social problem situations. Finally, in the application phase, teachers use role-playing,
guided practice, modeling, and mock situations to help students learn to apply their skills. Through-
out the process, teachers function as facilitators to help students make appropriate decisions. The
lessons can be taught independently or integrated into regular academic subjects. Like many other
ecological models, SDM/PS requires the support and participation of parents as well as other educa-
tors in the school to reinforce the learning and application of the social skills (Elias et al., 1991; Elias,
Butler, Bruno, Papke, & Shapiro, 2005).
In the instructional phase, SDM/PS uses an eight-step model to apply critical thinking and
feeling to the decision-making process. Students learn to
• look for signs of different feelings,
• identify the problem,
• decide on a goal,
• identify all possible solutions to the problem,
• for each solution, identify what might happen next,
• select the best solution,
• plan the implementation of the solution and check for other problems or obstacles, and
• implement the solution and evaluate it (Epstein & Elias, 1996).
Elias (2009) maintains that students can successfully apply social-emotional skills, including prob-
lem solving and decision making, not only in social situations but in academics as well. “These
skills . . . are also vital for children to have in order . . . to participate effectively in a global and highly
politicized world” (p. 841).
In an evaluation of SCM/PS, Epstein and Elias (1996) found that students who participated
in the program demonstrated more positive, pro-social behavior than a control group. The partici-
pants also had lower levels of “antisocial, self-destructive, and socially disordered behavior . . . [and]
a better understanding of behavioral consequences” (p. 160).
55
CRITIQUE OF ECOLOGICAL APPROACHES

Teachers play three roles in establishing the habitat of the classroom: instructor, manager, and per-
son. Good classroom management occurs when teachers create a positive classroom habitat, clear
classroom procedures, and clear classroom rules. By identifying appropriate and inappropriate
behaviors and implementing interventions, teachers are able to make a difference and help students
to understand the ecology of the classroom (Grossman, 2004; Wemlinger, 2004). The ecological
models have had considerable potential to help teachers in all of these roles.
Although a number of external factors (e.g., personal and family problems, peer pressure.)
contribute to student misbehavior, educators, through their instructional actions, can have a power-
ful influence on students and the teaching and learning environment. By consistently using instruc-
tional techniques that promote and encourage learners’ best behaviors (i.e., staying on task and not
disturbing others), teachers can address common misbehaviors that are experienced in many con-
temporary schools.
For example, to implement Kounin’s model, teachers can use specific instructional behav-
iors that are relatively easy to learn and to apply in the classroom. Students behave better when
teachers demonstrate withitness and employ techniques such as using desists properly; taking
advantage of ripple effects; satiation, jerkiness, thrusts, dangles, and flip-flops; and maintaining a
group focus through correct group alerting and accountability. Also, teachers should be able to
implement Kounin’s theories without a great deal of extra work. In fact, most of these instruc-
tional behaviors are second nature for good teachers. All teachers should emphasize academic
instruction, expect students to master the curriculum, and allocate most time to curriculum-
related activities. In addition, they should maintain an appropriate instructional momentum that
contributes to high levels of success.
In general, the ecological models reflect the philosophy that preventing behavior problems is
easier than dealing with them after they occur. For most teachers, it is easier to use Kounin’s instruc-
tional techniques or one of the models to promote social and emotional learning than to use the
Canters’ checklist, Dreikurs’s methods to identify the four goals of misbehavior, or Glasser’s quality
schools theories.
The ecological models also show respect for all students. For example, although a problem
might occur with developmental differences (e.g., students in elementary school might be affected
by Kounin’s ripple effect, but middle and secondary students might not be affected as much), no
cultural or gender differences (or social class differences) appear to exist that would be affected or
that would affect Kounin’s prescribed instructional behaviors. With the main focus on what
teachers do rather than what students do and the attention to what teachers do to prevent misbe-
haviors rather than to address them after they have occurred, little corrective attention focuses on
the learner.
Another instructional technique that addresses the needs of most students is the use of
consistency. A teacher should demonstrate withitness and effective instructional movement man-
agement and should hold students accountable for their learning and behavior every day rather
than sporadically or only on days when the teacher feels the need for control. Most students like
consistency because it lets them know the teacher’s expectations in terms of maintaining appro-
priate behavior, staying on task, and being meaningfully engaged in their learning efforts. How-
ever, Kounin’s objective treatment of all students can be a double-edged sword. Although
teachers do not treat students differently, they also do not seek out specific individual differences
to address.
A teacher who implements Kounin’s Instructional Management ideas might prevent students
from having the time or inclination to pose serious threats to others’ physical and psychological wel-
fare. If the learners realize the teacher knows what they are doing at all times and in all classroom
areas, they are not likely to misbehave unless they are seeking attention or have a serious problem.
However, Kounin’s Instructional Management model does not address serious behavior problems or
56
specifically promote schools that are safe from serious violence. Although demonstrating withitness
when a student shows a gun or knife is better than panicking and not knowing what to do, it does
not indicate how to deal with the threat in a way that keeps everyone safe. Also, if a fight breaks out
in the hall between classes, demonstrating effective Instructional Management techniques will not
solve the problem. Kounin’s theories are designed to handle only the routine classroom management
problems that teachers must deal with on a daily basis.
SEL ecological management models are designed to prevent a wide range of behaviors from
routine to more serious infractions. With these models, the curricula center on the development of a
positive self-concept for all students and the development of caring communities of students. By
“sensitize[ing] children to one another’s strengths and differences” (Epstein & Elias, 1996, p. 160)
students learn to respect and work with and value all individuals and the contributions that they
make. Also, when used with culturally diverse students with varying degrees of motivation and var-
ied abilities, SEL ecological models produce “significant positive effects on . . . social-emotional
competencies and attitudes about self, others, and school (Durlak et al., 2011, p. 417). They also
increase academic performance and reduce behavior problems.
While there are many benefits to the ecological models, there are some disadvantages. With
Kounin’s model, students do not necessarily take personal responsibility for their behaviors, nor do
they learn a lesson from the use of desists because the desists are used to stop behaviors immediately
rather than to teach a more appropriate way to behave. Kounin maintained that teachers should
accept responsibility for learning and should demonstrate effective instructional techniques that
contribute to positive learner behaviors. Although he likely thought students should develop inner
control and ultimately learn self-discipline and how to discipline themselves, his Instructional Man-
agement model placed the primary responsibility on the teacher. He encouraged teachers to develop
specific instructional skills to prevent misbehaviors rather than encouraging them to exert control
over students. Furthermore, Kounin’s model offers suggestions on preventing behavior problems
from occurring in the classroom, but it does not provide strategies to deal with serious problems
when they arise (Morris, 1996). Except for keeping students productively busy, it also does little to
promote the goals of the safe schools movement.
However, the SEL ecological models focus on the development of internalizing and problem-
solving students. By integrating “emotion, cognition, communication, and behavior (Durlak et al.,
2011, p. 417) into a single curriculum, SEL models help students learn decision-making skills that
they can apply throughout their lives. By using both Kounin’s model and one of the SEL models,
teachers can address the concerns about teaching or imposing discipline.
There are some other concerns specifically about the SEL models. Because they are commer-
cial programs, the school or school division must pay for the cost of the program materials and for
the training of educators and others involved in the implementation of the program. Once the pro-
gram begins, schools must be sure they have the resources in time, staff, and funds to continue the
program. Schools must also determine how the SEL model will fit into the existing structure of the
school, what adjustments must be made, and whether they have the support of the educators who
will implement and sustain the program. In addition, because some SEL models call for parent and
community involvement to reinforce classroom activities, these individuals must also support the
adoption of an SEL model (Tanyu, 2007).
Classroom management is more than discipline. With an emphasis on the organization
and operation of a classroom, classroom management looks at the behavior of both teachers and
students and at the instructional strategies used by teachers as well as the interactions among
students and teachers. Teachers who are successful using Kounin’s Instructional Management
model must believe that their teaching techniques affect learners’ behavior. In addition, when
using an SEL model, they must agree that their instruction has the dual purposes of conveying
knowledge and serving as a means of helping students to learn to evaluate their own behavior.
Developing Your Personal Philosophy presents some questions for you to consider as you deter-
mine whether an ecological management model is congruent with your own classroom manage-
ment beliefs.
57

Does an Ecological Model Reflect Your Beliefs?
In determining the usefulness of ecological management 4. Can I effectively implement what I know about jerki-
models, you can ask yourself several questions: ness, stimulus bound, thrust, dangles, truncation, and
flip-flops?
1. Do I agree with the philosophy that classroom man-
5. Do I prefer to watch nearly every move I make, or
agement includes student behavior and teacher’s
would I just autocratically demand obedience?
instructional, management, and personal behaviors?
6. Am I willing to learn and implement a commercial pro-
2. Do I believe that my teaching behaviors are sufficiently
gram for the development of social and emotional
powerful to affect learners’ behaviors?
learning skills in students?
3. Can I learn to use Kounin’s theories (e.g., specific
7. Do I believe that I can teach SEL skills in addition to the
teacher behaviors, movement management, group
academic demands of the curriculum?
focus) on a consistent basis?
Summary
In this chapter, you have read about Kounin’s Instructional munity of Caring and Learning for Life include service-learn-
Management model. Next, you looked at the following eco- ing. Lions Quest focuses on skills for growing, adolescents,
logical management models that focused on SEL education and action. With the TAF circle, Positive Action asks stu-
as an ecological approach: Shriver—Community of Caring; dents to consider their actions and the results of those actions
Boy Scouts of America—Learning for Life; Lions Club Inter- on themselves and others. Finally, SDM/PS includes an
national Foundation—Lions Quest; Allred—Positive Action; eight-step decision-making process for students. All of these
and Schuyler, Elias, and Clabby—Social Decision Making programs focus on children and the habitats they occupy.
and Problem Solving Program. You can find additional Revisit Dr. Eubanks in this chapter’s opening vignette.
information about these models on the Internet at the sites Using information from this chapter and the websites,
identified in “Reaching Out with the Internet.” respond to the following questions:
All preservice and inservice teachers can learn Koun-
1. How would you respond if you were a teacher in this
in’s instructional techniques and the basic ideas behind the
school system?
SEL ecological models. Although all teachers might not
2. Develop a plan for implementing Kounin’s ideas in
demonstrate high levels of withitness, most can learn proper
your own classroom. Where would you need to rely on
desists, how to maintain an appropriate instructional
Dr. Eubanks for assistance?
momentum, and the techniques of group alerting and
3. Do you believe that an SEL model can be effective
accountability.
throughout an entire school system?
To develop the social and emotional learning of stu-
4. How would you respond to your fellow teachers who
dents, schools might implement a commercial ecological
were concerned that it would be too much work to
model. While most have a similar emphasis on core values,
implement an SEL ecological management model?
character education, life skills, and problem solving, Com-
Suggested Readings
Allen, K., Akinyanjy, K., Milliken, T., Lorek, E., & Walker, T. T. preschool students work together to construct art and to develop
(2011). Improving the pro-social skills of transitioning urban SEL skills.
youth: A summer camp approach. Middle School Journal, 42, Kim, M. G., Pizzo, P. D., & Garcia, Y. (2011). The path towards
(4), 14–22. The authors discuss a summer camp designed to im- social and emotional competence. Exchange (197), 24–27. Social
prove prosocial skills and prevent behavior problems. and emotional learning is important for preschool children to
Hutzel, K., Russell, R., & Gross, J. (2010). Eighth-graders as role develop self-management and social awareness skills.
models: A service-learning art collaboration for social and emo- Mitescu, E., Pedulla, J. J., Cannay, M., Cochran-Smith, M., &
tional learning. Art Education, 63(4), 12–18. Middle school and John, C. (2011). Measuring practices of teaching for social
58
justice in elementary mathematics classrooms. Educational Whitted, K. S. (2011). Understanding how social and emotional
Research Quarterly, 34(3), 15–39. Using the Teaching for Social skills deficits contribute to school failure. Preventing School
Justice Observational Scale, the authors looked at practices of Failure, 55(1), 10–16. Community and family risk factors can
novice elementary teachers and the correlation between social inhibit the development of the social skills that young children
justice and learning outcomes. need to control their behavior in school settings.

Visit the following websites for additional information on ecological Lions Quest Australia
approaches to classroom management. lionsclubs.org.au/lions-quest/
GENERAL National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices—
Lions Quest
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning: www.nrepp.samhsa.gov/ViewIntervention.aspx?id=24
About Us
The Morning Program
www.casel.org/about/index.php
www.sharingsuccess.org/code/eptw/pdf_profiles/morning.
SPECIFIC MODELS pdf
Open Circle
Community of Caring
www.open-circle.org/index.html
www.communityofcaring.org/
Kounin POSITIVE ACTION
Are You with It?
pecentral.org/climate/april99article.html Minnewaska Area Elementary and Positive Action
Biography of Kounin www.minnewaska.k12.mn.us/Schools/Minnewaska%20

Area%20Elementary/Positive%20Action/Positive%20
wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Kounin,_Jacob Action%20School.htm
The Kounin Model National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices:
www.teachermatters.com/index.php?option=com_ Positive Action
content&view=article&id=9:kounin-model&catid= www.nrepp.samhsa.gov/ViewIntervention.aspx?id=78
4:models-of-discipline&Itemid=4
Positive Action
LEARNING FOR LIFE www.positiveaction.net
Learning for Life SOCIAL DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

www.learningforlife.org/
Sharing Circles: Introducing skills for Social Decision Making
Learning for Life—Sample lesson plans and Problem Solving
learning.learningforlife.org/programs/prek-12-character-ed/ ccnmtl.columbia.edu/projects/ecourse/sel/
#prek
Social Decision Making and Problem Solving from Sharing
Success.org
LIONS QUEST
www.sharingsuccess.org/code/vp/profiles/50.html
Lions Quest www.sharingsuccess.org/code/eptw/profiles/ndn10.html
www.lions-quest.org
59
60
Self-Regulating
Approaches to
61
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading and reflecting upon Chapter 6, you confrontation, and conflict resolution, natural
should be able to consequences, and bullies;
1. discuss what is meant by self-regulating approaches 3. discuss Marvin Marshall’s Discipline without Stress®,
to classroom management and the role of self- his three principles to practice, and his Raise
regulated learning in education; Responsibility System;
4. evaluate the self-regulating approaches to classroom
2. explain Coloroso’s Inner Discipline, including her
management; and
thoughts on the categories of teachers, ownership
of the problem, punishments and rewards, four 5. identify the self-regulating concepts to include in your
steps of discipline, three R’s of discipline, assertive own personal philosophy.
Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com
62
Self-Regulating
Approaches to
VIGNETTE: Defusing a Confrontation
“Click. Click, click.” Standing at the front of her classroom, Candi Hecht clearly heard the distracting sound
that one of her students was making with a toy “cricket”—the kind students clicked at the basketball games.
Although other teachers had reported some problems with the noisemakers, Ms. Hecht had not had to deal
with this issue before today. She continued teaching as she walked in the direction of the sound. She was not
sure who was making the noise, but it seemed to be coming from the back corner where Isabel Cohoon and
Katie Davis sat. Beside them were Olin Raynor, a known troublemaker, and Paul Rodriguez, a new boy in the
class. Olin had been on his best behavior since the most recent parent–teacher conference, and Ms. Hecht
wanted to keep it that way. The word was that Olin’s dad had a bad temper and that calls from the school could
result in physical violence at the Raynor house. However, Olin never had any visible bruises and nothing had
ever been reported to any social services agency. Standing in the back corner, Ms. Hecht finished the lesson and
then walked toward the front of the room. “Click. Click, click.” Before Ms. Hecht could turn around, Olin was
out of his seat, grabbing the front of Paul’s shirt, shaking him, and saying: “Stop that damn noise! You aren’t
going to get me in trouble, you lousy wetback!” As Ms. Hecht started toward the boys, she heard the sound of
ripping cloth and Isabel Cohoon screaming.
OVERVIEW
The self-regulating approaches to classroom management are closely related to the
study of self-regulated learning (SRL), which began as an attempt to link student
motivation and learning (McCaslin et al., 2006). Researchers studying SRL often
examine topics such as the development of self-awareness; volition or what “helps
the learner carry out a motivational decision to its realization” (p. 232); and social
cognitive theory or the internal processes which help students to learn socially
relevant behaviors. In spite of these different approaches, most researchers of SRL
look at “students’ active participation in their own learning through the management
of behavioral, emotional, cognitive, attentional, and environmental resources . . . [to
attain] desirable learning goals” (Roeser & Peck, 2009, p. 121).
SRL often involves helping students with processes such as goal-setting,
planning, and monitoring (Roeser & Peck, 2009) and insuring “high levels of
motivation, metacognition and strategic action” (Metallidou & Vlachou, 2010, p. 776).
With SRL models, “students initiate, monitor, and exert control over their own
learning” (Metallidou & Vlachou, 2010, p. 776). Researchers believe that when
students are able to self-regulate their behaviors, cognitions, social environment, and
goals, they are able to improve their learning (Lodewyk, Winne, & Jamieson-Noel,
63
Self-Regulating Approaches to Classroom Management

Developing Responsibility
One way to help students develop responsibility and a sense Secondary

of control is to assign classroom jobs to students and change
the jobs on a scheduled basis. Although some teachers Role taker/attendance keeper
might change jobs every week, others might change them Timekeeper
every month or each grading period. Remember to keep the Money collector for special programs
amount of time required for the jobs fairly short and the dif-
ficulty level appropriate for the students in your grade level. All Levels
Here are a few suggestions.
Greeter to welcome class visitors
Elementary Messenger
Distributor (of supplies and materials)
Board eraser and cleaner Collector (of supplies, materials, homework)
Line leader Computer assistant
Paper collector Cleanup crew (several students hold this job)
2009). Although students must have a sense of satisfaction and personal control, for
SRL to be effective they must also realize that there are some things that they cannot
control. Teachers need to increase responsibilities as students grow older and give
them more opportunities to make decisions and contribute to the social environment.
Management Tip 6–1 provides some ways to help students develop responsibility
which will lead to personal satisfaction.
Management theorists who use the self-regulating approach encourage students to study their own
behavior from the operant paradigm of antecedent–behavior–consequences. Thus, after taking
immediate action, Ms. Hecht in the opening vignette should let Olin and Paul reflect on their
behavior rather than imposing a punishment. Olin and Paul must learn that their misbehavior leads
to consequences, and they must understand the actions that led to the behavior. Students should also
learn to apply task analysis and goal-setting strategies to be successful. This consists of asking the
following questions:
• What is my goal?
• What needs to be done to achieve my goal?
• Why is my goal worth achieving?
• How should I achieve my goal?
• What skills or resources do I need?
• Do I have these skills or resources?
• If not, how will I acquire them?
• At what stages is reinforcement necessary to help me achieve my goal?
While goal attainment is important, students also need to be able to assess their progress through-
out the task to maintain momentum and to learn self-reinforcement. This is part of learning that,
in life, there is not always someone to tell you that you are doing or have done a good job (McCas-
lin et al., 2006).
McCaslin et al. (2006) suggest that teachers using self-regulating management approaches
need to begin with self-reflection to understand themselves, their interactions with students, and
how they react to student behaviors. By modeling coping, mastery, and self-reinforcement strategies,
teachers can show students how to work though a task. They can also talk to students and help stu-
dents think through teacher expectations, goals, and instructional tasks using the strategies of task
64
analysis. Observing and conducting their own task analysis of a student’s behavior, teachers can iden-
tify problems and make the student aware of these problems before the completion of the task. The
teacher must also teach each student to replace the internal dialogue of “I can’t do this” or “There’s no
reason to do this” with a positive inner dialogue of “I can do this” and “It is important for me to learn
to do this.” As the student’s behavior changes, the student learns to internalize the self-regulation
process and to move from thinking, “I’m dumb” to “I did a good job on that” (p. 244). Finally, the
teacher reinforces success and “provides proof of effectiveness” (p. 244) of the process.
INDIVIDUAL MODELS FOR SELF-REGULATING APPROACHES

In this chapter, you will read about two theories that follow the ideas of SRL to develop self-regulat-
ing approaches to classroom management. These are Barbara Coloroso’s Inner Discipline and Mar-
vin Marshall’s Discipline without Stress®.
KEY TERMS
Table 6–1 identifies the key terms related to the self-regulating approaches to classroom management.
TABLE 6–1 Key Terms Related to Self-Regulating Approaches
Barbara Coloroso—Inner Discipline Marvin Marshall—Internal Motivation

• Assertive confrontation • Anarchy
• Backbone teacher • Bossing/Bullying
• Brickwall teacher • Checking for Understanding
• Conflict resolution • Choice
• Jellyfish teacher • Cooperation/Conformity
• Natural and reasonable consequences • Democracy
• Ownership • Guided Choices
• Reconciliation • Positivity
• Resolution • Raise Responsibility System
• Restitution • Reflection
• RSVP approach • Social hierarchy
• Teaching the Concepts
BARBARA COLOROSO: INNER DISCIPLINE

Barbara Coloroso bases her theory of Inner Discipline on her firm conviction that adults should
believe that children and adolescents are worth the effort and time required to teach them responsi-
ble behavior. Although she most often is considered a commentator on parenting issues and bully-
ing, Coloroso has a comprehensive array of concepts, rather than a packaged model, on how to work
with students. In addition, her books are resources that teachers can suggest when parents appeal for
help in managing their children. Figure 6–1 identifies the key concepts found in the writings of
Barbara Coloroso.
Overview of Coloroso’s Model

Respecting children and their capabilities, Barbara Coloroso developed a model she calls Inner Dis-
cipline (“Give Poor Parenting a Time-out,” 2002). Coloroso (1994) suggests three philosophical
stances that she thinks are essential.
65
FIGURE 6–1
Key Concepts of Inner The following are key concepts of the Inner Discipline theory:
Discipline • Children and adolescents should be treated with respect and dignity at all times.
• Teachers should always abide by the Golden Rule, being careful to always treat students the way they want
to be treated.
• Teachers are either brickwall, jellyfish, or backbone, and their choice affects students and their behavior.
• Students should be taught Inner Discipline rather than being punished physically or being manipulated with
destructive words.
• Teachers should accept responsibility for teaching students to accept the ownership of their problems.
• Teachers should use natural consequences as much as possible; when those do not work, reasonable
consequences should be used.
• Teachers should avoid punishments, rewards, and threats; use a four-step approach to discipline; and use
assertive confrontation.
• Restitution, resolution, and reconciliation are the three R’s of discipline.
1. Kids are worth it. With dignity and worth as individuals and human beings, they neither have
to prove their worth nor earn the attention of adults. Adults do not have to like their appear-
ances, their attitudes, and their behaviors, but adults do need to believe that children and
young adults are worth their time, energy, and resources.
2. I will not treat a child in a way I myself would not want to be treated. Coloroso believes that adults
should follow the Golden Rule (Coloroso, 1994). If teachers feel uncertain about what they are
doing to students, they should place themselves in the students’ place to see how they would feel.
3. “If it works and leaves a child’s and my own dignity intact, do it” (Coloroso, 1994, p. 11).
Efforts to discipline a student should leave the student’s and the adult’s dignity intact. Color-
oso maintains that a serious problem with some discipline techniques such as rewards, bribes,
and threats is that the student’s dignity and sense of self-worth are sacrificed in the name of
behavior management.
Teachers’ roles in Inner Discipline can be identified readily. First, teachers who are effective
with Inner Discipline should subscribe to the just-discussed philosophical beliefs of treating oth-
ers with respect and avoiding humiliation, sarcasm, and ridicule. Teachers also have the responsi-
bility to demonstrate compassion after a student misbehaves (Coloroso, 2000a). Second, effective
teachers need to believe in and be willing to teach self-discipline rather than believing that the
teacher is responsible for disciplining students. Third, teachers need to believe in real-world con-
sequences to discipline and management rather than the intervention of an adult. Fourth, teach-
ers should avoid autocratic behaviors, harshness, and physical punishments. Authoritarian
approaches might get students to comply, but they do not help students to develop the self-
discipline and responsibility that Coloroso advocated (Willis, 1996). The use of Coloroso’s
Inner Discipline can be learned, but teachers already must possess some of these traits for Inner
Discipline to be successful.
Practical Applications of Coloroso’s Model

The application of Coloroso’s inner discipline requires consideration of her categories of teachers;
her theories on discipline, punishment, and behavior management; and her opinions on the use of
words, both harmful and praising.
THREE CATEGORIES OF TEACHERS Coloroso places teachers in three categories: brickwall, jel-
lyfish, and backbone (Coloroso, 1994). The category into which an individual falls affects all inter-
personal relationships: student to teacher, teacher to student, teacher to other teachers, student to
student, and even the way the teacher relates to the outside world.
66
A brickwall teacher is almost a nonliving entity who restricts and controls others (Coloroso,
1994). This teacher is all powerful; the student is the subordinate. Gray areas do not exist because all
class events are clear-cut and in black and white. Operating in an atmosphere of fear, this teacher has
a litany of rules; emphasizes punctuality, cleanliness, and order; enforces rules rigidly; tries to break
students’ wills; emphasizes rituals and rote learning; uses humiliation, rewards, and bribes; relies on
competition; and teaches students what to think rather than how to think.
Mrs. Winchell, a 10th-grade teacher, was called Mrs. Witchell (behind her back) by many of her students.
Making all decisions and rules, and prescribing all punishments, she did not trust her students to accept
responsibility for their behavior. As Sean, one of her students, said: “I guess I’m learning in the witch’s
class, but I also know I throw up every Sunday night when I think about walking into her room first thing
on Monday morning.”
Jellyfish teachers have “no firm parts at all” (Coloroso, 1994, p. 38). They are wishy-washy,
are inconsistent about classroom management, and allow anarchy and chaos. Without recogniz-
able structure and rules, they are arbitrary and inconsistent with rules and punishments, use
mini lectures and put-downs, use threats and bribes, and allow emotions to rule students and
their behaviors. Students know a jellyfish teacher will make few serious efforts to teach proper
behavior.
Mr. Haney, a first-grade teacher, was a prime example of a jellyfish teacher. He thought first-grade students
would behave appropriately without his guidance. As a result, his class was chaos, with students talking
incessantly and playing around. It appeared that Mr. Haney did not see the chaos in the room or failed to
acknowledge it.
According to Coloroso (1994), backbone teachers provide the support and structure nec-
essary for students to realize their uniqueness and to come to know their true selves, something
that brickwall teachers suppress and jellyfish teachers ignore. By emphasizing democracy through
learned experiences, they advocate creative, constructive, and responsible activity; have simply
and clearly defined rules; use natural and reasonable consequences; motivate students to be all
they can be; and teach students how to think. Teaching students to trust themselves, others, and
in their future, backbone teachers help students develop Inner Discipline and, even in the face of
adversity and peer pressure, retain faith in themselves and in their own potential (Coloroso,
1994). Applying Self-Regulating Approaches 6–1 examines a teacher who faced a dilemma in the
classroom.
APPLYING SELF-REGULATING APPROACHES 6–1

Helping Ms. Rendell
Before you read the following scenario, review Barbara of power and control. Oh, sure, I know my students
Coloroso’s three types of teachers and make a list of the should behave better than they do, but I figured that if
characteristics of each type. Then after you read the follow- I was nice to them and showed them I trusted them,
ing scenario, respond to the questions at the end. they’d settle down.”
After about 3 weeks of school, Shaniqua Mason, the 1. Which type of teacher is Ms. Rendell?
assistant principal, spoke with Shannon Rendell about 2. Based on the ideas of Coloroso, what advice could
the behavior of her fourth-grade students. They were you offer Ms. Rendell to develop a classroom manage-
a bit rowdy, and Ms. Mason feared that the situation ment model?
would worsen as the school year progressed. In her 3. Which type of teacher should Ms. Rendell try to be?
defense, Ms. Rendell replied: “I want my students to 4. What kinds of things should she do in her classroom
like me, not hate me. I remember how I felt when I to become that teacher?
had a teacher who was mean and always told me 5. Role-play the interaction between Ms. Rendell and
what to do. And, I’ve read about the negative effects Ms. Mason.
67
DISCIPLINE AND BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT One of the key points of Coloroso’s Inner
Discipline theory is that students accept ownership of the problem (Coloroso, 1997). They are
capable of taking full responsibility for the problems their behaviors create, not because of fear, but
because it is the right thing to do. You might remember that Mendler and Curwin (1983) also called
for students to accept ownership of the problem because they thought giving students a sense of
ownership for behavior problems in the classroom would result in their accepting more responsibil-
ity for solving the problems. To Coloroso, the teacher is responsible for teaching students the Inner
Discipline to accept ownership of the behavior and the responsibility to take appropriate action to
address it.
Coloroso (1983, 1994) maintains that discipline is not synonymous with punishment. Punish-
ment is adult oriented, imposes power from without, arouses anger and resentment, and invites more
conflict. The overriding concerns of punishment include: Which rule was broken? Who did it? What
kind of punishment does the student deserve? By leaving control in the teacher’s hands, punishment
gives students the message that the teacher is all powerful, accepts responsibility for students’ behav-
ior, and negates the need for students to develop Inner Discipline (Coloroso, 1994, 2000).
In addition, Coloroso (1994) believes teachers should not rely on rewards to promote positive
behavior. Punishment brings pain and fear, but rewards also send the wrong message, namely, that
kindness and positive behavior can be bought and bartered. Coloroso believes that behavior modifi-
cation techniques keep a student dependent and fearful—dependent on adults for rewards for posi-
tive behavior and fearful of punishment for negative behavior. Students who are bribed and rewarded
constantly will often start to ask questions such as “What’s in it for me?,” “What’s the payoff?,”
“Does it count for anything?,” and “Did I do it right?” (p. 19).
According to Coloroso (1994), threats, by their nature, are punitive. Adult oriented, they are
based on subjective judgment and impose power from without instead of acknowledging the power
within students. Arousing anger and resentment and inviting more conflict, threats rob students of
their sense of dignity and self-worth.
Faced with threats, domination, manipulation, and control by someone bigger than them-
selves, students will experience one of three things. First, they will experience fright and will do as
they are told out of dependency and fear. Second, they will fight and attack the teacher or take their
anger out on others. Third, they will experience flight, meaning they run away mentally or physi-
cally. Students whose needs and feelings are dismissed, ignored, punished, or negated begin to
believe they are of little or no worth (Coloroso, 1994).
• “As long as Mr. Restino threatens to call my dad, I’ll do anything he wants. My dad would whip me for sure if
Mr. Restino called him” (a third-grade student).
• “Ms. Allern never found out who did it, but I know that a bunch of the kids in my class broke her car window
last weekend. They were bragging about how they planned to get even with her” (an 11th-grade student).
Applying Self-Regulating Approaches 6–2 asks you to consider Ms. Dorler’s use of bribes and
threats.
The Four Steps of Discipline. According to Coloroso (2000), the process of discipline does
four things that the act of punishment cannot do:
1. It shows students what they should have done.
2. It gives them as much ownership of the problem as they are able to handle.
3. It gives them options for solving the problem.
4. It leaves their dignity intact.
When teachers use the four steps, discipline deals with the reality of the situation rather than the
power and control of the adult. Students can then change their attitudes and habits that might have
led to the misbehavior.
The Three R’s of Discipline. Coloroso (2000) suggests the three R’s of discipline, all of
which are incorporated in the four steps just mentioned. In some ways, these are similar to the
68

Using Bribes and Threats
Review Coloroso’s beliefs about punishments, threats, and questions”), threats (“Peyton, sit down and mind
rewards as well as her categories of teachers. Then, after you your own business or else”), and intimidation (“Tol-
read the following scenario, answer the questions at the end. bert, I set the rules in this room and you follow them.
Do you hear me?”).
Ms. Dorler, a high school teacher, was heard to say,
“I know all those theories, but I use whatever I can to 1. What category of teacher best fits Ms. Dorler?
get my students to behave—whatever it takes is what 2. Examine her behavior in light of Coloroso’s beliefs
I do.” Her actions backed up her statement. She used about punishments, threats, and rewards.
bribes (“For each day everyone cooperates in class 3. Is she following Coloroso’s ideas? If not, how should
this week, I’ll shorten Thursday’s homework by two she change her behavior?
process in the Think Time™ strategy (see Chapter 4). These three R’s are: restitution, resolution, and
reconciliation. Restitution means fixing what the student did and involves repairing the physical
damage (if any) and the personal damage. Resolution includes determining a way not to let the
behavior happen again. Finally, reconciliation is the process of healing with the offender honoring
the restitution plan and making a commitment to live up to the resolution.
• Ninth graders Brent and Derek were scuffling in the hall. At first, they were not angry, but their horseplay
turned a little rough and Brent became agitated. As Brent turned to hit Derek one last time, Derek jumped
out of the way, and Brent ripped his backpack. The teacher on hall duty observed the incident and had the
responsibility to address the situation. She worked the three R’s as follows:
• Restitution (correcting what was done): Brent and Derek admitted that their horseplay got out of hand,
disturbed others, and resulted in a ripped backpack. They both accepted ownership and responsibility for
the incident. Brent admitted that he started the incident, and he was also probably the first one to get mad.
Thus, he agreed to take Derek’s backpack to be repaired. Brent also agreed to pay up to $10 for the repair;
Derek agreed to pay any amount over $10.
• Resolution (determining a way to keep the incident from happening again): Both boys agreed that they
should not fight, even in fun. They also agreed that if they felt like “horsing around,” they would go to the
gym for a friendly competition on the mats under the watchful eyes of a physical education assistant.
• Reconciliation: They both regretted that the incident got out of hand, and Brent apologized for ripping the
backpack.
Do all behavior incidents end as successfully as this one? Absolutely not! What if one of the
boys or a bystander had been hurt? What if Brent had adamantly refused to pay for the repairs? In
those instances, the teacher would have had to intervene more in all three R’s.
Assertive Confrontation. Coloroso (1983, 1994) maintained that teachers sometimes need
to use assertive confrontation. However, even in these cases, teachers must use caution to avoid
endless arguments that waste a great deal of energy, lead to additional and more heated arguments,
and solve nothing. Coloroso (1994) offers seven rules for a fair fight and a productive, assertive
confrontation:
1. When you are angry and upset, speak the message in a straightforward, assertive manner—not
aggressively or passively.
2. Tell the other person about your feelings.
3. State your belief but avoid destructive words that attack another person.
4. Give direct feedback. Tell the person the problem and how you feel about the problem.
5. State what you want from the other person.
69

Resolving Conflicts
Although Coloroso does not describe a detailed approach to 2. The student reviews the plan with teacher and revises it
conflict resolution, she does talk about using discipline to as needed.
3. The student carries out the plan.
• identify a problem, 4. The student and teacher review the results of the plan.
• provide the student with ownership of the problem, 5. If the plan is not carried out, the teacher intervenes and
• identify ways to solve the problem, and other consequences occur, such as notifying parents or
• leave the students’ dignity intact (Coloroso, 2002). school administration.
One way to do this is to have a student develop an action Pre-K and Lower Elementary
plan to deal with behavior problems.
Have the student develop the plan with the help of others
1. The student develops the plan and states and dictate the plan to a teacher or aide.
a. the problem,
b. the cause of the problem, and Upper Elementary and Secondary
c. possible solutions. Have the student write the plan.
6. Be open to the other person’s perspective on the situation.

7. Negotiate an agreement you can both accept.
All teachers eventually face conflict of some type, either with team members, students, or parents
who disagree with educational decisions.
Conflicts inevitably will occur; thus, Coloroso (1994) believes that teachers need to teach
conflict resolution. Rather than describing a detailed, step-by-step approach, Coloroso thinks
example (emphasis Coloroso’s) (1994, p. 131) is one of the best ways to teach conflict resolution.
Management Tip 6–2 provides additional information about conflict resolution.
CONSEQUENCES: NATURAL AND REASONABLE The concept of natural and reasonable conse-
quences is a mainstay of Coloroso’s Inner Discipline theory. Natural consequences involve real-world
consequences or interventions and deal with the reality of the situation rather than the power and
control of the adult.
• If Francine, a Pre-K child, puts her shoes on the wrong feet, the natural consequence is that
her feet will hurt.
• If Juan, an eighth grader, continues to borrow school supplies because he refuses to take
responsibility for bringing them to school, eventually others will stop lending things to him.
Coloroso maintains that these consequences are learned without nagging, reminding, or warning.
Such consequences teach students about the world around them and that they have positive control
over their lives. If natural consequences are not life threatening, Coloroso suggests letting students
experience them.
Sometimes natural consequences can be life threatening or morally threatening (e.g., unkind,
hurtful, unfair, and dishonest).
• A life-threatening situation: Rolando, a second grader, tries to jump from desk to desk in the
classroom.
• A morally threatening situation: Tiffany, a ninth grader, agrees to take a test for a friend.
If the natural consequence is nonexistent or would be inappropriate, Coloroso (1994) recommends
that the teacher consider reasonable consequences that require reasoning and planning. A key point
in determining reasonable consequences is for the teacher to ask whether the goal is to teach the
student or punish the student.
70
Coloroso calls for an RSVP approach—a consequence that is reasonable, simple, valuable (as
a learning tool), and practical.
• If Woody, a third-grade student, is engaged in horseplay and breaks a glass, it will not be rea-
sonable to ask him to pick up the small slivers of glass; however, it would be reasonable for
him to hold the bag while the teacher picks them up.
• Temeka, a seventh-grade student, loses a calculator that she borrowed from a friend; a valuable
lesson is for her to buy the friend a new and comparable calculator.
• Telling Wade, a 12th grader, that he will have to stay after school until he completes his assign-
ment and walk the eight miles home is not practical; telling him that he will have to stay after
school each day until the work is complete and take the late activity bus home is practical.
The Destructiveness of Words. In her writings, Coloroso shows the destructiveness of
words (e.g., “She was no good,” “He’s a lazy bum,” “You’re just like your mother”) (Coloroso,
2000a, p. 132). She also discusses “killer statements” (p. 146), such as “You are a jerk,” that are de-
signed only to attack another person. Sarcasm and ridicule, as well as humiliating and embarrassing
statements, also fall into this category.
Teachers need to be aware of the destructiveness of the words they use. Coloroso (1994) main-
tains that statements such as “Your sister never did anything like that,” “I figured you would do some-
thing stupid like that,” and “You call yourself a soccer player?” (pp. 64–65) are designed to hurt,
humiliate, and embarrass. Consider the following statements to see the destructiveness of words:
• Talmadge, a kindergartner, wets his pants, and the teacher says, “Grow up! Are you still a baby?”
• Ivo, a sixth-grade boy, scores a D on a test, and the teacher says, “Your brother was a much better student. At
least he made Bs.”
• LoRee, an overweight eighth-grade girl, sits down in a desk, and the teacher says, “Better lose some weight
or you might get stuck.”
Although you might think these are exaggerations and that teachers never use words so destructively,
sometimes they do. “I took care of him right there in front of the class, and the rest of the students
fell in line,” we heard one teacher boast.
Interestingly, and in keeping with other management theorists such as Ginott and Dreikurs,
Coloroso also believes that showing students praise rather than appreciation for efforts has the poten-
tial for being destructive. For example, when a child scores a 100 on his mathematics test and you
say, “Great, Evan! I knew you were a good student!,” what will you say next week when he scores
only an 85? Teachers should be careful to avoid praise that equates students’ achievement with their
self-esteem. Praise risks the possibility of encouraging students to view mistakes as a negative reflec-
tion of themselves. Likewise, to avoid such feelings and to protect their self-esteem, students might
blame someone else for the lower grade. Review Figure 6–2 to see some examples of ways teachers
can show appreciation rather than praise for students’ work and effort.
FIGURE 6–2
• Gwendolyn, a fifth grader, scores an A on her social studies test.
Showing
Praise: “Gwendolyn, you’re a smart girl. Made an A on the test, didn’t you?” Appreciation/
Appreciation: “Gwendolyn, thanks for your fine work on the social studies test.” Avoiding Praise
• First grader Troy goes all day without disturbing others.
Praise: “Troy, good boy for not disturbing others today. You’re a fine person, just like your brother last
year.”
Appreciation: “Troy, thanks for not disturbing others today. Both you and they were far more productive.”
• Ninth grader Michael has a good performance at the debate tournament.
Praise: “Mike, great job, you really showed them. I always knew you were a Grade A student.”
Appreciation: Mike, the other debaters and I appreciate your efforts today. Good preparation and
performance!”
71

Dealing with Bullies
Coloroso (2002) maintains that in order to combat bullies, • Try not to minimize or explain away the behavior of
teachers should be sure that each student bullies.
• Confront rather than ignore the problem of bullies.
• develops a strong sense of self,
• Work with parents and other educators to develop
• has at least one good friend,
plans to address the problem of bullies.
• belongs to at least one group, and
• Know when to involve police or social service agencies
• can get out of a group when necessary.
in cases of serious abuse as well as racist or sexist
In addition, Coloroso believes that teachers should do the bullying.
following:
• Know the school procedures for dealing with bullies.
• Listen to students and parents concerns about bullies.
Instead of using praise, teachers can ask questions about the grade and the assignment.
Whether the grade is an A+ or a D−, students likely will appreciate the teacher’s interest in their
work. Students might say how bad they feel about the D− after spending so much time and effort, or
they might explain that they could have made a higher grade had they taken the test a little more
seriously. With discussion rather than praise, students have little need to make excuses, and in fact,
mistakes can be used as learning opportunities (Coloroso, 1994).
BULLIES AND THEIR VICTIMS As discussed in Chapter 2 of this book, bullying is a serious
problem that challenges many teachers and administrators. In her book The Bully, The Bullied,
and the Bystander, Coloroso (2002) stated that conflict resolution cannot take care of bullies and
their victims because their relationship is based on contempt rather than anger. Bullies show
disdain or dislike toward someone they consider worthless, inferior, or unworthy of respect (Rife,
2004). Although parents often tell their children just to ignore bullies, this does not work be-
cause efforts should be on assertive responses (Scelfo, 2003). Coloroso suggests labels (e.g., the
bully, the bullied, the bystander) might be useful to identify certain roles that people play at dif-
ferent times (Liepe-Levinson & Levinson, 2005). However, she cautions that these terms should
be used to define how a child is acting at the moment (you’re acting like a bully) rather than
permanently labeling a child (you’re a bully). Management Tip 6–3 looks at Coloroso’s antidotes
to bullying.
MARVIN MARSHALL: DISCIPLINE WITHOUT STRESS®

Like Barbara Coloroso, Marvin Marshall (2004, 2005a, 2005b, 2007) believes in a self-regulating
approach to management. Distinguishing between discipline and classroom management, he sees
classroom management encompassing the structures, routines, and procedures that are necessary for
the daily operation of a classroom. They are the responsibility of the teacher and need to be intro-
duced, explained, practiced, and reinforced periodically in order for efficient instruction to take
place. These procedures set the stage for students to discipline themselves.
Overview of Marshall’s Model

Basing his work in part on Glasser’s Reality Therapy and Choice Theory (Chapter 3), Marshall
(2005a) views discipline as the responsibility of the students. They are ultimately accountable for
their own behavior. When teachers develop the rules and impose consequences, the students no
72

Claiming Ownership of a Problem
Marvin Marshall believes that students must accept owner- nearly everything she did not like. He bullied and made
ship of their behaviors. Review the information in this chap- oral threats to other students, acted up in class, con-
ter on problem ownership. Then, as you read the following stantly thought of reasons to walk around or leave the
scenario, decide who owns the behavior problem. room (“I just wanted to see if the flowers were bloom-
ing yet, Ms. M.”), yelled out answers, and nonchalantly
Ms. Modrak, a seventh-grade teacher, questioned the
goofed off when he should have been working. She
issue of ownership. A consultant recently visited her
asked herself: “Who owns this problem? Is it mine? Is
school and stated that “the misbehaving student
it Andy’s? How can it be Andy’s if he does not recog-
owns the problem. He or she must accept ownership
nize his behavior as a problem and will not agree to
and decide on a responsible action.” Although Ms.
any responsible course of action? When Andy disturbs
Modrak liked the consultant’s assertion, she thought
others and me, don’t I own the problem?”
about Andy, the terror of the seventh grade. He did
longer have any ownership in the decisions, and they may “take on a victimhood mentality and have
negative feelings toward” (p. 51) those who impose the consequences. Focusing on obedience engen-
ders defiance and resistance, while using rules makes the teacher a police officer (Marshall, 2007).
Applying Self-Regulating Approaches 6–3 looks at the idea of problem ownership.
According to Marshall (2007), you can control but not change another person. The change
must come from within the person. Thus, the “ultimate goal of discipline is self-discipline” (p. 67)
in which students voluntarily comply with expected behavior standards. The alternative is obedience
and accompanying punishment for non-compliance.
Rewards are external motivators and are successful only if the student is interested in receiving
the reward. By focusing on something external, the student learns to change the motivation from
internal to external, something that, according to Marshall (2007), will not lead to responsible
behavior or promote positive values. Winning the prize teaches students that they will receive some-
thing for good behavior. However, this does not carry over into the real world because “society does
not give rewards for expected standards of behavior” (p. 45).
Marshall (2007) also believes in the power of acknowledgements rather than praise. For exam-
ple, a teacher should say “Your work shows that you are putting a lot of effort into your project”
rather than “I am so pleased with the way you are working.” Marshall (2007) notes that one way to
distinguish between the two statements is that praise often begins with “I am so proud of you for …”
(p. 40, emphasis Marshall’s). Also, praise is often patronizing and something you would not say to
another adult. Consider the statements in Applying Self-Regulating Ideas 6–4 to determine whether
they are potentially destructive or potentially helpful.
APPLYING SELF-REGULATING IDEAS 6–4

Identifying Potentially Destructive and Potentially Helpful Statements
For each of the following statements, indicate whether the “Alvenia, I appreciate your fine work on the mathe-
statement is potentially destructive or potentially helpful. If a matics test. You improved your average a lot.”
state is destructive, change it. “Fine play performance last night, Susan. I know you
“Samal, you’re doing good work, considering that practiced hard.”
English is your second language.” “Denise, your handwriting is improving. I am pleased
“Simms, good boy, I knew you could make that soccer and I know your mom will be, too.”
goal. Your team members are proud of you.”
73
While supporting competition in extracurricular activities, Marshall also believes classroom

competition is counterproductive because “rankings and ratings often depress kids who have no
chance of making it” (Black, 2005, p. 34). Unfortunately, competition often allows only one student
to be successful. In addition, competition focuses on external motivation and winning rather than
fostering an internal interest in learning. It can lead to anxiety (Marshall, 2007) and a “pessimistic
belief of the inability to change or to improve” (p. 42).
Practical Applications of Marshall’s Model

Developed as part of Marshall’s experiences in a classroom, Discipline without Stress® is based on
three core principles of positivity, choice, and reflection. However, the core part of the model is the
Raise Responsibility System, which outlines a hierarchy of social development that establishes
expectations and is taught to students. This hierarchy becomes the base for students to use to self-
regulate their behavior.
THREE POSITIVE PRACTICES Rather than reacting to students’ misbehaviors, teachers must be
proactive to promote responsible behavior (Marshall, 2004). Thus, Marshall begins with what he
calls the three positive practices that promote responsible behavior and that contribute to classroom
management.
Positivity. Teachers should be positive in everything they do and say. Marshall (2005b)
points to simple things such as greeting people with a smile and making positive comments as
good starting points. He suggests that teachers should try to restate everything they say in a posi-
tive way. Thus, instead of saying, “Don’t run,” a teacher should say, “Walk to line up at the door
for lunch.”
Choice. Teachers should offer choices to a student so that the student has the ownership of
the result. For example:
• When seventh grader Shen-Ye behaves, Mrs. Littleman says: “What do you think we should
do about the situation?” (Marshall, 2005b, p. 29).
• When third grader Jamot acts out while completing a form, Mr. Lang says: “Would you rather
complete the form (1) in your seat, (2) in the back of the room, or (3) in the office?” (Mar-
shall, 2005a, p. 52)
Reflection. Although teachers can control students, that does not mean that the teacher has
changed the student because change must come from inside. While a teacher can hope to influence
a student’s behavior, coercion, bribes, and punishment are not effective ways to do so. Thus, rather
than telling students what to do, teachers should ask reflective questions of both themselves and the
students. Reflective questions include:
• “If you could not fail, what would you do?” (Marshall, 2005a, p. 52).
• “What would an extraordinary person do in this situation?” (p. 52).
Weisner (2009) expanded Marshall’s focus on reflection to the entire school by replacing part
of the daily announcements in an elementary school with a question of the day that asks students to
think for themselves and to reflect. One question was:
• “This evening we have parent–teacher interviews. Your parents may ask how well you pay
attention to lessons, whether or not you are organized, and how well you manage yourself on
the playground. How does your teacher know what to say about you?” (p. 78)
With this change, students began to pay attention to the announcements. The questions are always
worded positively, but they draw the students’ attention to problems and issues.
74
TABLE 6–2 Marshall’s Social Hierarchy
Level Description
D—Democracy Displaying responsibility
Acceptable—Internal Demonstrating self-discipline
Evidencing internal motivation
C—Cooperation or Conformity Complying with expected standards of behavior
Acceptable—External Conforming to peer pressure
Evidencing external motivation
B—Bullying or Bossing (“Bully” is never Breaking rules
used because it refers to a person, while Bossing others
bullying refers to a social interaction.)
Behaving irresponsibly
Not acceptable
A—Anarchy No rules or order
Not acceptable Chaos
RAISE RESPONSIBILITY SYSTEM The three positive practices provide the foundation for the
Raise Responsibility System (Marshall, 2005a, 2007). This is a three-part discipline and learning
system: Teaching the Concepts, in which teachers teach a hierarchy of four developmental levels of
social interaction; Checking for Understanding, in which the teacher uses unobtrusive techniques
and asks questions to help a misbehaving student; and Guided Choices, in which a teacher employs
strategies to assist with continued disruptions.
Marshall’s (2005a, 2007) social hierarchy consists of the four levels shown in Table 6–2.
Anarchy is the lowest while Democracy is the highest level. While levels A and B are not acceptable,
either level C or D is acceptable. However, only at level D does the student demonstrate internal
motivation. Because educators teach the hierarchy to students, the students learn the general con-
cepts of behavior before misbehaviors occur.
Marshall (2007) encourages teachers to create examples of the levels of behavior. Weisner
(2004) uses a piece of trash on the classroom floor as an example of the levels for her elementary
class. At level A, the student picks up the trash and throws it at another students. Functioning at
level B, a student kicks the trash around the room. At level C, the student follows the teacher’s
request to pick up the trash. Finally, at level D, without being asked, the student picks up the trash
and puts it in the wastebasket. Another teacher explains the levels as follows: Anarchy is unsafe and
out of control, while bullying bothers others and “breaks classroom standards” (Marshall, 2007,
p. 81). Conformity listens and cooperates, while democracy “shows kindness to others” (p. 81) and
develops self-discipline.
Teachers can even use the hierarchy to teach individual subjects. Weisner (2004) encouraged
her students to become better readers by helping them identify reading behaviors at each level. For
example, at level C, students would be reading only when working with or directed by an adult.
Marshall (2007) suggests that a math teacher should correlate levels A and B with spending “little if
any” (p. 89) time to learn, level C with “fulfills the assignment primarily to get a good grade” (p. 89),
and level D with “willingly practices to improve math skills” (p. 89).
The behaviors noted for each level of the hierarchy should be appropriate for the age level of
the students (Weisner, 2004). For example, behaviors that symbolize anarchy to a 6-year-old might
be “noisy, out of control, unsafe” (p. 505). Teachers can also support students’ behavior by adding
to the list of descriptors for the levels of the hierarchy. Adding “shows initiative” to level D gives
75

Helping with Keith’s Problem
Before reading the following scenario, review Coloroso’s dents ended up bruised or crying. When Ms. Buha
ideas on conflict and confrontation and Marshall’s ideas on finally spoke to Keith about his bullying, Keith
social interactions. “blew up.”
Ms. Buha probably let a situation go too long. Keith, “You’re picking on me, just like the other kids
a bully, had been verbally and in some cases physi- do. I’m no bully!” Then he slammed his book
cally abusive to others in his class. Ms. Buha kept on his desk.
thinking that class rejection or isolation eventually
What should Ms. Buha do? Try using Coloroso’s seven rules
would tone down Keith’s aggressiveness; however,
for an assertive confrontation and applying Marshall’s ideas
that did not happen. Instead, the principal com-
on the social hierarchy.
plained, some parents called, and several other stu-
students “another trait to which they could aspire” (p. 506). In addition, Marshall (2007) suggests
using children’s literature to teach the concepts of the hierarchy to Pre-K and elementary students. A
life cycle comparison (cycle of the butterfly), stages of human development (baby, child, adolescent,
adult), or specific lessons incorporated into academic subjects are successful with older students.
“Using the hierarchy BEFORE a lesson and reflecting AFTER a lesson increases effort and raises
academic achievement” (Marshall, 2007, p. 112). Applying Self-Regulating Approaches 6–5 asks
you to use these ideas in a classroom situation.
The second part of the Raise Responsibility System has teachers Checking for Understanding by
asking students to reflect on their behavior. However, before doing this, teachers can use a number of
“unobtrusive techniques” (Marshall, 2007, p. 90) or visual, verbal, and kinetic cues such as body language,
posture, voice, and pacing of speech to influence the behavior. Some of these are shown in Figure 6–3.
FIGURE 6–3
Marshall’s Unobtrusive Visual
Techniques Smiling in a friendly way
Changing your facial expressions
Making fleeting eye contact rather than staring at a student
Nodding to the student
Using a group attention signal such as flicking the lights
Verbal
Pausing in your talking
Changing the inflection or volume of your voice
Thanking students for their attention
Asking an evaluating question about performance—“What level is your behavior currently meeting?”
Kinetic
Moving to a different part of the room
Using proximity
Redirecting a student’s actions such as tapping a pencil from a hard surface to soft surface
Source: Developed in part from Marshall, M. (2007). Discipline without stress®, punishments, or rewards: How teachers
and parents promote responsibility & learning. Los Angeles: Piper Press.
76
If a student misbehaves and the unobtrusive techniques do not work, the first question that
the teacher asks is “On what level was that behavior?” The teacher should always refer to the level
rather than the person. For example, when Ms. Mills saw Maria misbehaving:
Ms. Mills: On what level is that behavior?

Maria: I don’t know.
Ms. Mills: What level is it when someone does not follow the rule to work quietly on
their math problems?
Maria: Level B
Ms. Mills: Thank you. (Marshall, 2007)
If misbehaviors continue, the teacher moves to the Guided Choices, the third part of the Raise
Responsibility System, to “stop the disruption and give the student a responsibility-producing activ-
ity and/or to develop a procedure to redirect future impulses” (Marshall, 2005a, p. 53). Used only
when a student is “constantly disruptive” (Marshall, 2007, p. 101), Guided Choices requires the
teacher to use authority without becoming authoritarian by offering choices to the student in the
form of questions. In addition to stopping the disruption, it isolates the student, provides a time for
reflection, and allows the teacher to return to instruction.
Marshall (2007, 2005a) explains that the first step in the Guided Choices stage is to try to help
students help themselves to avoid becoming victims of their impulses.
Suppose that Michael sticks his foot out into the aisle in an attempt to trip Jimmy. The
teacher’s conversation to Michael sounds like the following:
• “Michael, every time you stick your foot out to trip Jimmy, you are a victim of your
impulses. Do you want to go through life being a victim? If not, let’s think of some proce-
dure you can rely on so that when you get that impulse you will be able to redirect it. With-
out having some procedure, you will continue to be a victim of your impulses.” (Marshall,
2005a, p. 54)
There are a number of different activities that can be used as part of Guided Choices. The
ideas behind this stage are similar to the Think Time™ strategy (Chapter 4) because the activity
should help the student to reflect on the misbehavior and “encourage self-evaluation” (Mar-
shall, 2007, p. 102). In the primary grades, students can draw, create a story, talk to another
student or adult, or use an audio recorder to explain their actions. This is similar to a time-out,
but it involves a reflective activity. In upper elementary and secondary schools, teachers can
have students complete a self-evaluation essay in which the student responds to the following
questions:
• “What did I do? (Acknowledgement)

• What can I do to prevent it from happening again? (Choice)
• What will I do (Commitment)?” (Marshall, 2007, p. 102)
Students are given the choice (see an earlier example on choice in this chapter) of where to complete
the essay. A teacher may elect to keep the completed essay or destroy it; the changed behavior, not
the essay, is the important thing.
Marshall (2005a, 2007) notes that the essay usually solves the problem. However, if a disrup-
tion continues after the activity or essay, Marshall has the student complete a Self-Diagnostic Refer-
ral form, which is more detailed than the essay and which varies depending on the age of the student.
This form may be shared with administrators, parents, or both. At this point, Marshall employs a
“three strikes and you are out” (Marshall, 2007, p. 105) philosophy. When three of the Self-Diagnostic
77
Referral forms have been completed and the misbehavior still continues, Marshall recommends a
“when all else fails” (p. 105) strategy.
• During the first four weeks of school, Ramon had acted out continually and completed three
Self-Diagnostic Referral forms. When he disrupted the class again, Mrs. Bildish applied the
Check for Understanding and asked Ramon to identify his level of behavior. As Ramon talked,
she placed a completed copy of the school’s discipline referral slip on his desk. When Ramon
finished speaking, Mrs. Bildish noted: “I would rather have you stay in class; however, if you
act on level A or B again, you are saying you would rather go to the office. If you act on level
C or D, you may continue to stay in class.”
The student must make the choice. The teacher has used a nonconfrontational, nonstressful
approach to help the student reflect on the misbehavior and to make a choice.
CRITIQUES OF THE SELF-REGULATING APPROACHES

There are a number of factors that make the self-regulating approaches of Coloroso and Marshall
effective. Generally, they are easy to understand, are based on sound psychological beliefs, foster self-
discipline, and do not require special training and staff development in order for teacher to use
them. There are no elaborate and time-consuming record-keeping devices. In addition, the philo-
sophical beliefs (e.g., believing in the worth of students, living by the Golden Rule, promoting self-
esteem) are foundations that most good teachers already have. Many teachers can easily adopt the
characteristics of backbone (Coloroso, 1997) teachers and become successful managers and teachers.
They also will find that Marshall’s (2005a, 2007) ideas of positive practice are useful in many situa-
tions. Applying Self-Regulating Approaches 6–6 asks you to apply Coloroso’s and Marshall’s ideas
to a few situations.
Some teachers may have problems with the self-reflecting approaches. Autocratic ones
may feel that their students and schools dictate the use of “power and control” messages. Also,
some middle and secondary teachers might consider these theories to be more appropriate for
younger students. For example, some teachers think Coloroso’s ideas apply only to young stu-
dents. However, for high school teachers, Coloroso specifically recommends the programs of
the Institute for Affective Skill Development led by Constance Dembrowsky. Dembrowsky has
used many of Coloroso’s ideas in programs for high school students, including students at risk
of failing. Techniques such as the Golden Rule, avoiding punishment, avoiding evaluative
praise, using the four steps to discipline, using natural consequences, and setting an example for

Addressing Contemporary Behaviors
To what extent would the concepts of Barbara Coloroso’s 3. Tyrone bullies most classmates and calls them names.
Inner Discipline and Marvin Marshall’s Discipline without 4. Yoshiro is caught drawing sexually explicit parts on the
Stress® be helpful in the following situations? pictures that are posted in the hall.
5. Clayton becomes angry with the teacher, pulls out a
1. Khaliah is goofing off and not listening while the
knife, and says, “You stay away from me! You can’t do
teacher explains a language arts lesson.
to me what you do to those other #&$*% bastards.”
2. Latane tells the teacher, “You really can’t make me do
that. You just say you can.”
78
conflict resolution have potential for addressing behaviors of students at all grade levels. In
addition, Coloroso and Marshall offer sufficient details and examples to tell teachers how to
move from theory to practice. Thus it seems that Marshall’s and Coloroso’s approaches have the
potential to address the majority of the problems faced by most teachers such as talking, walk-
ing around, and disturbing others, as well as problems resulting from a lack of responsibility
and self-esteem.
Neither Coloroso nor Marshall specifically addresses students using guns and knives. How-
ever, Coloroso does address the problem of violence in her books Kids Are Worth It: Giving Your
Child the Gift of Inner Discipline (1994) and The Bully, The Bullied, and the Bystander (Coloroso,
2002) and through her emphasis on nonviolent conflict resolution. Our culture is deeply rooted in
a win-lose, victim-victor, adversarial approach to conflict, with violence being the tool often used
to solve conflicts. Instead of bombarding students with the message that aggression is the way to
resolve conflict, educators can teach through example, guidance, and instruction that violence is an
immature, irresponsible, and unproductive technique for resolving conflict. Coloroso also main-
tains that our culture often equates masculinity with violence. Not only is it acceptable for boys to
hit, it is sometimes considered a rite of passage to prove their masculinity. Coloroso (2000a) also
explains that sometimes students hurt or intimidate others to cover their fears, anxiety, and sadness.
Coloroso has some excellent ideas on violence and how students become violent, but she offers lit-
tle specific direction for addressing violence other than her four steps to discipline and the three R’s
of discipline.
Both Coloroso and Marshall respect individual differences among students as seen in their
call for dignity for all and their emphasis on treating others as you want to be treated. Teachers
who place students in ownership and responsibility situations should not offend any students or
their parents. In fact, Coloroso (1994) called for parents to have formal celebrations to recognize
cultural customs and to celebrate holidays, holy days, anniversaries, and the first day of school.
This call for respect and recognition of cultural customs should carry over into schools.
Of all the classroom management theorists we have looked at thus far, Coloroso and Marshall
are probably the strongest advocates for student self-discipline. In fact, they are opposed to teachers
trying to shape student behavior through behavior modification, punishment, rewards, and bribes.
Instead, they think teachers should model appropriate behavior and instill in students a desire to
discipline themselves by accepting ownership of behavior problems and accepting the responsibility
to correct the behavior problem.

Do Self-Regulating Approaches Reflect Your Beliefs?
To determine whether you agree with the philosophical and 5. Do I believe in the philosophical perspectives of logical
psychological positions of the self-regulating approaches, and reasonable consequences, and can I implement
ask yourself the following questions: them?
6. Can I see the difference between destructive words of
1. How important is it for me to hold the power in a class-
condemnation, words of praise and acknowledgements?
room and to control the actions of others?
7. Do I believe in Marshall’s three positive practices?
2. Do I genuinely believe that all students are of worth
8. Do I view rewards, bribes, and threats as manipulative
and deserve my time and effort?
tactics or necessary and realistic classroom procedures?
3. Do I think teachers always should abide by the Golden
9. Could I use the Raise Responsibility System to manage
Rule (and do I have the capability to)?
my classroom?
4. Do I believe that whether a teacher is a brickwall, jelly-
fish, or backbone affects students’ behaviors?
79
Because of these beliefs, Inner Discipline and Discipline without Stress® require a certain kind
of teacher or person. A teacher who feels that adults are superior to students, one who feels that
adults can act one way and students another, and one who believes that students should be control-
led will be uncomfortable with the self-regulating approaches. Developing Your Personal Philosophy
asks you to consider your propensity for the self-regulating approaches.
Summary
We do not advocate any one theory of classroom manage- shall’s Discipline without Stress®, his three principles to prac-
ment; in fact, we want you to examine each theory in this tice, and his Raise Responsibility System. Now, revisit the
book and decide which one (or probably which combination opening vignette for this chapter and respond to the follow-
of theories) seems to have the most potential for you. In this ing questions.
chapter you have explored the self-regulating approaches to 1. What problems is Ms. Hecht facing?
management. You read about the major elements of Color- 2. Is it too late for her to try the self-regulating approaches?
oso’s Inner Discipline theory, such as identifying the type of 3. Using first Coloroso’s ideas then Marshall’s, explain what
teacher: jellyfish, brickwall, and backbone; advocating disci- she should do. Look for immediate as well as long-term
pline rather than punishment; following the four steps to dis- solutions.
cipline; using natural and reasonable consequences; and 4. How would the use of Coloroso’s or Marshall’s models be-
modeling appropriate behavior. You explored Marvin Mar- fore this incident have changed the situation?
Suggested Readings
Coloroso, B. (2011). Bully, bullied, bystander . . . and beyond. Montessori Life: A Publication of the American Montessori
Teaching Tolerance, 39(Spring 2011), 51–3. Coloroso exam- Society, 22 (2), 22–31. This research study examined self-
ines the problems of bullies and the need for individuals to re- regulation, positive work habits, and internal motivation in
sist bullies, defend those who are bullied, and speak out against young children.
bullies. Kim, J., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2011). Dynamic changes in anger,
Duckworth, A. L., Grant, H., Loew, B., Oettingen, G., & externalizing and internalizing problems: attention and regula-
Gollwitzer, P. M. (2011). Self-regulation strategies improve self- tion. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied
discipline in adolescents: Benefits of mental contrasting and im- Disciplines, 52(2), 156–166. This student examined attention
plementation intentions. Educational Psychology, 31(1), 17–26. control mechanisms and their involvement in self-regulation of
The authors examine strategies to improve sustained self-disci- anger.
pline in secondary school students. Kreisle, B. (2010). Punishment or self-discipline? Early roots of re-
Ervin, B., Wash, P. D., & Mecca, M. E. (2010). A 3-year study of form. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 19(3), 14–15. The author
self-regulation in Montessori and non-Montessori classrooms. presents early research on inner restraints and willpower.

Visit the following websites for more information on theorists and Kids Are Worth It
their theories of management. www.kidsareworthit.com
B. COLOROSO Raising Children
www.presbyterian.ca/files/webfm/ourresources/education/
Interview with Barbara Coloroso children/raising_children.pdf
www.parentsplaceonline.org/content/exclusive-interview-
bullying-expert-barbara-coloroso
80
M. MARSHALL Marvin Marshall

Discipline without Stress® www.marvinmarshallpresents.com
www.marvinmarshall.com Parenting Without Stress
Discipline & Parenting without Stress www.parentingwithoutstress.org/about.html
www.marvinmarshall.net
Interview with Marvin Marshall
larryferlazzo.edublogs.org/2010/02/02/interview-of-the-
month-marvin-marshall-on-positive-classroom-management/
81
82
Exploring the Process-
Outcomes Approaches to
83
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading and reflecting on Chapter 7, you 4. describe Evertson’s and Harris’s Classroom
should be able to Organization and Management Program and its
1. discuss the characteristics of the process-outcomes practical applications,
approaches to classroom management, 5. describe the Responsive Classroom® model and explain
2. describe the key concepts of Jones’s model and how it could be used in an elementary classroom,
explain how these concepts could be implemented in 6. critique the process-outcomes approaches to
a classroom, classroom management, and
3. identify the elements of the Johnson’s and Johnson’s 7. consider all the process-outcomes approaches and
Three C’s of School and Classroom Discipline model identify concepts to include in your own personal
and how they could be used in a classroom, philosophy.
Comstock/Thinkstock
84
Exploring the Process-
Outcomes Approaches to
VIGNETTE: Talking, Walking Around, and Goofing Off
Janice Brisky was a new teacher who was hired in November to teach a class of fifth graders who had had a long-
term substitute teacher for 2 months. The students in the class were not bad in the sense that they did not fight
or threaten others, but they did display many minor (but still disturbing) behavior problems. They answered
out of turn, talked among themselves, goofed off, and walked around the room whenever they pleased. To
make matters worse, Ms. Brisky did not seem to know the problems existed (or she intentionally ignored them).
She spent nearly all her time sitting at the teacher’s desk. Although she had a good lesson plan, it was question-
able how many students listened or could listen to her instruction.
When she talked about how things were going in her classroom, Ms. Brisky mentioned that her empha-
sis was on instruction and that she didn’t want to appear to be a strict disciplinarian. “I don’t want to keep
interrupting my instruction to deal with behavior problems. The students really aren’t ‘bad,’ so I just ignore
things. I guess they’re learning, but sometimes it seems that I have to shout to make myself heard over the con-
stant undercurrent of noise. Maybe I should try some management system, but I don’t know where to begin.
These students need support, not discipline.”
OVERVIEW
The process-outcomes or process-product approach to classroom management
began by focusing on the relationship between “classroom processes (teaching) and
outcomes (what students learn and how they behave)” (Gettinger & Kohler, 2006, p. 73).
Models that follow this approach examine the events, including teacher and student
behaviors and interactions, that happen during the teaching and learning process.
They also examine the “outcomes of instruction, such as achievement, attitudes, or
classroom behavior” (p. 74).
Researchers found that a strict examination of process-outcomes relationships in
terms of teacher instructional activities and student performance on an examination
failed to account for complex classroom dynamics. Thus, the process-outcomes
approach gradually expanded to “understanding the complexity of teachers’ actions,
their interactions with students, and diverse teaching-learning contexts” (p. 75). In a
process-outcomes model, it is important for the teacher to create and maintain “a
positive classroom environment that promotes academic and social competence”
(Gettinger & Kohler, 2006, p. 88). This is the type of classroom Ms. Brisky in the
opening vignette was trying but failing to achieve.
85
Exploring the Process-Outcomes Approaches to Classroom Management
Some process-outcomes approaches pay particular attention to the ways

teachers establish, teach, and enforce rules (Evertson, 1987; Evertson & Emmer,
1982) or the critical beginning-of-the year activities that establish a framework for
management throughout the year (Evertson & Harris, 1992). Still others have
examined the effects of cooperative learning strategies when students are held
accountable for their performance (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). They also explore the
use of smooth transitions, efficient use of learning time, and monitoring of student
progress. Communication between the teacher and the students is critical as
teachers hold students accountable, review student work, maintain visibility in the
classroom, encourage all students to participate, and provide feedback. By using
humor and enthusiasm with a variety of motivational strategies, the teacher directs
learning and involves the students. The bottom line is that teachers “must be aware of
the numerous variables that affect classroom environments and student learning”
(Gettinger & Kohler, 2006, p. 91).
The process-outcomes approach overlaps with other management models. For
example, Kounin, one of the ecological approach theorists discussed in Chapter 5,
used a process-outcome approach when he examined the effect of a teacher’s
behavior on student behavioral outcomes. The emphasis of the process-outcomes
models on social competence reflects the character and values education component
of some of the later ecological approaches.
INDIVIDUAL MODELS FOR PROCESS-OUTCOMES APPROACHES

In this chapter, you will read about four process-outcomes classroom management models. These
are: the Positive Classroom Management model developed by Jones; The Three C’s of School and
Classroom Discipline by Johnson and Johnson; the Classroom Organization and Management Pro-
gram (COMP) by Evertson and Harris; and the Responsive Classroom® by the Northeast Foundation
for Children.
KEY TERMS
Table 7–1 identifies the key terms related to the process-outcomes approaches to classroom management.
TABLE 7–1 Key Terms Related to Process-Outcomes Approaches
Johnson and Johnson Evertson and Harris Northeast Foundation

Jones Positive Three C’s of School and Classroom Organization for Children
Classroom Discipline Classroom Management and Management Program Responsive Classroom®
• Backup systems • Civic values • Advance preparation • Academic Choice
• Body language • Conflict resolution • Extensive interventions • Buddy teachers
• Cheap • Cooperation • Effective communication • Classroom organization
• Classroom structures • Cooperative learning • Mediation/conflict • Guided Discovery
• General rules resolution • Home groups
• Grandma’s Rule • Minor interventions • Morning Meeting
• Limit setting • Moderate interventions • Network meetings
• Preferred activity • Rules and logical
time (PAT) consequences
• Proximity
• Specific rules
86
FIGURE 7–1
Fredric Jones believes the following:
Key Concepts of
1. Classroom management procedures must be Positive Classroom
Positive. They must be gentle, affirm the student, set limits, and build cooperation in the absence of coercion. Management
Economical. They must be practical, simple, and easy to use once they are mastered. They must reduce
(emphasis Jones’s) the teacher’s workload (Jones, 1987a, p. 9).
2. There are four groups of fundamental skills of classroom management:
Developing classroom structures, including rules, procedures, and physical arrangements
Remaining calm and using body language to set limits
Teaching students cooperation and responsibility
Providing backup systems.
3. Time and its allocation are important resources for teachers
FREDRIC JONES: POSITIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Fredric Jones developed his Positive Classroom Management theory to help teachers address an
array of student behavior problems by promoting positive behavior, regardless of the grade levels,
developmental levels, or diversity of the students. In his book Positive Classroom Discipline (Jones,
1987a) and other publications (Jones, 1987b, 1996, 1973, 2007), Jones described students’ inap-
propriate behaviors, suggested specific teacher strategies, and recognized the importance of instruc-
tional effectiveness in classroom management. Instead of controlling students, Jones accentuated the
positive in all classroom management encounters. His key concepts are shown in Figure 7–1.
Overview of Jones’s Model

“For students to learn, they must enjoy learning” (Jones, 2007, p. 1). “Students enjoy learning when
the process of instruction engages all of their senses” (p. 2). Thus, educators should be effective
teachers, model appropriate behavior, use appropriate classroom management methods, and moti-
vate students to learn (Jones, 2007). When students are actively engaged in productive learning
activities, they will have legitimate reasons to behave.
One of the foundations of discipline is cooperation (Jones, 2007). When responsible students
do what teachers ask them to do, management becomes much easier and cooperation becomes a mat-
ter of routine. Teachers have to help students understand that it just makes sense to cooperate with
the teacher and other students (www.educationworld.com/a_curr/columnists/jones/jones014.shtml).
Jones (1987a) also believes that whole children (emphasis Jones’s) are at the center stage. To
Jones, emotions, self-esteem, values, and relationship building are the true goals of the classroom
management system. By understanding students and mastering instructional and management strat-
egies, teachers can make all young people feel successful in their environment. Thus, teachers should
strive for positive management techniques that convey dignity (similar to the ideas of Curwin and
Mendler in Chapter 8), cooperation, and respect; and that demonstrate skill, caring, and effort.
Dignity and respect can be conveyed in many ways. Applying Process-Outcomes Ideas 7–1 looks at
the importance of conveying these feelings to students.
One of the first lessons teachers must learn about classroom management is that it is emotional.
You cannot manage another’s behavior until you can manage your own (www.educationworld.
com/a_curr/colmunists/jones/jones010.shtml). Teachers should not assume autocratic roles,
demand strict obedience, and threaten or try to control through fear. Instead, they should see stu-
dents as individuals who are worthy of respect. Likewise, when teachers act maturely and compe-
tently, students will see them as role models after whom they can pattern their own behavior. Not
only do good teachers tell students how to act, they demonstrate appropriate behavior in all their
daily routines and interactions.
87
APPLYING PROCESS-OUTCOMES IDEAS 7–1

Conveying Dignity and Respect
Knowing students’ names is an important part of classroom asked why she did not know the names of the stu-
management. In addition to conveying respect and dignity, dents, Ms. Creecy replied that she taught four classes
teachers use names to identify students in various situations. of social studies per day and simply could not learn
As you read the following scenario, think about how the stu- the names.
dents in Ms. Creecy’s classes feel. Then respond to the ques-
1. If you were a student in Ms. Creecy’s class, how would
tions at the end.
you feel about her inability to use names to call on
Fayetta Creecy was a student teacher in a seventh- students?
grade social studies class. Her lesson plans were 2. What effect is her not knowing names having on her
excellent, her teaching skills were good, and she management? Is she conveying dignity and respect?
demonstrated good interpersonal skills, except for 3. As an educator, what advice or tips would you give
one aspect. After 3 weeks of observation and 4 Ms. Creecy to help her learn the names of her students?
weeks of teaching, she still did not know the stu- 4. How would this advice vary if Ms. Creecy had been in
dents’ names. Because Ms. Creecy’s lessons included a first-grade classroom? In a fifth-grade classroom? In
lots of questions, she continually had to point to a an 11th-grade classroom?
student and say something like “Yes, you.” When
Finally, good teachers use positive and “cheap” (Jones, 1987a, p. 25) classroom management.
By cheap, Jones means management techniques that are simple and that require the “least planning,
the least effort, the least time and paperwork” (p. 25). To be useful, a management system must save
time. For example, rather than choosing a classroom management plan that requires extensive record
keeping and an exhaustive list of rules, teachers should provide simple, positive, and workable rules,
routines, and standards.
Practical Applications of Jones’s Model

Although Jones acknowledges the increased violence in schools, he also maintains that most behav-
iors are what he called small disruptions (emphasis Jones’s) (Jones, 1987a, p. 27) or “nickel and dime”
(p. 27) misbehaviors. In typical elementary or secondary classrooms, whether inner city or suburban,
roughly 80% of the disruptions are students “talking to neighbors” (Jones, 1987a, p. 27) and 15%
are students out of their seats. Thus, 95% of classroom disruptions are simply students goofing off
and taking a break from work. The rate of disruptions in typical classrooms escalates when teachers
are sitting down at their desks (www.educationworld.com/a_curr/columnists/jones/jones009.shtml).
Even the more serious disruptions that result in office referrals involve student back talk in 80% of
the cases (Jones, 1996).
In Positive Classroom Discipline, Jones described the “fundamental skills” (Jones, 1987a, p. 3)
of classroom management, or those skills that teachers need to address misbehaviors. We have fol-
lowed Jones’s general outline in presenting these fundamental skills and discuss them in four groups:
classroom structures, limit setting through body language, cooperation, and backup systems.
FUNDAMENTAL SKILL 1 Effective classroom structures consist of rules, routines, and standards. Jones
believes that teachers should set the stage properly with classroom structures so that classroom man-
agement and instruction proceed as smoothly as possible. Structures include getting off on the right
foot at the beginning of the school year as well as the management tasks that teachers face continu-
ously throughout the year. For example, they include items such as arranging the classroom or inter-
acting with parents during telephone calls.
Jones (1987a) maintains that classroom rules are much more than a list of do’s and don’ts.
Students in a well-structured classroom know exactly what is expected of them, and they also have
been trained and motivated to adhere to the rules. A teacher must teach the rules, explain the reasons
88
FIGURE 7–2
The following are a number of misconceptions that teachers commonly have about discipline and the use of
Misconceptions
rules in a classroom (Jones, 1987a).
About Rules
• A good curriculum means teachers will not have discipline problems.
• Some teachers are born with a gift for good management.
• Some students are truly unmanageable.
• Discipline and rules thwart creativity and spontaneity.
• The longer teachers teach, the better their management will be.
• There are some teachers who do not need help with discipline.
• The only problem is with the class this year.
• Students dislike and resent classroom rules.
for the rules, and motivate or convince the students that obeying the rules is in their best interests as
well as everyone else’s.
According to Jones, several myths, misconceptions, or natural defenses about rules exist that
teachers need to recognize. Paramount among these are the beliefs shown in Figure 7–2. Both gen-
eral and specific rules play significant roles in teachers’ classroom management decisions. It is impor-
tant that teachers consider their own misconceptions about rules because these can interfere with a
teacher’s ability and willingness to insist upon proper classroom behavior.
General rules describe teachers’ goals and objectives—their hopes and aspirations for class-
room management during a coming year. Rather than dictating behavior, these rules establish a tone
in the class and raise expectations briefly until the students have had time to size up the teacher and
determine whether the general rules are going to be enforced (Jones, 1987a). No best set of rules
exists, but three guidelines will help you to prepare general rules:
1. Do not make any rule you are not willing to enforce every time it is broken.
2. Have a few general rules for behavior and work.
3. Make sure rules are simple, clear, and shared by all students.
In contrast, specific rules deal with training a class to do what (emphasis Jones’s) you want
them to do, when (emphasis Jones’s) you want them to do it. For example, during the first 2 weeks
of school, teachers should address rules such as “how to do this” (Jones, 1987a, p. 43) and “how to
do that” (p. 43). “Real rules” (Jones, 2000, p. 111) are what the teacher permits rather than what the
teacher says the rules are. Thus “classroom rules are ultimately defined by whatever any student can
get away with” (p. 112).
Once teachers have decided on their general and specific rules, they need to teach those rules
to their students.
Before students arrived on the first day of school, Mr. Latis placed a number on a worksheet on each desk.
Then, he met each student at the door with a personal greeting, introduced himself, shook the student’s hand,
asked the student’s name, handed each student a number, and directed the student to walk to that number
desk, where the student was to begin completing the worksheet.
Jones maintains that this teacher’s procedure has taught several lessons: (1) my enforcement of
the rules begins at the door, (2) I care who you are and that you know who I am, (3) walk, don’t run,
into my class, (4) take your seat immediately, and (5) begin to work on the assignment before the
bell rings. As a teacher, Mr. Latis was the direct opposite of Ms. Brisky in the opening vignette
because Ms. Brisky had no established routines.
Teachers cannot assume that “students should know how to behave by this time” (Jones,
1987a, p. 42), that it is foolish to sacrifice instructional time to teach management rules, that teach-
ing rules is a matter of being strict, or that students will understand and obey rules simply because
89

Establishing Rules and Routines
According to Jones (2000), when teachers do not establish • Explain why it is important to be quiet in the halls.
rules and routines, they allow students to establish the • Demonstrate and explain hand motions or other visual
agenda and the management plan in the classroom. During cues you will use for stop, go, start over, zipped lips,
the first 2 weeks of school, teachers should teach a planned, and so on.
structured lesson on rules, routines, and expected standards. • Explain lining-up procedures.
Teachers should be proactive. • Practice lining up.
• Start the “trip.”
Arrange the classroom. Have students sit where you
• Be ready to go back to the classroom and start over if
want them to sit, not where they want to.
anyone breaks the silence rule. It may take several tries
Provide markers to show where the desks belong. before everyone gets it right and the group walks in
Don’t let students change the arrangement without silence (Jones, 2000).
your permission.
Get students working right away each day. Let stu- Secondary
dents know that the classroom is where learning takes Bell work (about 5 minutes) is what students are doing when
place. the class bell rings (Jones, 2000). Standard procedure should
Use icebreakers to create a community in the class- be: Come in the class, take your seat, look at the board for
room. Students should know the name of every other the day’s bell work, and get started. Tell students who want
student as well as yours. to socialize that they can remain in the hall. Once in the
List and teach the rules. room, they should be working on their bell work.
Teach the routines you want your students to follow.

Before you have your class make that first trip through the
halls to the library media center or the music room, practice
the routine.
they are posted on the wall. Instead, Jones believes teachers and students benefit when the students
know all classroom management expectations. Management Tip 7–1 provides additional informa-
tion about establishing rules and routines in the first weeks of school.
FUNDAMENTAL SKILL 2 Limit setting consists of a set of physical moves performed by the
teacher that signal the student to stop specific behaviors. When teachers use the skills of limit setting,
they use their bodies to say what their mouths were about to say. This procedure is the opposite of
what many teachers do to stop undesired behaviors.
Seeing that Bianca was talking to Kate during the lesson, Ms. McMichael called out in a loud voice: “Bianca
and Kate, stop that talking right now or else you’ll be sorry!” At the same time, she scowled and shook her
finger at the two girls.
Jones believes that a better alternative is to use body language to correct behavior (Jones,
1987a). As students read a teacher’s body language, they learn what they can and cannot get away
with. Teachers can use body language to set priorities, demonstrate what is important and what is not
important, and reinforce rules (www.educationworld.com/a_curr/columnists/jones/jones011.shtml).
The objective of limit setting is to calm the students and get them back on task (emphasis Jones’s)
(Jones, 1987a, p. 86). In addition to stopping undesired behavior, teachers want their own behavior
to be contagious. Unlike Ms. McMichael in the previous example, if teachers demonstrate or model
calm behavior, they will calm the students. Unfortunately, when teachers let themselves get upset,
students usually become resentful and often do not give their full attention for the remainder of the
90
class period. Real interpersonal power is the power of calm, which allows the teacher and the stu-
dents to retain their dignity and their sense of volition (Jones, 1987a).
Physical proximity is a strong deterrent. Teachers can use personal space to correct unde-
sired behaviors. The farther a teacher is from a student, the safer the student usually feels. When
the teacher moves closer and into a student’s space, the student feels less comfortable. In fact,
when a teacher moves within 18 inches of a misbehaving student, the student usually will correct
the behavior (Jones, 1987a). A teacher also can engage in camping out, or standing either in
front of or behind a student, to encourage the misbehaving or inattentive student to correct the
behavior.
Proximity should be used with care. Some students can feel threatened and become defensive
if they believe the teacher is invading their personal space. To avoid a potential problem, the teacher
can regulate the distance or turn slightly to eliminate a confrontation. By remaining calm, the teacher
can have a calming effect on the student (www.educationworld.com/a_curr/columnists/jones/
jones013.shtml).
The strength of calmness is shown through body cues. Teachers should “remember that calm
is a strength and upset is a weakness” (Jones, 1996, p. 26). Once a student begins to misbehave to
an extent that the teacher feels it is necessary to intervene, the teacher should face the student com-
pletely and squarely. This action tells the misbehaving student that he or she is the most important
person in the classroom at that time and, therefore, must receive the teacher’s full attention. A
gradual or partial turn signals to the student that the teacher has not directed full attention to the
problem.
Eye contact is another effective tool that teachers can use for classroom management. Jones
recommends that a teacher make eye contact with disruptive students and focus on the most disrup-
tive student in a group. To Jones, this eye contact is one of the most “sensitive barometers” (Jones,
1987a, p. 90) of emotional calm or upset on a body. Unwavering eye contact on the teacher’s part
conveys calmness, which is interpreted as self-confidence. The opposite, failing to look the student
in the eye, is often interpreted as meaning the teacher is anxious, uptight, and unsure. When a
teacher glances away for only a moment, it tells the student that the teacher is unsure of his or her
ability to handle the disruption. It also tells the student that the teacher does not want to stay in the
situation. Thus, the student begins to feel more comfortable than the teacher and is unlikely to stop
the misbehavior completely, even though the student might offer some insincere smile.
Jones (1987a) admits that some students’ cultural backgrounds might prevent them from want-
ing to make eye contact. For example, Jones maintains that children and adolescents in Asian, His-
panic, and Native American cultures might be reluctant to maintain eye contact in a discipline
situation. To do so might convey a sign of disrespect or impudence. In contrast, in many European
cultures, eye contact typically is interpreted as a sign of paying attention, and looking away is a sign of
disrespect.
Teachers also must use facial and body expressions to let their intentions be known. According
to Jones (1987a), every part of the body speaks. Thus, Jones suggests that teachers should smile,
especially as they say students’ names. In contrast, a frown can stop misbehaviors, but a bland facial
expression can convey resignation or can even imply a threat. Often teachers send messages that they
are upset because of the difficulty they have hiding their anger and faking relaxation and self-control.
Thus, in a difficult discipline situation, even when a teacher slows down and speaks with a relaxed
tone, the teacher’s facial expressions can give the impression of being upset.
Posture is also important in conveying calm. Jones recommends that teachers keep their
hands low because the higher a person’s hands are, the more animated or upset the person appears.
Arms folded or on a person’s hips also convey impatience, a form of being upset. Thus, effective
teachers often place their hands in their pockets or at their sides to convey a sense of calmness.
Another technique is to place the arms behind the back because this hides nervous mannerisms
(Jones, 1987a).
Good teachers practice patience. However, it is important to point out that patience is not
waiting and hoping for the best; it is the relaxed demeanor with which teachers confront the problem
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while waiting for students to make emotional peace with themselves and return to the learning tasks.
Another useful technique for classroom management is for a teacher to say a disruptive student’s first
name, say it only once, and say it loud enough to be heard. The name should be spoken in a flat or
matter-of-fact fashion.
In practicing the skills of relaxation and self-control under pressure, teachers learn how diffi-
cult it is to be calm and how easy it is to lose the student’s respect during a reprimand. Teachers learn
to use the power that is part of their professional role to protect rather than threaten students. When
teachers effectively use limit setting, they project a calmness that conveys acceptance of the student
without implying acceptance of the behavior. Jones believes that the use of silence, calmness, and
genuine patience allows students to confront themselves (emphasis Jones’s) rather than the teacher
and finally to accept responsibility for their own misbehavior. Also, effective limit setting can rees-
tablish relationships and a sense of reconciliation between student and teacher. In such an atmos-
phere, students can begin to understand that the teacher is always there for them and cannot be
alienated, driven away, or emotionally lost as a result of the student’s misbehaviors (Jones, 1987a).
FUNDAMENTAL SKILL 3 Responsibility training teaches learners to be responsible for their own ac-
tions. Jones (1987a) maintains that the ultimate goal of discipline is to train young people to become
self-directing and to be responsible for their own behavior. According to Jones, three conditions
must be met for students to demonstrate responsible behavior:
• They have a resource for which they are responsible.
• They have control over the consumption of that resource.
• They must live with the consequences of the consumption of that resource.
The resource to which Jones referred is time rather than stickers or awards. Time is free, is at
the teacher’s disposal, and can be the universal medium of exchange in the classroom. Teachers allo-
cate students an amount of time, the consumption or use of which depends upon students’ behavior.
To help teachers manage the resource of time, Jones (1987a, 1987b) developed a system of
preferred activity time (PAT). This system uses time as the reinforcer (the bonuses are more PAT;
the penalties are fewer PAT) with group rewards (PAT) and group accountability (one for all and all
for one). Through the giving and taking of time, teachers can hold the class responsible for the way
the time is consumed. For example, if the class does an excellent job of cooperating and being respon-
sible, the teacher can add amounts of PAT. The class can use the PAT for an activity they enjoy.
You have 4 minutes to put away your art supplies and get ready for social studies. Leftover
time will go to PAT.
Everyone worked well and showed responsibility in the cooperative learning groups today.
You have earned 5 minutes of PAT.
Thank you for demonstrating that you are mature and responsible when I left the room to
escort our guest speaker to Ms. Beecham’s room. You have earned 3 minutes of PAT.
Jones (www.educationworld.com/a_curr/columnists/jones/jones015.shtml) emphasizes that
teachers do not lose instructional time with PAT. In fact, in an effort to earn PAT, students will be
more willing to start class on time and to make better use of time during transitions. Thus, instruc-
tional time is actually increased. Jones offered several general guidelines for using PAT (Figure 7–3),
but he reminded teachers PAT needs to be tailored to meet the social maturity of particular students.
PAT is not free time to “kick back” (Jones, 1987a, p. 161) because such an abdication of
structure by the teacher usually produces boredom and negation of PAT. PAT is a group accounta-
bility system. Students who misbehave can prevent other students from getting bonuses. Therefore,
disruptive students must consider the consequences of their actions on other students, who might
receive fewer bonuses.
When giving time, teachers should follow “Grandma’s Rule” (Jones, 1987a, p. 153). Grand-
ma’s Rule holds students accountable and does not let them have dessert until they finish their
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FIGURE 7–3
Grade Level Amount of PAT Comment
Suggested Guidelines
Kindergarten Use as a break every 15 to 20 minutes. Keep PAT “cheap” and short. for Providing PAT
First Grade Begin with three PATs in the morning PAT about 10 to 15 minutes.
and two in the afternoon. By midyear
switch to three PATs—midmorning,
end of morning and end of afternoon.
Second and Third One PAT before and one after lunch. Begin to lengthen PATs.
Fourth and Fifth One PAT a day. PAT could be as long as 30 minutes.
Middle and High One PAT each week. Expand to two a week if needed.
vegetables. This means that they do not get their rewards (or incentives) until they demonstrate what
the teacher wants. Teachers have to resist pressures to give the reward first and hope the desired
behavior will happen later. Management Tip 7–2 provides some examples of PAT.
FUNDAMENTAL SKILL 4 Positive Classroom Discipline includes backup systems. Although Jones
thinks clear structures, limit setting, and responsibility training will allow teachers to deal success-
fully with almost any discipline problem, he recognizes that classroom management programs do
not come with guarantees. No matter how well designed a management system is, problems can
persist, crises can arise, and outrageous behavior can occur. Therefore, Jones calls for teachers to have
a backup system that provides a response to undesirable behaviors.
A backup system is an organization of negative reactions to suppress severe disruptions and
provide negative sanctions in discipline management. In Jones’s (1987a) words, “A backup system is
a series of responses designed to meet force with force so that the uglier the student’s behavior
becomes, the deeper he or she digs his or her hole with no escape” (p. 256). An effective backup
system is composed of a series of discrete procedures or responses arranged in ascending order so that
teachers or administrators can deal effectively with a wide range of unacceptable behaviors in the
classroom. These negative sanctions go beyond the mild social sanctions of limit setting. Although
negative sanctions are not compatible with a positive approach to discipline, Jones believes that
teachers need to understand how to use them properly. Jones thinks backup systems frequently fail
because they are overused.
Jones provides three levels of backup systems. The first, classroom policy, can be private or
public, but the intent is to deal with the immediate problem as well as its aftereffects such as embar-
rassment, resentment, and revenge. Effective teachers avoid going public when at all possible.

Using Preferred Activity Time (PAT)
Teachers often worry that PAT will take time from instruc- • Music projects
tion. However, Jones (2000, p. 94) maintains that students Learning music to accompany a unit or lesson
can use PAT in preferred instructional activities “that the stu- Listening centers
dents eagerly look forward to doing.” • Learning games
Allow students to use PAT for the following: • Special-interest centers
• Computer lab work
• Art projects
• Extra silent reading time
Classroom murals to accompany a unit
• Journal writing
Sketch to accompany a lesson
• Extra-credit work
Room decorations
• A book talk by the school librarian, with a trip to the
Stained class windows
library to check out a book
Computer art projects
93
Mr. Sinashaw had a rule that students could not play with any objects during class. In addition to being posted
on the wall, the rule had been discussed at the beginning of the school year. Ignoring the rule, Tyree brought
a two-inch model racecar to class and was “driving” it on his desk during social studies. Mr. Sinashaw quietly
walked to Tyree’s desk and stood beside him, hoping he would put the car away. The model car vanished into
Tyree’s desk and nothing was said. However, about 15 minutes later, Tyree was once again racing the car
on his desk. This time, Mr. Sinashaw kept teaching, walked over, took the car, and never said a word. As Mr.
Sinashaw later explained, “I wanted to keep this issue private—just between the two of us.” At the end of
the school day, Mr. Sinashaw returned the car to Tyree and asked him not to bring it back to school. Happy to
get the model back, Tyree agreed. Everything was kept between Mr. Sinashaw and Tyree; there was not any
embarrassment, resentment, or need for revenge.
The second level, school policy, spells out the due process for dealing with discipline problems
that must be handled by teachers and administrators working collaboratively. A well-developed
school policy typically consists of a clearly defined hierarchy of negative sanctions for dealing with
severe or recurring behavior problems. Such policies tend to be far more explicit at the secondary
level than the elementary level and typically are referred to as a “school discipline code” (Jones,
1987a, p. 258) and “hierarchy of consequences” (p. 259).
The third level, law enforcement and the juvenile justice system, is one many teachers and
administrators try to avoid; however, it is one aspect of a backup system that educators might have
to use. Sometimes communities construct a buffer between the school system and legal authori-
ties. Often called a family court, this vehicle deals with juvenile offenses rather than with the sin-
gle issue of guilt or innocence. The judge’s recommendation might include psychological testing
or therapy, a special remedial program, a rehabilitation program, referral to county agencies such
as child protection or social services, some form of restitution to the plaintiff, or even prosecution
in juvenile court.
DAVID JOHNSON AND ROGER JOHNSON: THREE C’S

OF SCHOOL AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
The Johnsons have proposed their Three C’s model as a basis not only for classroom manage-
ment but also to ensure safer schools and to provide environments that are conducive to learn-
ing. This expectation that students will adhere to civic values is reminiscent of Gathercoal’s
Judicious Discipline (discussed in Chapter 8) and some of the ecological models. Realistically,
the Johnsons admit that no matter how hard teachers try to promote civic values and coopera-
tion, conflict will arise occasionally. Therefore, they propose conflict resolution as a means to
address problems.
Overview of the Johnsons’ Model

David W. Johnson and Roger T. Johnson (1987b) believe that by focusing on the three C’s of coop-
eration, conflict resolution, and civic values, educators can help to make schools safer places for stu-
dents and teachers. Cooperation, as the term implies, calls for students, teachers, administrators, and
community members to work together toward mutual goals. As part of cooperation, the Johnsons
emphasize cooperative learning. If and when conflicts arise in cooperative communities, conflict
resolution allows the participants to solve problems. This means that conflict resolution training is
required for all members of the school community. When the school community shares common
civic values that guide all decision making, cooperative communities can be established and can
solve conflicts constructively (Johnson & Johnson, 1999).
Practical Applications of the Johnsons’ Model

Any examination of the practical applications of the Johnsons’ theories must focus on the use of the
Three C’s in the classroom.
94
THE FIRST C: COOPERATION In addition to demonstrating cooperative attitudes and working co-
operatively with others throughout the school day and throughout the school community, educators
can emphasize cooperation by doing the following:
• involving parents and community members in genuinely meaningful school activities;
• modeling cooperative attitudes in all interactions, including those with students, parents,
administrators, and other teachers;
• communicating effectively with all people involved in the education process;
• working to understand the positions and motivations of others and striving to clarify
misperceptions;
• developing a sense of trust so that students will respond to the requests and needs of others; and
• perceiving conflicts as mutual problems so everyone eventually will benefit from their resolu-
tion (Johnson & Johnson, 1999, 2009).
As part of the emphasis on cooperation, the Johnsons advocate the use of cooperative learn-
ing, which they define as “the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to
maximize their own and each other’s learning” (Johnson & Johnson, 1999, p. 125). Believing that
classroom management is “enhanced by keeping students engaged constructively in learning from
the moment they enter the classroom until the time they leave” (p. 125), the Johnsons agree that
cooperative learning is one of the best methods of achieving this objective.
Because cooperative learning is a major component of the first C, the Johnsons have devel-
oped the Learning Together cooperative learning method, which consists of five basic elements:
positive interdependence (students believe they are responsible for their learning as well as their
group’s learning), face-to-face interaction (students explain their learning and help others with
assignments), individual accountability (students demonstrate mastery of material), social skills (stu-
dents communicate effectively, build and maintain trust, and resolve conflicts), and group process-
ing (groups periodically assess their progress and how to improve effectiveness) (Johnson & Johnson,
1987, 1989/1990, 2009). In addition to laying the foundation for safe schools, cooperative learning
provides other benefits, as shown in Figure 7–4.
The Johnsons also maintain that cooperative learning works with and contributes to the welfare
of diverse students such as gifted students (Johnson & Johnson, 1993), learning disabled students
(Putnam, Markovchick, Johnson, & Johnson, 1996), mentally disabled students (Johnson & Johnson,
1989), and students from culturally pluralistic backgrounds (Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 1999).
Applying Process-Outcomes 7–2 asks you to consider Ms. Beeber’s opinions about cooperative learn-
ing. Then, Management Tip 7–3 focuses on cooperative learning and how to make it most useful.
FIGURE 7–4
Cooperative learning
Benefits of
ensures that all students are meaningful and actively involved in learning; Cooperative
ensures that students achieve up to their potential and experience psychological success so they are Learning
motivated to continue;
promotes caring and committed relationships for every student;
provides an arena in which students develop the interdependence and small-group skills needed to
work effectively with diverse peers;
provides students with opportunities to work together to discuss and possibly solve personal problems;
and
provides an arena for students in which they can feel a sense of meaning, pride, and esteem by helping
and assisting each other and contributes to cooperation among educators working in the school.
Source: Developed from Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1999). The three C’s of school and classroom management. In H.
Jerome Freiberg (Ed.), Beyond behaviorism: Changing the classroom management paradigm (pp. 119–144). Boston:
Allyn & Bacon.
95
APPLYING PROCESS-OUTCOMES 7–2

Doubting the Use of Cooperative Learning
Review the benefits of cooperative learning groups and the away half of their fun! And it probably slows them
Johnsons’ ideas about the use of groups with diverse learn- down, too. Then there are those students who like to
ers. Then read the following scenario and respond to the goof off. With a cooperative learning group, they’ll
questions at the end. just wait for someone else to do the work. Nope, I
don’t see how cooperative learning helps diverse
As a preservice teacher, Sandi Beeber was not sure
classes of students, and I don’t see how it helps class-
about the effectiveness of using cooperative learning
room management.”
with diverse students. “OK, I know it works with regu-
lar students, those who are on working on grade level. 1. Using the Johnsons’ ideas, respond to each of Sandi
But I’m not sure about more diverse students. What Beeber’s concerns.
about learning disabled students? Just how much can 2. Can cooperative learning groups work with a diverse
they contribute to or get out of a group? And gifted population of students?
students like to compete. Cooperative learning takes 3. What accommodations might she have to make?
THE SECOND C: CONFLICT RESOLUTION The Johnsons have worked on programs for under-
standing violence (Johnson & Johnson, 1995a) and for conflict resolution (Johnson & Johnson,
1995b). Although most schools have established violence-prevention programs to deal with the in-
creasing level of violence among students, the Johnsons believe that many of these programs do not
result in long-term changes in violent behavior. In order to be effective, programs must go beyond
violence prevention and must include conflict-resolution training. This does not mean the elimina-
tion of all conflicts. In fact, some conflicts can have positive outcomes, and academic controversy
can increase learning.
Teachers can model the use of conflict resolution to solve problems and diffuse potential vio-
lence. The following example, developed from Johnson and Johnson (1999), illustrates their six
steps of conflict resolution.
When Chip McFarland, a teacher, found Angelo and Darold arguing in the hall, he was afraid they would resort
to violence. Drawing on his conflict resolution training, he acted as follows:
“Angelo and Darold, come with me to the library seminar room and let’s explore what’s happening.
This is a shared problem, and I want you to take turns explaining the situation to me” (describe what you

Using Cooperative Groups
There are number of different strategies that teachers can dents to work with each other only a set number of
use to establish cooperative learning groups. In most class- times each grading period. The checks in the boxes do
rooms, it is ideal to vary the composition of the groups so the record keeping.
that everyone has an opportunity to work with everyone else
in the class. Pre-K and Elementary
Randomly pass out to the class one of the following: Buy sets of animal stickers and use them on 3 × 5 cards.
Colored craft sticks
Secondary
Colored 3 × 5 cards
Cut an illustration into sections. The people who have
Playing cards matching pieces are in one group.
Use a group chart with student names at the top and Have students fill out information cards; then shuffle
side. Whenever two students work together, put a these each time you need cooperative groups.
small check in the appropriate box. Allow two stu-
96
want, using good communication skills and defining the conflict as a specific mutual problem). “I expect you
both to be honest (communicate and describe your feelings openly and clearly) and to listen to what the other
person is saying” (describe the reasons for your wants and feelings, while expressing cooperative intentions
and listening carefully). “Remember, I’ll expect you to summarize the problem from each other’s perspective”
(take the person’s perspective and summarize your understanding of what he or she wants, how the other
person feels, and the reasons underlying both). “After that, we’ll come up with at least three ways to solve
this problem” (invent three optional plans to resolve the conflict that maximize joint benefits). “I know you’ll
choose the right solution for both of you” (choose one and formalize the agreement with a handshake).
The Teaching Students to be Peacemakers Program (TSP Program) is part of the Johnsons’
(Johnson & Johnson, 2004) conflict-resolution program. Training students in kindergarten through
high school to resolve conflicts and to make their schools safe places to learn, the TSP Program
exposes students to positive role models for constructive conflict management and teaches the proce-
dures and skills required to manage conflicts constructively.
THE THIRD C: CIVIC VALUES Johnson and Johnson (1987b, 1999) maintain that students and
teachers must to create a community, its members must share common goals and values that help
define appropriate behavior. A community cannot exist if its members have a variety of different
value systems, believe only in their own self-interests, or have no values at all.
One school adopted caring, respect, and responsibility as its core values, which were translated into the
civic values of integrity, courage, compassion, commitment, appreciation of diversity, and responsibility. The
civic values were posted on the walls of all classrooms, reflected in the literature used by the teachers, and
discussed in class meetings (Johnson & Johnson, 1987b).
Although the Johnsons think civic values ideally should apply to the entire school, they can be
used in individual classrooms.
CAROLYN EVERTSON AND ALENE HARRIS: CLASSROOM

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT PROGRAM (COMP)
Evertson’s and Harris’s Classroom Organization and Management Program (COMP) helps teachers
develop a management framework and a supportive learning environment in which students learn to
take responsibility for their decisions, actions, and learning (Evertson & Harris, 1992). Like Jacob
Kounin (discussed in Chapter 5), who focused on strategies such as withitness, overlapping, smooth-
ness, and momentum, and other process-outcomes theorists, Evertson and Harris (1992) see man-
agement in broad terms and focus on instructional as well as behavior management. They advocate
learner-centered classrooms that support academic achievement and appropriate behavior.
Overview of Evertson’s and Harris’s Model

Using a process-outcomes approach, Evertson and Harris focus on teachers’ instructional behaviors,
different interventions for different misbehaviors, and advanced planning or preparation for the first
of the year. They insist that teachers’ behaviors and instructional practices influence students’ behav-
iors. Teachers who are most effective with classroom management consider the effects of their own
behaviors and understand the complex relationships between instructional management and class-
room management.
In addition, according to Evertson and Harris, specific student misbehaviors call for different
types of interventions: minor interventions, moderate interventions, and more extensive interven-
tions. Thus, instead of having the same punishments for all misbehaviors, teachers must quickly
determine the severity of the behavior offense and then determine the needed intervention.
Finally, Evertson and Harris believe that teachers should plan the beginning of the year care-
fully, so that students will know the rules and expectations on the first day. Teachers who choose to
wait to see what the students are like often find it difficult to manage students. In addition, it can be
97
hard to change behaviors after the first couple of days because students who find that certain behav-
iors are permissible at the beginning of school might be reluctant to change these behaviors later.
Practical Application of Evertson’s and Harris’s Model

The following sections show the practicalities of Evertson’s and Harris’s ideas.
SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL BEHAVIORS Evertson and Harris suggest specific behaviors that ef-
fective classroom managers demonstrate. First, good managers conserve instructional time by plan-
ning activities and tasks to fit the learning materials; by setting and conveying procedural and aca-
demic expectations; and by appropriately sequencing, pacing, monitoring, and providing feedback
for student work (Evertson & Harris, 1992). Second, teachers should deal with student misbehavior
promptly and consistently. Teachers who deal quickly with misbehavior prevent it from becoming
more widespread (Evertson, Emmer, Sanford, & Clements, 1983). Third, teachers who are effective
managers use group strategies and lesson formats with high levels of student involvement and low
levels of misbehavior (Evertson & Harris, 1992).
ADVANCE PREPARATION One key to organizing and managing classrooms for effective instruc-
tion is advance preparation and planning from the first day of school onward (Evertson, 1989). To
help students know classroom expectations from the beginning, teachers should arrange classroom
space and supplies, plan and teach classroom rules and procedures, develop accountability measures
for work and behavior, establish consequences and incentives, choose activities for the beginning
of the year, and communicate their expectations clearly (Evertson, 1987). This management plan
should be maintained throughout the school year, with teachers monitoring and providing feedback
about student behavior and academic work, modeling and reinforcing appropriate behavior consist-
ently, intervening to restore order when necessary, and managing special classroom groups while
conducting instruction and maintaining momentum (Evertson, Emmer, & Worsham, 2000). When
teachers are careful about advanced preparation and planning, there is improved student task en-
gagement, less inappropriate behavior, a smoother transition between activities, and generally higher
academic performance (Evertson, 1987; Evertson & Harris, 1992).
Bret Curtis, a middle school teacher, made phone calls or scheduled meetings with students and parents dur-
ing the first weeks of school to explain the school and district expectations for behavior.
The week before school started, Brenda Hensby, an elementary school teacher, arranged the furniture
in her classroom, put up new bulletin boards, and made sure she had the supplies she needed.
On the first day of class, Charlene Orenduff, a high school teacher, posted the following rule and
discussed what it meant with her class: “Any inappropriate behavior in this room will be dealt with quickly,
fairly, and consistently.”
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Effective classroom management also is based on effective com-

munication between the teacher and the students. This includes letting students know how they can
participate in class. Thus, during a lesson, a teacher not only presents information but also dictates
to the students who can participate, as well as when and how (Evertson, 1987).
• “Remember to raise your hand if you know the answer.”
• “I will only call on students to read if they are seated quietly with their book open to the
proper page.”
• “Since you all should have the answers to the homework problems, I will call on students at
random. You do not need to raise your hands.”
ADDRESSING UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIORS Although a carefully planned classroom management

system will not stop all misbehaviors, teachers usually can handle undesirable behaviors with minor
intervention techniques such as using physical proximity, maintaining eye contact, reminding students
98
FIGURE 7–5
To deal with a misbehavior, teachers should work through the following steps:
A Five-Step Problem-
1. Use a nonverbal clue. Solving Procedure
2. Ask the student to obey the rule.
3. Give the student the choice to obey the rule or develop a plan.
4. Move the student to another part of the room.
5. Send the student to another location to complete the plan.
Source: Developed from Evertson, C., Emmer, E. T., & Worsham, M. E. (2000). Classroom management for elementary
teachers (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
of appropriate behavior, providing needed assistance, telling students to stop the behavior, and using
an I-message. More serious misbehaviors require moderate interventions, such as withholding a privi-
lege or desired activity, isolating or removing a student, using a penalty, or assigning detention. In
extreme situations, more extensive interventions are necessary. These include the use of a five-step
problem-solving procedure (shown in Figure 7–5), peer mediation/conflict resolution, a conference
with the parents or guardian, or the development of an individual behavior contract with the student
(Evertson et al., 2000). Applying Process-Outcomes Ideas 7–3 asks you to consider Ms. Ruiz and the
misbehavior problems that result from “dead times” during transitions and class instruction.
Because punishment neither teaches desirable behavior nor instills a desire to behave, it is
perhaps best used as part of a planned response to repeated behavior. Evertson and Harris believe
this holds true for all discipline programs, even behavioral approaches (discussed in Chapter 4 ).
These systems provide methods of dealing with threats to classroom order, according to Evertson
and Harris, but they fail to address preventive and supportive functions for effective management
and discipline (Evertson & Harris, 1992).
NORTHEAST FOUNDATION FOR CHILDREN:

RESPONSIVE CLASSROOM®
The Northeast Foundation for Children (NEFC) was established in 1981 by “a group of public
school educations who had a vision of bringing together social and academic learning throughout
the school day” (Northeast Foundation for Children, 2011). Using practices from its laboratory

Eliminating Misbehaviors During “Dead Times”
Review Evertson’s and Harris’s ideas about the influence of doing anything for awhile gives them a little rest,” she
instructional behaviors on classroom management and the often says.) At other times, she just has too many
need for advance preparation and effective communication. things going on at once or she cannot find the instruc-
Then read the following scenario and respond to the ques- tional materials she needs. Either way, the situation
tions at the end. results in the students having dead time, which in turn
results in their misbehaving.
Danielle Ruiz, an elementary teacher, has taught for 3
years and continues to experience a problem: She 1. What is causing the misbehaviors in this classroom?
allows her instruction to drift into “dead times.” 2. Is there really a need for dead time in a classroom? If
When she does, a few of the students in the class not, what should Ms. Ruiz do to eliminate it?
begin to act up. The longer the dead time lasts, the 3. If some dead time is desirable, what should Ms. Ruiz
more students misbehave. Some of the dead times are do to prevent misbehaviors during it?
intentional. (“The students need a break; my not
99
school in Greenfield, Massachusetts, the NEFC developed Responsive Classroom® (RC), a schoolwide
process-outcomes approach to management in elementary schools. Its goals are to promote self-reli-
ance, build a sense of community, and help students to become invested in their own learning. In
the classroom, a teacher meets the psychological needs of students by following RC practices (Brock,
Nishida, Chiong, Grimm, & Rimm-Kaufman, 2008).
Using social and emotional learning interventions, teachers create an emotional climate that
supports learning. There are clear expectations for behavior as well as academic performance, and
opportunities for student choice in instruction. Teachers take a proactive rather than reactive stance
toward discipline and provide holistic support of student growth and development (Rimm-Kaufman
& Chiu, 2007). However, unlike some management approaches that focus entirely on students, RC
also believes in creating a schoolwide culture of social and emotional support for teachers.
Overview of the Responsive Classroom® Model

Based on the premise that a student’s positive interactions with peers and teachers contribute to both
social and academic success, the RC model is designed to integrate academic and social learning. As
a proactive behavior management strategy, RC establishes classroom expectations, allows students
“to anticipate consequences for transgressions, freeing the teacher from constantly redirecting misbe-
havior or negotiating punishment throughout the school year” (Brock et al., 2008, p. 144). The
seven principles of RC are shown in Figure 7–6.
Central to the model is the importance of teachers and the role that their social interactions
and instructional processes play in the social and intellectual development of children. In RC, empa-
thy helps teachers understand students and their needs. In turn, teachers provide a structure to help
students to develop self-control (Rimm-Kaufman & Sawyer, 2004). The structure provides “guide-
lines and limits for student behavior” (p. 324).
Because RC is designed as a model for the entire school, administrators support teacher col-
laboration. They establish schedules that provide times when teachers can meet to discuss teaching
practices and solve problems. Schools also use community groups and other external resources to
provide professional development for educators (Sawyer & Rimm-Kaufman, 2007).
Practical Applications of the Responsive Classroom® Model

RC consists of a set of recommended practices that help teachers to establish a classroom climate in
which students can learn. These practices focus on the process of learning; proactive approaches to
discipline; opportunities for student choice, collaboration, and reflection; and the teaching of self-
regulatory skills (Rimm-Kaufman, Storm, Sawyer, Pianta, & LaParo, 2006).
One RC practice is the Morning Meeting. This is a daily class meeting that provides time for
sharing, planning, and participating in group activities, and it begins the day on a positive note.
Greeting each other by name, students interact, practice pro-social behaviors, and use public speaking
FIGURE 7–6
1. Provide equal emphasis on social and academic learning.
Seven Principles of
the RC Model 2. Focus not only on what students learn but also on how they learn.
3. Understand that social growth supports academic growth.
4. Emphasize critical social skills such as cooperation, self-control, empathy, and responsibility.
5. Understand that students and their cultural and developmental characteristics are as important as aca-
demic content.
6. Understand and work with students’ families
7. Understand and support the ways in which educators can work together
Sources: Developed from Brock et al., 2008; Northeast Foundation for Children, n.d.).
100
skills as they share information on topics of personal interest. Teachers and students also review daily
news and announcements (Teaching Tolerance, n.d.).
Ms. Kistler and her students greet each other in Chinese and join in a traditional song to begin the Morning
Meeting. Today, Bao Yu and Chun will share information about the Chinese holiday known as the Dragon Boat
Festival and answer questions from their classmates. Then Jada and Charmun will read the news and an-
nouncements before Ms. Kistler begins a word game.
Rules and logical consequences (see also Driekurs in Chapter 8) are another important prac-
tice in RC. At the beginning of the school year, the teacher and students work together to develop
positively worded classroom rules with the teacher modeling each rule. Throughout the year, the
teacher reminds the students about the rules and redirects behavior rather than providing punish-
ments or using tokens for behavior modification reinforcement. Developmentally appropriate and
individually relevant, the consequences for breaking a rule relate to the rule itself. Thus, when
ShaLee pushes Mason and Mason drops his books, ShaLee is expected to apologize to Mason and
pick up the books (Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2006). Following another tenet of Driekurs (Chapter 8),
teachers use encouragement (“I notice you were working very diligently on your science project”)
rather than praise (“Great job on your science project!”).
RC places emphasis on academics and instructional practices through the practice of Guided Dis-
covery and Academic Choice. Academic Choice is a “choice-based approach to activity-based learning
that increases children’s investment in learning and creates a forum for reflection with peers” (Rimm-
Kaufman & Sawyer, 2004, p. 325). For example, a teacher may design a spelling activity that allows
students to practice by “using the computer, pen and pad, the chalkboard, or shaving cream” (p. 337).
With Guided Discovery, teachers “introduce classroom materials in a systematic way that builds a com-
mon vocabulary, creates clear expectations for use, and establishes routines for their care” (p. 337).
“Today we will be working with modeling clay. What are some ways we can shape the clay?”
“In the library, we will be looking at dictionaries. What are some ways you have used dictionaries?”
“Who can show us how to put our crayons away when we are finished with them?” (Bechtel
& Denton, 2004).
Instructional practices should foster social interaction and cooperation perhaps by allowing
students to share, review, evaluate, or reflect on the work of their peers. By using a variety of instruc-
tional formats to increase student engagement and motivation, teachers are able to reach all students,
especially those at risk of failure (Brock et al., 2008).
As in other process-outcomes approaches, classroom organization is an important RC prac-
tice. A teacher should set up the classroom in ways that “encourage independence, cooperation, and
productivity” (Northeast Foundation for Children, n.d.). This includes arranging the furniture to
meet both social and academic needs, providing materials for students and allowing them to use
those materials independently, and displaying work that students select. The classroom should be
“welcoming and engaging to children” (Rimm-Kaufman & Sawyer, 2004, p. 338). Management
Tip 7–4 provides suggestions for classroom arrangement.
Another important RC practice is communicating with parents. Realizing the need to establish
positive partnerships between educators and the families of students, RC advocates a two-way flow of
communication and the involvement of parents in establishing goals for students. With parent–
teacher conferences early in the school year, materials sent home frequently, and parent participation
in class activities, teachers try to create a partnership with parents (Rimm-Kaufman & Sawyer, 2004).
Finally, RC emphasizes that teaching is a collective enterprise and uses practices that are
designed to foster collaboration. The model encourages the use of buddy teachers who work
together to support each other’s “efforts to discipline the most difficult children” (Sawyer & Rimm-
Kaufman, 2007, p. 212). RC also uses home groups, which consist of teachers from across grade
levels in a single school who meet to discuss school goals, issues, and the implementation of RC
practices. Network meetings involve teachers from a number of different schools who use RC. Sawyer
101

Arranging the Classroom
Classroom arrangement helps a teacher to use mobility and use an interior-loop arrangement for the desks in most
proximity as part of management. The best room arrange- classrooms with a U-arrangement in computer labs or
ment should small classes, and
allow the teacher to reach any student in the room use small pieces of masking tape to mark the place-
quickly, ment of desks in the classroom. These visual prompts
can be colored with markers to provide guides for dif-
provide wide walkways to allow movement,
ferent class arrangements such as small groups.
move the students forward in the room,
move the teacher’s desk to a corner or the back of the
room,
and Rimm-Kaufman (2007) found increased teacher collaboration in RC schools, especially on stu-
dent-focused topics such as curricula, discipline, activities, and individualization of instruction.
Applying Process-Outcomes Ideas 7–4 asks you to apply some RC ideas in a classroom.
CRITIQUE OF PROCESS-OUTCOMES APPROACHES

Process-outcomes approaches to classroom management emphasize the importance of the teacher in
“creating and maintaining a positive classroom environment that promotes academic and social
competence” (Gettinger & Kohler, 2006, p. 88). Unfortunately, what works in one classroom may
not be effective in another and teachers need to be aware of many variables that affect management,
some of which are not under the control of an individual teacher. However, there are many teaching
principles and practices which, when implemented appropriately, can “enhance student learning and
support positive classroom behavior” (p. 91).
There have been a number of research studies of the process-outcomes approaches. For exam-
ple, studies (Charney & Kriete, 2001; Rimm-Kaufman & Chiu, 2007; Rimm-Kaufman & Sawyer,
2004) have shown a reduction in behavior problems and an improvement in social skills among stu-
dents in schools that use the RC model. Rimm-Kaufman and Chiu (2007) found that teachers who

Advising Ms. Muller
Review the key concepts of the RC classroom management times. When students behaved, she added a star by
model. As you read the following scenario, try to determine their name on a chart on the board. Misbehavior
whether Ms. Muller is following the RC beliefs. Then respond brought a check behind a name, with penalties spelled
to the questions at the end. out for various numbers of checks. Lessons were very
structured with lots of worksheets to keep students
Ms. Muller, a fifth-grade teacher, thought she had a
busy. “Can’t give them an inch—they’ll take a mile.
group of students who were too immature to learn
That’s how this group is.” Motivational posters took
self-discipline. “I have to accept all the responsibility
up most of the wall space.
for disciplining them,” she said. “They are simply too
immature to behave. I don’t know what their teacher 1. Is Ms. Muller correct in assuming that some fifth-
did last year!” To make sure they behaved during her grade students are too immature for self-discipline?
lessons, she started each day by going over class rules. 2. Using the ideas and fundamental skills of RC, give
Then, throughout the day, she addressed every prob- Ms. Muller specific recommendations of things she
lem, no matter how minor. Students frequently found can do in her classroom.
themselves writing, “I will not break class rules” 50
102
used RC noted “greater assertiveness in the classroom, more prosocial behavior, and less anxious and
fearful behavior” (p. 409) among students. In a study of children in grades 3–5, Brock et al. (2008)
found that “teachers who implemented RC practices had children in their classrooms who scored
higher on ratings of social skills, academic competence, and standardized reading tests” (p. 144).
The process-outcomes approaches to management can address what Jones (1987a) called the
nickel and dime misbehaviors. For example, teachers can use Jones’s ideas on the use of appropriate
physical proximity, facial expressions, limit setting, preferred activity time, eye contact, room
arrangement, calm, and self-discipline. In cases of more serious misbehaviors, Jones has an elaborate
backup system for repeat misbehavers, while Evertson and Harris and the Johnsons rely on peer
mediation and conflict resolution.
One advantage of the process-outcomes approaches is their emphasis on the positive. Jones’s
techniques (e.g., body language, eye contact, physical proximity) contribute to discipline being a
private rather than a public matter. He also emphasizes self-discipline and learners accepting respon-
sibility for their behavior. As Jones noted, the concepts of limit setting and maintaining physical
proximity, portraying calmness, maintaining eye contact, using appropriate bodily expressions, and
firmly saying names one time all are implemented easily in a classroom. Body gestures and firm
speech can be influential; likewise, a slumping posture and a whiny voice can convey the idea that
the teacher is uncomfortable. Without stopping instruction or making misbehaviors public, teachers
often can use physical proximity and eye contact to correct behaviors.
The Responsive Classroom® approach encourages teachers to work with students to develop
positive rules, to model those rules, and to provide logical consequences rather than punishments for
misbehaviors. Teachers do not threaten, cajole, or coerce. The ultimate goal of discipline is to teach
learners to discipline themselves.
A focus on cooperative learning is basic to both the Johnsons’ Three C’s model and RC. This
reflects an appreciation for the diversity found in schools and the belief that pluralism and diversity
create opportunities that can have positive or negative outcomes, depending largely on whether
learning situations are structured competitively, individualistically, or cooperatively (Johnson &
Johnson, 1989). In addition, conflict resolution, used by the Johnsons as well as Evertson and Har-
ris, has an objective, step-by-step approach that treats all students fairly. With cooperation and con-
flict resolution, students should believe that their teacher works in their best interest.
Evertson and Harris (1992, p. 59) maintain that “the need for effective classroom manage-
ment burgeons” as schools deal with diverse populations of students with differing needs and modes
of learning. Thus, the focus of the process-outcomes models on learner-centered classrooms contrib-
utes to the well-being of all students and should not offend students’ cultural backgrounds and other
diversities. For example, all students will be influenced positively by teachers who use appropriate
instructional behaviors, base specific interventions on the severity of the misbehavior, and plan the
beginning of the school year. Students, regardless of their diversities, should appreciate knowing
the teacher’s expectations for academic achievement and behavior. In addition, they should appre-
ciate having a teacher who is committed to effective teaching behaviors.
Although RC is designed for use in elementary schools, the other process-outcomes models
can apply to all age groups and almost all students. With these models, students and their differences
are respected, and when students demonstrate inappropriate behaviors, teachers firmly address the
behaviors, but they do so in a caring and respectful manner.
Underlying all of these models is the idea that students must learn self-discipline. As Jones
says, “Strictly speaking, discipline means to teach, not to punish” (Jones, 1996, p. 42). As the proc-
ess-outcomes models show, teaching discipline leads to “the internalization of discipline or self-dis-
cipline” (Jones, 1987a, p. 19). The actions of maintaining eye contact, using physical proximity, and
saying names firmly are not designed to be punitive. Instead, they remind students of the teacher’s
expectations, the class rules and routines, and how their behavior affects others and themselves.
In spite of all of the advantages of the process-outcomes models, there are, some disadvantages
to them. For example, in Jones’s model, although the concept of preferred activity time or PAT
sounds useful and he claims implementation is easy, the accountability and record-keeping measures
might be cumbersome. In addition, although Jones’s concepts can be learned, many details must be
103

Does the Process-Outcomes Approach Reflect Your Beliefs?
As you consider whether to incorporate the ideas of process- 4. Do I believe that teachers should strive for cooperation
outcomes models into your personal classroom manage- and collaboration with students?
ment philosophy, consider the following questions: 5. Do I believe that rules, routines, and standards are nec-
essary for effective management?
1. Do I believe that the processes I use in a classroom, includ-
6. Do I believe that students can learn to take responsibil-
ing my instructional strategies, will have a direct impact
ity for their action?
on student outcomes, including behavior and learning?
7. Do I feel comfortable using a system such as PAT to
2. Do I believe that classroom management procedures
help students become responsible for their actions?
that are gentle and that build cooperation in the
8. Do I believe that peer mediation and conflict resolution
absence of coercion will be effective?
play a part in management?
3. Can I remain calm and use body language and proxim-
ity to set limits?
handled. To his credit, he describes in his books what teachers should do in specific cases (and then
what to do in response to the student’s next move); however, such a tremendous amount must be
learned that it might take even a conscientious teacher several years to master the techniques.
Gettinger and Kohler (2006) also point out that, as student change, develop, and build exper-
tise, the process of instruction and management must change. “A ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach . . . is
rarely effective” (p. 90) and the process-outcomes models do not always reflect the dynamic nature
of a classroom. Teachers need the flexibility to modify and adjust their instructional approaches and
classroom processes. This is not always possible with a structured model such as RC. Unfortunately,
punitive measures sometimes will be needed, and classroom management techniques that work with
some students might not work with others.
With a focus on teachers who emphasize positive relationships with students, avoid punitive
measures to managing behavior, and use a variety of instructional and management strategies, the
process-outcomes approaches should meet the philosophical and psychological beliefs of many teach-
ers. On the other hand, these approaches will not be well received by a teacher who is more autocratic,
believes in punitive measures, feels comfortable when engaging in back talking with students, or thinks
students need to be kept under tight control at all times. To determine whether process-outcomes ideas
are congruent with your beliefs, respond to the questions in Developing Your Personal Philosophy.
Summary
In this chapter, you have read about the process-outcomes Reflecting on what you now know about process-out-
approaches to classroom management. You saw how Fredric comes approaches to classroom management, revisit the
Jones’s Positive Classroom Management focuses on cooperation opening vignette for this chapter and respond to the follow-
among students and teachers, holds students responsible for ing questions:
their behavior, and suggests specific management behaviors for
teachers. You read about Evertson’s and Harris’s ideas for teacher 1. What ideas from Jones could Ms. Brisky to implement in her
planning at the beginning of the year and their ideas about classroom?
2. How could she use the classroom organization ideas of RC
instruction, communication, and interventions. Johnson and
and Evertson and Harris?
Johnson presented the Three C’s of Classroom Management, 3. What other ideas from process-outcomes models would you
and the Responsive Classroom® model described a schoolwide recommend?
model emphasizing academic and social growth among elemen- 4. How might these suggestions differ if she were teaching a
tary students. For more information than we could present in different grade level?
this chapter, you can consult the suggested readings or the 5. How should Ms. Brisky begin to implement a management
resources listed in “Reaching Out with the Internet.” plan?
104
Suggested Readings
Anderson, L. M., Evertson, C. M., & Brophy, J. E. (2010). An McTigue, E. M. (2011). The responsive classroom approach and
examination of classroom context: Effects of lesson format and its implications for improving reading and writing. Reading &
teacher training on patterns of teacher-student contacts during Writing Quarterly, 27(1/2), 5–24. McTigue examines the use of
small-group instruction. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 45(1), the Morning Meeting, part of the Responsive Classroom® man-
25–31. In an experimental study of teaching effectiveness, re- agement approach.
searchers examined the teacher-student contacts and the impact Poplin, M., Rivera J., Durish, D., Hoff, L., Kawell, S., Pawlak, P.,
of teacher pacing on student learning and behavior. Soto Hinman, I., Straus, L., & Veney, C. (2011). She’s strict
Brophy, J. E., & Evertson, C. M. (2010). Teaching young children for a good reason. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(5), 39–43. This study
effectively. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 45(1), 5–8. The au- of highly effective teachers in disadvantaged urban schools iden-
thors examine process-outcomes research and study second- and tifies their successful management practices and instructional
third-grade teachers in an urban school system. methods.
Hirschfield, P. J., & Gasper, J. (2011). The relationship between Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., & Hamre, B. K. (2010). The role of psy-
school engagement and delinquency in late childhood and early chological and developmental science in efforts to improve
adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(1), 3–22. The teacher quality. Teachers College Record, 112(12), 2988–3023.
authors explore the relationship between student engagement, The authors examine the interactions of teachers and students as
academic success, and student misconduct. a predictor of student achievement.

Visit the following websites for additional information on process- C. EVERTSON AND A. HARRIS
outcomes approaches to classroom management.
Biography of Alene Harris
F. JONES peabody.vanderbilt.edu/harris_alene.xml
The homepage for Fredric Jones Biography of Carolyn Evertson
www.fredjones.com peabody.vanderbilt.edu/evertson_carolyn.
www.educationworld.com/a_curr/columnists/jones/jones. xml?show=SelectedPublications
shtml COMP Website
EducationWorld Chats with Fred Jones www.comp.org
www.educationworld.com/a_issues/chat/chat022.shtml Educational Programs That Work—COMP
PAT Tips and examples for secondary teachers www2.ed.gov/pubs/EPTW/eptw2/eptw2a.html
www.fredjones.com/PAT/_SecondaryTips.html
Video of a school that adopted Positive Classroom Management NORTHEAST FOUNDATION FOR CHILDREN:
on EducationWorld.com RESPONSIVE CLASSROOM®
www.educationworld.com/a_curr/columnists/jones/jones. Building Community, Day by Day—Teaching Tolerance
shtml www.tolerance.org/print/activity/building-community-
day-day
D. JOHNSON AND R. JOHNSON Responsive Classroom® Website
Biography of Roger T. Johnson www.responsiveclassroom.org/
www.cehd.umn.edu/CI/Faculty/Johnson.html Responsive Classroom® on Facebook
Cooperative Learning www.facebook.com/responsiveclassroom
www.context.org/ICLIB/IC18/Johnson.htm Responsive Classroom® at Countryside Elementary School
Cooperative Learning and Conflict Resolution www.newton.k12.ma.us/countryside/responsiveclassroom.
education.jhu.edu/newhorizons/strategies/topics/ html
Cooperative%20Learning/cooperative_conflict.html
Cooperative Learning Center at the University of Minnesota
www.co-operation.org
105
106
Supportive Approaches to
107
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading and reflecting on Chapter 8, you 5. describe the key concepts of Forrest Gathercoal’s
should be able to Judicious Discipline, its philosophical and psychological
1. discuss the need for and define the term “supportive foundations, and teachers’ roles and responsibilities;
approaches” to classroom management; 6. describe Richard Curwin’s and Allen Mendler’s
2. describe Rudolf Dreikurs’s Democratic Teaching Discipline With Dignity, its key concepts, philosophical
and Management model and explain his theory that and psychological foundations, and teachers’ roles
democracy is the key to effective management; and responsibilities;
3. explain Linda Albert’s Cooperative Discipline, how she 7. evaluate the “supportive approaches” to classroom
was influenced by Rudolf Dreikurs, and the practical management; and
applications of Cooperative Discipline; 8. consider all the “supportive approaches” to classroom
management and identify concepts to include in your
4. discuss Jane Nelsen’s, Lynn Lotts’s, and Stephen
own personal philosophy.
Glenn’s Positive Discipline and such aspects as
barriers, builders, three empowering perceptions, and
four essential skills;
iofoto/Shutterstock.com
108
Supportive Approaches to
VIGNETTE: Calming and Taming the Students
Cassandra Bracken, a consultant, visited Park Place Middle School to look for ways, as the superintendent said,
“to calm the students, to tame them down a little.” The school did not have the serious problems violence, but
students were noisy and rude, and they lived in an atmosphere of hostility.
Dr. Bracken heard the following from teachers:
• “I’ve about had my fill of this. Not only do these students not listen to me, they don’t respect me, other
students, or themselves. I don’t even think some of them know how to behave.”
• “There are a number of ‘phantom students’ who never misbehave but also never do any schoolwork.
These students just fade into the woodwork and do a minimum or no work at all.”
• “The school administration has made the situation worse by adding more and more rules. Now, I can’t
even keep up with all the regulations, and the students are worse than ever.”
Dr. Bracken also interviewed some students. “We’re not too bad; it could be a lot worse,” remarked
Gema. “We like to joke with each other, but most of us like it. Yeah, those goths and nerds might not like it,
but they want to be left alone anyway. That’s fine with me.” Another student spoke out. “They run this place
like a prison—too many rules; they treat us like babies. Now there’s ‘zero tolerance’ for this and for that. I feel
that if I crack a joke someone will take it the wrong way and I’ll be expelled. This school never was much fun—
now, it’s not fun at all. I’m just waiting to get out of here.”
Although Dr. Bracken knew she would need time to think about the situation, she wanted to have a
positive impact in her remarks to the faculty at the end of her visit. Specifically, she wanted to call attention
to contemporary classroom management models that have been tested to address some of the problems at
Park Place.
OVERVIEW
Cassandra Bracken in the opening vignette faces many difficult decisions, including
whether it is possible to develop a positive climate of respect and encouragement at
Park Place Middle School. Students’ misbehaviors differ widely. Some students are
openly defiant, and others demonstrate more subtle misbehaviors or are phantom
students.
While some classroom management theorists rely on rules and teacher control in a
classroom, others focus on good management practices to support the moral and
social development of the students (Nucci, 2006). They believe that effective teachers
must provide positive, supportive classrooms that, in addition to establishing a climate
for learning, contribute to appropriate learner social interactions. Supporting students
109
Supportive Approaches to Classroom Management
by caring, encouraging, and helping learners to succeed, teachers can also “promote
social knowledge construction” (p. 714) that is appropriate for the developmental levels
of the students. For young children, this may mean the establishment of a “moral
climate of trust” (p. 716), while for older students the focus may be on the formation of
a “just community” (p. 727). These theorists also speak against negativism and ill
treatment such as ridicule, sarcasm, isolation, and other punishments. Unfortunately,
with the focus on behaviorist approaches to management, these democratic discipline
models are often overlooked (Grandmont, 2003) by educators.
INDIVIDUAL MODELS FOR A SUPPORTIVE CLASSROOM

In this chapter, we look at the following supportive classroom models: Democratic Teaching and
Management developed by Dreikers; Cooperative Discipline by Albert; Judicious Discipline by
Gathercoal; Positive Discipline by Nelsen, Lott, and Glenn; and Discipline With Dignity by Cur-
win and Mendler. These models of classroom management highlight the importance of teachers’
social and emotional competence in the development and maintenance of supportive teacher–student
relationships and appropriate social conventions. With a focus on building a constructive moral
atmosphere and a climate of mutual respect and cooperation, these models focus on the social, emo-
tional, and cognitive learning of students.
KEY TERMS
Table 8–1 identifies the key terms related to the supportive classroom management theorists.
TABLE 8–1 Key Terms Related to Supportive Approaches to Classroom Management
Dreikurs Nelsen, Lott, &

Democratic Albert Glenn Gathercoal Curwin & Mendler
Teaching and Cooperative Positive Judicious Discipline with
Management Discipline Discipline Discipline Dignity
• Attention getting • Autocratic teacher • Barriers • Class meetings • Consequences
• Autocratic teacher • Capable • Builders • Code of ethics • Healthy classrooms
• Democratic teacher • Code of conduct • Class meetings • Constitutional • Ineffective things
• Encouragement • Connect • Empowering perspective • Long-term efforts
• Feelings of • Contribute perceptions • Compelling state • Obedience
inadequacy • Essential skills interests
• Democratic teacher • Responsibility
• Logical • Significant Seven • Front loading
• Encouragement • Short-term efforts
consequences • Individualizing
• Influence • Social contracts
• Permissive teacher consequences
• Permissive teacher • Zero-tolerance policies
• Power seeking • Judicious
consequences
• Praise
• Justice
• Revenge
• Professional ethics
RUDOLF DREIKURS: DEMOCRATIC TEACHING AND MANAGEMENT

Rudolf Dreikurs (1968) called for democratic teaching and management procedures. His early work
has had a significant influence on educators and classroom management theorists, especially those
who believe in developing supportive classrooms.
110
FIGURE 8–1
Mistaken Goals. All misbehavior results when students have one of more of the following “mistaken goals” Key Concepts
for their behavior: attention getting, power seeking, revenge, and helplessness (feelings of inadequacy) of Dreikurs’s
(Dreikurs, 1968; Dreikers, Grunwald, & Pepper, 1971). Democratic Teaching
Democratic Teaching. Teachers should be democratic rather than autocratic (“I told you to do it now; you will and Management
do it now”) or permissive (“Well, whatever you want to do is all right, I guess. I know you’ll do the right thing,
won’t you?”) in their classroom procedures and in social interactions with students (Dreikurs, 1968).
Encouragement. Teachers should encourage students (I think you can do the work if you give it a good try”)
rather than praise students (“You are such a good student—you always do your work just right”) (Dinkmeyer
& Dreikurs, 1963).
Logical Consequences. Teachers should establish classroom rules and implement logical consequences rather
than punishments for broken rules and misbehavior. Punishment should seldom be used and, then, only when
all logical consequences have been exhausted (Dreikurs & Grey, 1968).
Overview of Dreikurs’s Model

In Democratic Teaching and Management, a multifaceted model of classroom management, four
aspects stand out: identifying and addressing mistaken goals of misbehavior, acting as democratic
rather than autocratic or permissive teachers, using logical consequences rather than punishment,
and understanding the difference between praise and encouragement. These key concepts are shown
in Figure 8–1. Dreikurs believed that when teachers act in a democratic fashion, they demonstrate
effective instruction and provide a collaborative learning community where teachers and students
work toward common goals.
Practical Applications of Dreikurs’s Model

A student talked constantly and interrupted the class until his teacher realized he felt inad-
equate. Once she helped him to believe that he could do the work successfully, his behavior
improved.
An autocratic teacher had power-seeking problems until he learned that democratic classroom
procedures reduce the need for some students to be power seekers.
These are two examples of Dreikurs’s model of democratic classroom management. Overall,
the model has considerable potential for practical application in schools of all levels. To provide
positive classrooms where teachers and students work toward a common purpose, teachers can use
democratic classroom procedures that help students understand the goals of misbehavior, the effect
of logical consequences, and the importance of social interactions. In a supportive classroom, there is
a need for clear limits, rules, and order; student participation in the development of classroom rules;
the development of a spirit of trust and cooperation with a democratic rather than an autocratic
teacher; and the use of encouragement (Dreikurs et al., 1971). Teachers determine whether power
seeking, attention getting, revenge, or inadequacy is the cause of student misbehavior, and they work
to reduce the need for misbehavior. Let’s examine the model in a little more detail.
IDENTIFYING AND ADDRESSING MISTAKEN GOALS Dreikurs (1957, 1968) proposed that
all student misbehavior results when individuals pursue one or more of four mistaken goals. The
following examples look at these goals and how they might be seen in a classroom.
1. Attention Getting. When students feel they are worthless, they often misbehave to get the
attention they want. Dreikurs (1968) maintained that this behavior might be more dominant
in young children who feel they have few opportunities to establish their social position
through useful contributions or through socially accepted means. When these methods are
not effective, students try almost any other method to gain attention. In fact, students even
might prefer punishment to being ignored.
111
2. Power Seeking. Power-seeking students attempt to prove their power by defying the teacher
and doing whatever they want. Only when they are the boss of a situation or are controlling
others will these students feel self-worth. At times, the behavior becomes more defiant and
might include disobedience, talking back, or overt resistance (Pryor & Tollerud, 1999).
3. Revenge. Students who are seeking revenge want to hurt someone else and believe that
revenge is important for their own self-esteem. Students who are focused on revenge can
become more vicious and outwardly hostile with time. In order to feel significant and worthy,
these students believe they must hurt someone in the same way they believe someone has hurt
them. Depending on the age and development of the students involved, their revenge might
include stealing, kicking, and intentionally hurting others.
4. Feelings of Inadequacy. Students who harbor feelings of hopelessness and inferiority might
be focused on the goal of inadequacy. These students often want to be left alone and may
work actively to avoid others (Pryor & Tollerud, 1999). As long as they are left alone, nothing
is demanded of them, and their deficiencies, inabilities, and inadequacies might not become
obvious (Dreikurs et al., 1971). They might not even misbehave, but their lack of misbehavior
should not keep a teacher from encouraging them to take an active role in classroom activities.
Dreikurs maintained that knowledge of a student’s personal life, family, and memories can help
teachers to identify which mistaken goal underlies a student’s misbehavior (Carson, 1996).
USING LOGICAL CONSEQUENCES The concept of logical consequences is another component

of Dreikurs’s discipline model. Before providing logical consequences, teachers must establish sim-
ple, specific classroom rules. Once the rules are established, the teacher can outline a sequence of
logical consequences. Finally, after the consequences are established, students must accept responsi-
bility for their own behavior. For example, Dr. Bracken in the opening vignette might suggest that
teachers identify a specific amount of work to be completed during a given class. Because of class
rules, students who complete the assignments know that they will receive free time. Phantom stu-
dents who do not work diligently to complete the assignments must use the free time to do so. Thus,
instead of a harsh punishment, they receive a logical consequence for their actions.
Some democratic teachers even encourage their students to help devise classroom rules and
their logical consequences. Dreikurs believed that this practice could help deter discipline problems
because the students have worked cooperatively to establish their own rules and procedures (Dreikurs,
1968; Morris, 1996).
USING ENCOURAGEMENT RATHER THAN PRAISE According to the Dreikurs model, teach-
ers should use more encouragement to boost confidence and self-esteem and less praise because
students can become dependent on the praise. When praise is used, if students do not or cannot
continue the behavior or record of achievement, they begin to think they are of less worth. In es-
sence, the reason for the praise becomes the source of self-worth. As Dinkmeyer and Dreikurs
(1963, p. 121) stated, “[p]raise may have a discouraging effect in the long run, since the child may
depend on it constantly and never be quite sure whether he will merit another expression of special
approval—and get it.”
As teachers use words of encouragement to demonstrate to students that they believe in them,
the encouragement not only boosts students’ self-esteem and confidence, but it also keeps students
on task and minimizes student disruption (Morris, 1996).
Praise: “You are a fine student! You finished your math in record time.”
Encouragement: “I can tell you’ve been practicing your math drills, and I hope you will
continue.”
Praise: “You are a whiz with that computer program.”
Encouragement: “I can tell you enjoy the challenges of learning to use a new computer
program.”
112
TEACHERS’ ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES Dreikurs (1968, p. 3) maintained that “in order to
be effective, the teacher has to know more than the subject matter.” Thus, in addition to using ef-
fective instructional strategies, teachers must develop a democratic classroom. To do this, a teacher
must believe in the worth and dignity of every person, in the equality of all people, in freedom of
decision making, and that people can be trusted to make wise decisions (Dreikurs, 1968). In addi-
tion, when dealing with children and young adults, effective teachers must also develop positive rela-
tionships with families, the principal, and community members. In doing so, they must feel positive
about their own professional accomplishments, especially their ability to teach and instill democratic
classroom procedures.
In summary, teachers who are serious about Dreikurs’s model should adopt several unique
perspectives. First, they need to view students as social beings who want to belong and to find an
accepted place in society. Second, instead of simply reacting to students’ behaviors by imposing
punishments or rewards, they need to identify the goals of these misbehaviors. Then, they need to
forego rewards and punishments in favor of logical consequences that result from the misbehaviors.
Third, teachers who use democratic procedures must allow and in fact encourage students to take an
active, participatory role in developing classroom procedures, as well as in making curricular and
instructional decisions. The goal is to use sound instructional strategies and build a sense of com-
munity within the classroom.
LINDA ALBERT: COOPERATIVE DISCIPLINE

In the Cooperative Discipline model, Linda Albert emphasizes that “students choose their behavior,
and we have power to influence—not control—their choices” (Albert, 1995, p. 43). She thus focuses
on influence, cooperation, and a positive approach to classroom management.
Overview of Albert’s Model

Linda Albert (1989, 1995) maintains that once teachers identify the cause of a misbehavior, they
should try to influence a student’s choice of behavior through encouragement. She believes that
some discipline programs, such as control theories or zero-tolerance policies, fail to show teachers
how to keep misbehavior from recurring and can even make behavior problems worse. Cooperative
Discipline assumes that students will misbehave again unless teachers use encouragement techniques
that build self-esteem and strengthen the student’s motivation to cooperate and learn.
Using the four goals of misbehavior (attention, power, revenge, and inadequacy, or the fear of
failure) identified by Rudolph Dreikurs as a basis for Cooperative Discipline, Albert suggests that
teachers should work with parents and students to help students with the three C’s: connecting to the
teacher and other students, contributing to the class, and feeling capable of successful behavior and
academic work. Noting that a teacher can have either a permissive (hands-off), autocratic (hands-on),
or democratic (hands-joined) classroom management style, Albert believes that a teacher’s greatest
assets are good self-control and the use of influence and encouragement to help students face daily
challenges, have appropriate behavior, and be successful in school.
Practical Application of Albert’s Model

Although students are affected by heredity, environment, and experiences, they can choose their
behavior. Thus, Albert believes they need to feel that they belong in the classroom and that they are
important, worthwhile, and valued. To foster a climate for learning and teaching, Albert suggests
that educators use encouragement, intervention, and collaboration to influence students. Caution-
ing against the use of several teacher techniques that often backfire, she tells teachers not to raise
their voices, yell, insist on having the last word, use sarcasm, attack a student’s character, plead or
bribe, back a student into a corner, use physical force, act superior, or bring up unrelated events
(Albert, 1989). Instead, they can help students to develop a code of conduct such as the one shown
in Figure 8–2.
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FIGURE 8–2
Sample Code of I am: Respectful—Responsible—Safe—Prepared.
Conduct I will not keep anyone from learning or teaching.
I will cooperate with others in the school community.
I will respect: Myself—Others—The environment.
Source: Developed from campus.kcc.edu/faculty/dfyfee/albert.html.
FOUR CAUSES OF MISBEHAVIOR Like Dreikurs, Linda Albert examines the four causes of mis-
behavior and identifies practical ways to address each of them (Albert, 1995).
Attention
• Use eye contact to let the student know you are aware of his or her misbehavior.
• Move closer to the student while continuing to teach.
• Ask a direct question or use the student’s name while continuing the lesson.
• Give specific encouragement to a nearby student who is on-task.
Power
• Avoid direct confrontation by agreeing with the student or changing the subject.
• Acknowledge the student’s power and state your actions: “You’re right, I can’t make you
finish the math problems, but I’ll be collecting the assignment at the end of class” (Albert,
1995, p. 44).
• Change the activity, do something unexpected, or initiate another class discussion on a
topic of interest.
• Use time-out by giving a choice: “You may sit quietly, keep your hands and feet to yourself,
and complete the assignment, or you may go to time-out in Mr. Weber’s room. You decide”
(Albert, 1995, p. 44).
Revenge
• Revoke a privilege: “Rita, you will not be able to play on the swings today.”
• Build a caring relationship and use affirmative statements to say “You’re OK, but your
choice of behavior is not” (Albert, 1995, p. 44).
• Require the return, repair, or replacement of damaged articles.
• Involve school personnel or parents if necessary.
Avoidance of Failure
• Acknowledge the difficulty of the assigned task, but remind the student of past successes.
• Modify instruction and materials.
• Teach the student to say “I can” instead of “I can’t” by recognizing achievements.
• Provide peer tutors or ask the student to help someone else, perhaps a younger student, to
build self-confidence.
USING INFLUENCE As shown in the following examples, Albert’s ideas on the use of influence
over control can be applied in most classrooms.
Influence: Seeing Luchee, a first grader, talking to another student, Mr. Palmbo said, “Luchee, your talking is
disturbing others. Please be considerate.”
Control: Mr. Palmbo said, “Luchee, you’re talking. Take a time-out.”
114
Influence: When Ms. Alvett believed that Mark, a senior, cheated on an assignment, she talked to him privately
and encouraged him to do his own work.
Control: Standing at the front of the room, Ms. Alvett announced to the class, “Someone didn’t feel like com-
pleting the class poetry assignment so he copied another student’s paper, didn’t he, Mark?”
ENCOURAGEMENT STRATEGIES: THE THREE C’S Neither time-consuming nor difficult to

learn, Albert’s encouragement strategies include the three C’s: capable, connect, and contribute.
According to Albert, students must feel capable of completing their work in a satisfactory man-
ner. To assist students, teachers can create an environment in which students can make mistakes
without fear of punishment or embarrassment; build confidence by focusing on improvement and
on past successes; and make learning objectives reachable for all students. By accepting all students
regardless of their behavior, listening to students, showing interest in their activities outside of
school, showing appreciation, and using positive statements about a student’s good behavior and
abilities, teachers help students to connect and develop positive relationships with teachers and
classmates. Finally, teachers can help students learn how they can contribute to the welfare of the
class and feel that they make a difference. Techniques to foster this sense of contribution include
involving students in maintaining the classroom, holding class meetings, asking for suggestions
when decisions need to be made, using cooperative learning groups, and encouraging peer tutoring
(Albert, 1995).
Now that you have read the ideas of Dreikurs and Albert, Applying Supportive Classroom
Ideas 8–1 asks you to apply these ideas with a specific student.
Albert also suggests that when addressing misbehaviors, teachers must enlist the support of
parents to encourage students. When talking with parents, teachers need to choose their words care-
fully and use objective language and nonjudgmental terms. In addition, teachers should keep com-
plaints to a minimum by selecting examples of misbehavior rather than naming a student’s every
transgression. When a teacher is negative, parents may feel no obligation to cooperate with that
teacher. Avoiding predictions of future failures, teachers should never make parents think their child
is incorrigible or unable to succeed in school. Instead, teachers should present a specific plan and
help parents understand that chances for success are good. Although it might be difficult, teachers
should avoid taking parents’ defensiveness personally and should ask parents to help with something
that is possible rather than impossible (Albert, 1997). Management Tip 8–1 has more suggestions
for working with parents.
APPLYING SUPPORTIVE CLASSROOM IDEAS 8–1

Helping Rashan Behave
Before reading the following scenario, review Dreikurs’s and out. I can do most of it,” he rarely finished an assign-
Albert’s ideas on the causes of misbehaviors, sharing respon- ment. Unfortunately, he also disturbed others so some
sibility, and providing influence. Then respond to the ques- of them did not finish either. His teacher wondered
tions at the end. what to do.
Rashan was a constant behavior problem. He was nei-
1. Using Albert’s and Dreikurs’s ideas, identify the possi-
ther violent nor hurtful, but he wasted time and both-
ble causes of Rashan’s misbehavior.
ered others. He never refused to do classwork, but he
2. What might Rashan’s teacher do to address the spe-
rarely finished it. Instead, he talked to others and the
cific cause or causes?
teacher, walked around the room, went to the waste-
3. How could the teacher use influence rather than con-
basket, or sharpened his pencils. Although Rashan
trol to help Rashan?
often said, “I’ll get this done today—before school’s
115

Developing Parents’ Cooperation
Enlisting parents’ support is important. However, when you • whom you talked to,
meet with a number of different parents, it may be difficult • how you talked to them—in person, on the tele-
to remember what you said to each and what they said to phone, by e-mail, and so on,
you. You need to: • the date,
• a summary of the conversation, and
Document conversations with parents, families, or
• agreed-upon actions to be taken.
guardians.
Keep a notebook with a page for each family or each Record the times you tried to contact the parent or
student. guardian but were unsuccessful.
Note if a student lives with more than one family dur- Record the date and the message that you left on an
ing the year. answering machine or with another person.
Use a form that includes Keep all e-mail contacts with the parents or guardians.
JANE NELSEN, LYNN LOTT, AND STEPHEN GLENN:

POSITIVE DISCIPLINE
Like Albert and Dreikurs, Jane Nelsen, Lynn Lott, and Stephen Glenn (1997) envision schools
where young people are treated with respect, will not be humiliated when they fail, and will have the
opportunity to learn in a safe environment, with a focus on cooperation rather than competition. In
these schools, teachers will provide an environment that inspires excitement about life and learning,
because fear and feelings of inadequacy and discouragement are not part of the learning environ-
ment. These dream schools nurture self-esteem, mutual respect, and academic performance, and
they give students the skills and attitudes that will help them to be happy, contributing members of
society.
Overview of Nelsen’s, Lott’s, and Glenn’s Model

In the Positive Discipline model, teachers must use classroom management strategies to teach stu-
dents to respect the rights of others and feel empathy and to learn how to behave. Stressing personal
accountability, they must also maintain a positive connection between adult and child (Carey,
2009). As Nelsen (2006) says, punishment may work on a short-term basis, but “we are often fooled
by immediate results . . . when the long-term results are negative” (p. 13).
Influenced by Rudolf Dreikurs and his four goals of misbehavior, Nelsen, Lott, and Glenn
place considerable priority on understanding why students behave as they do and suggest that any
form of punishment or permissiveness is disrespectful and discouraging and should be avoided. They
believe that teachers should emphasize caring, mutual respect, encouragement, and order in today’s
classrooms. Explaining barriers (disrespectful and discouraging behaviors) and builders (respectful
and encouraging behaviors), they go beyond academics and encourage teachers to teach the skills
that students will need for successful lives in schools and in society. Recognizing the harmful effects
of vandalism and violence in schools, they maintain that class meetings can lessen these problems.
Their eight building blocks of class meetings can contribute to effective class meetings and help in
a variety of classroom management situations (e.g., understanding reasons for misbehavior, develop-
ing communication skills, practicing role-playing, focusing on nonpunitive solutions).
Practical Application of Nelsen’s, Lott’s, and Glenn’s Model

Nelsen, Lott, and Glenn have a number of ideas on positive discipline. Because space is limited, we
will focus on only three of them.
116
THE SIGNIFICANT SEVEN Nelsen, Lott, and Glenn (1997) identify the Significant Seven, those
three empowering perceptions and four essential skills that all teachers should impress upon stu-
dents. They explain the perceptions and skills as follows:
Three Empowering Perceptions
1. Perceptions of personal capabilities: Teachers create a safe climate in which students can
experiment with learning and behavior without judgments about success or failure.
“Alisha, go ahead and try this problem. I’m here to help you.”
2. Perceptions of significance in primary relationships: Teachers listen to the feelings,
thoughts, and ideas of students and take them seriously.
“Kraig, you contributed some great ideas to our discussion today.”
3. Perceptions of the personal power of influence in life: Teachers give students the oppor-
tunity to contribute in useful ways and help them to accept their power to create positive
and negative environments.
“Akemi, would you be the leader for the group that is decorating our classroom for parent visitation
night?”
Four Essential Skills
1. Intrapersonal skills: Students have opportunities to gain understanding of their emo-
tions and behaviors by hearing feedback from their classmates. They learn to be account-
able for their actions and the results of their behavior.
“I was upset when Cam went on and on about how bad my hair looks today. I thought he was my friend!
What should I do?”
2. Interpersonal skills: Students can develop interpersonal skills through dialogue and shar-
ing, listening and empathizing, cooperation, negotiation, and conflict resolution.
“Jamila, I know how it feels when you try so hard and don’t get an A. That happened to me on the last
test.”
3. Systemic skills: Students respond to the limits and consequences of everyday life with
responsibility, adaptability, flexibility, and integrity because they do not experience pun-
ishment or disapproval.
“I’m sorry, Mr. Nazif. I bumped Carmen’s desk by mistake. I’ll pick up her things.”
4. Judgment skills: Students develop judgment skills when they have opportunities and
encouragement to practice making decisions in an environment that emphasizes learning
from mistakes rather than “paying” for mistakes through punishment (Nelsen, Lott, &
Glenn, 1997, p. 9).
“I guess it would have been better, Ms. Talbott, to start over with the volcano project than try to repair
the old one. But at least you let us try.”
BARRIERS AND BUILDERS Although respect and encouragement are two basic ingredients for
building positive relationships, Nelsen, Lott, and Glenn (1997) maintain that educators often
create barriers to their use. They identified five barriers that teachers use with students that show
disrespect and discouragement and five builders that show respect and encouragement. Instead
of assuming they know what students think and feel without asking them (Barrier 1: Assuming),
educators should check with students (Builder 1: Checking) to learn their unique perceptions
and capabilities and to discover how students are maturing in their ability to deal with problems
and issues.
Rather than doing things for students (Barrier 2: Rescuing/Explaining), educators should
allow them to learn from their own experiences (Builder 2: Exploring) and to help each other learn
to make choices. Teachers often direct students to do things in disrespectful ways (Barrier 3: Directing)
that reinforce dependency, eliminate initiative and cooperation, and encourage passive-aggressive
117

Holding Effective Class Meetings
According to Nelsen, Lott, and Glenn, teachers should use the • Recognize the four reasons people do what they do
following ideas for planning and conducting a class meeting: (remember Dreikurs’s four mistaken goals of mis-
behavior).
• Form a circle.
• Practice role-playing and brainstorming.
• Practice compliments and appreciations.
• Focus on nonpunitive solutions.
• Create an agenda.
• Develop communication skills.
• Learn about separate realities (there is more than one Source: Developed from Nelsen, J., Lott, L., & Glenn, H. S. (1997).
way; it does not have to be “my” [p. 64] way). Positive discipline in the classroom. Rocklin, CA: Prima.
behavior. As an alternative, educators should allow students to be involved in the planning and
problem-solving activities that help them become self-directed (Builder 3: Inviting/Encouraging).
Sometimes, when teachers expect students to do certain things (Barrier 4: Expecting), the
potential becomes the standard, and students are judged for falling short. If educators demand too
much too soon, they can discourage students. Nelsen, Lott, and Glenn encourage teachers to cele-
brate the direction of a student’s maturity or potential (Builder 4: Celebrating).
Finally, “adultisms” (p. 24) (Barrier 5: Adultisms) occur when educators forget that students
are not mature adults and expect them to act and think like adults. Instead, educators should interact
with students to understand the differences in how people perceive things (Builder 5: Respecting).
Such respect also contributes to a climate of acceptance that encourages growth and effective com-
munication (Nelsen, Lott, & Glenn, 1997).
THE EIGHT BUILDING BLOCKS OF CLASS MEETINGS Nelsen, Lott, and Glenn (1997, p. 3) ex-
plained the “incredible benefits of class meetings for teachers and students,” including involving stu-
dents in their education, teaching them to think for themselves, and eliminating most problems with
students who act out. Even Pre-K and elementary students can use class meetings to clarify rules, re-
solve interpersonal conflicts, engage in collective problem solving, and create a peaceful atmosphere
in the classroom (Angell, 2004). Management Tip 8–2 has additional suggestions for class meetings.
FORREST GATHERCOAL: JUDICIOUS DISCIPLINE

Like Dreikurs, Forrest Gathercoal based his model of Judicious Discipline on the belief that educa-
tors should develop democratic classrooms in which students know that their constitutional rights of
freedom, justice, and equality will be protected.
Overview of Gathercoal’s Model

Synthesizing professional ethics, effective educational practices, and student constitutional rights,
Judicious Discipline requires that students accept responsibility for their actions. It also asks educa-
tors to create an environment that respects the citizenship rights of students (F. Gathercoal, 2001).
Gathercoal suggests that rather than being a stand-alone model, Judicious Discipline can successfully
complement other classroom management models. Figure 8–3 provides an overview of the key con-
cepts of Judicious Discipline.
Practical Applications of Gathercoal’s Model

When implementing Judicious Discipline, educators need to focus on professional ethics, a con-
stitutional perspective to school rules with judicious consequences, and the development of a
118
FIGURE 8–3
1. Based on the U.S. Bill of Rights, Judicious Discipline is a citizenship approach that teaches students about Key Concepts
the rights and responsibilities needed to live and learn in a democratic society (P. Gathercoal & Crowell, of Gathercoal’s
2000). Judicious Discipline
2. Educators should always practice professional ethics by modeling acceptable standards of moral and
proper conduct and by acting in the best interests of students (F. Gathercoal, 2001).
3. Students and educators should cooperatively develop behavioral guidelines for their own teaching and
learning based upon four interests: property loss and damage; threat to health and safety; legitimate edu-
cational purpose; and serious disruption of the educational process (F. Gathercoal, 2001; P. Gathercoal &
Crowell, 2000).
4. Educators should use judicious consequences rather than rewards and punishments (F. Gathercoal, 2001).
5. Educators should consider students’ constitutional rights and provide consequences based upon individual
situations (F. Gathercoal, 2001).
6. In the same way that citizens’ rights in the community and overall society should not be violated, teachers
need to ensure that students’ rights in schools are not violated and that they receive due process.
democratic school community. In addition, because Judicious Discipline is designed to complement

more refined management models, teachers need to decide what to use as their primary classroom
management model.
Judicious Discipline is a front-loading (P. Gathercoal & Crowell, 2000, p. 174) framework.
This means that educators develop and teach rules and expectations for behavior through class dis-
cussions, group activities that are designed to create rules based on constitutional concepts, and class
meetings in which classroom conflicts are resolved peacefully in a democratic forum (Landau & P.
Gathercoal, 2000). Front loading also means that one of the first things that happens in a classroom
is that students develop a class set of expected behaviors. To help them get started, teachers have to
focus on the Bill of Rights and the legal compelling state interests that are discussed later in this
section. Then, the students must to help define what these concepts mean in various teaching and
learning situations.
ETHICAL PRACTICES F. Gathercoal (2001) suggested that all educators draft and post their per-
sonal statement, or code of ethics. This allows students and other teachers to see the ethics by
which the educator tries to live. Reflected in the statement should be an indication of acceptable
standards of student conduct and the belief that an educator should act in the best interests of stu-
dents. Ethical practices reflect the way educators were raised, their educational training, and their
daily interactions with students and other educators. Figure 8–4 shows seven positive ethical prac-
tices that Gathercoal considered appropriate for all educators, especially educators who consider
themselves to be student centered.
FIGURE 8–4
Educators should Positive Ethical
1. Encourage and model an eagerness for learning and teaching, Practices
2. Model responsible professional behavior,
3. Manifest appropriate personal behaviors,
4. Focus their efforts on motivation, encouragement, and building students’ self-esteem,
5. Accept the reality that students behave in ways they truly believe at that time are in their own best interests,
6. Develop judicious rules and consequences that accept students as citizens,
7. Feel challenged by the problems in education and be proud they are in a position to help students.
Source: Developed from Gathercoal, F. (2004). Judicious discipline (6th ed.). San Francisco: Caddo Gap Press.
119
A CONSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE TO SCHOOL DISCIPLINE F. Gathercoal (1998, 2001) and

Wolfgang (1995) explain that Judicious Discipline followers must adopt a constitutional perspec-
tive to school rules and create an environment that respects the citizenship rights of students, espe-
cially the fundamental human values of freedom, justice, and equality that are contained in the Bill
of Rights of the U.S. Constitution. However, respecting students’ constitutional rights and provid-
ing them with considerable freedom does not mean that students are free to misbehave or that they
have the freedom to do as they please. Rather, it means that students have the freedom to think and
act on behalf of their self-interests as long as those actions are balanced against the welfare needs
of the larger community (F. Gathercoal, 1998, 2001). Educators have a professional responsibility
to “sustain a balance between the individual and the state’s interests in our public schools”
(F. Gathercoal, 1997, p. 68).
Keeping these rights in mind, teachers constantly have to answer questions such as the following:
• Do students have the right to publish and distribute any material they wish on school grounds?
• Can Brooke refuse to complete specific assigned readings based on her religious beliefs?
• Can Lamont wear clothing that is prohibited in the school handbook but is an expression of
his religious faith?
• Can Samit and Davisha be excused from school for religious practices without losing the
opportunity to learn?
• Can I search students’ property, including lockers, purses, pockets, or vehicles in the parking lot?
• Unless I grant Lesa a due process hearing, can I discipline her by putting her in the hall or
other isolated area, or can the principal suspend or expel her, thereby depriving Lesa of the
right to be educated?
• Can I lower Rahjean’s grade, described by Gathercoal as a student’s “property” (Wolfgang,
1995, p. 128), because he was late to class?
Gathercoal offers four compelling interests of any state as the basis for classroom rules: health
and safety, property loss and damage, legitimate educational purpose, and serious disruption. These
interests translate into class rules such as, “Be safe. Protect our property. Do your best work. Respect
the needs of others” (Landau & P. Gathercoal, 2000, p. 454). Broad in scope, these four rules
address any management issue that might arise at any grade level or in any setting.
Property Loss or Damage. No one has the right to destroy the property of another person or
school property; therefore, educators have a responsibility to prevent the destruction of prop-
erty (F. Gathercoal, 2001).
• “Elaine, be sure you’re wearing appropriate shoes on the gym floor.”
• “Class, please clean up your work area and return the microscopes to their storage cases.”
Legitimate Educational Purpose. Educational rules and consequences should help students
succeed in school and should address issues such as plagiarism, classroom and homework
assignments, grading practices, and special or advanced placement (F. Gathercoal, 2001).
• All school-aged children and young adults must attend school.
• “Hanson, homework is due at the beginning of each class. The rule is that late work will not
be graded without a valid absentee pass from the school office.”
Threat to Health and Safety. Educators are responsible for protecting students’ physical safe-
ty, as well as their psychological and emotional health. This includes the development of rules
on playgrounds, in science labs, during physical education, and even in hallways.
• “Larisha, remember that all students must wear protective eyewear when working in the
industrial technology labs.”
• “Noell, the rule is that students should not run in the halls or stairways.”
Management Tip 8–3 includes some suggestions to prepare for serious disruptions in your
classroom.
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Preparing for Serious Disruption of the Educational Process
School officials have the legal authority and the professional • School Rule 11: Students cannot wear gang colors or
responsibility to deny student rights if those rights seriously symbols at school.
disrupt educational activities. According to the courts, to be • School Rule 3: Students cannot have knives of any
serious, a disruption “must materially and/or substantially type in school or on the school grounds.
interfere with the requirements of appropriate discipline in the
operation of the public schools” (F. Gathercoal, 1997, p. 72).
SHAPING AND INDIVIDUALIZING CONSEQUENCES When students break the rules, teachers
need to consider two important things to shape the consequences to the behavior: (1) What needs to
be done? and (2) What needs to be learned? “What needs to be done” (F. Gathercoal, 1998, p. 210)
usually involves restitution and apology. On the other hand, “what needs to be learned” (p. 210)
looks at changing future goals and attitudes, such as the immorality of taking another student’s pos-
sessions or the dangers of running in the hall. As students work toward equitable solutions to these
questions, they must believe that their feelings and opinions are valued and that the teacher wants to
help them rather than dish out punishment.
“Never think that being consistent means treating all students alike,” cautioned F. Gathercoal
(1997, p. 48). Consistency is a mainstay in many classroom management theories, but Gathercoal
has a different conception of its use. In fact, he believes that consequences for misbehavior should be
individualized, should not be designed to punish students, and should consider individual differ-
ences among students in order to meet the emotional and learning needs of students. Students who
misbehave simply might have different ways of learning from their mistakes and, as a result, they
might need different consequences (F. Gathercoal 1997, 1998).
CLASS MEETINGS As you have read in this chapter, several theorists propose class meetings as a
means of giving students a voice in class decisions as well as helping students to resolve interpersonal
conflicts. In class meetings, students can deal with undesired behaviors or arrive at peaceful conflict
resolution (Bertone, Meard, Flavier, Euzet, & Durand, 2002). In addition, democratic class meet-
ings are an essential part of the effective operation of Judicious Discipline classrooms. By providing
excellent opportunities for developing and discussing goals, expectations, and relationships, they
contribute to the sharing of power and to the avoidance of power struggles because all students have
opportunities to express their concerns. When students feel that they have power in class operations,
they are less likely to misbehave (P. Gathercoal, 2000, April). Class meetings also can help students
to learn skills, such as conflict resolution, that they can use in all aspects of their lives.
In his presentation at the American Educational Research Association meeting, Paul Gather-
coal (2000, April) explained the key elements of democratic meetings. In advance of the meetings,
the teacher should determine who can call a class meeting and when the meetings should be held.
Some teachers allow a student to call a meeting at any time, and others have specific times and places
for the meetings. The idea is to give students a sense of significance and some power and control over
events in the classroom. At the meeting, the room should be arranged so that everyone can see eve-
ryone else. A circle is an arrangement that provides a feeling of community and that encourages
positive and productive communication.
During the meeting, certain rules apply. First, everyone must agree that names will never be
used during the class meetings. Using names casts an accusatory finger at the person being named
and has the effect of putting that person on the defense. Instead, teachers should suggest that all
speakers say, “a person who acts in this way. . . .” This general statement protects individuals in the
class and allows them to participate in the discussion about behavior and not about personalities.
Everyone also should agree to stay on the topic and to keep family concerns out of the discussions.
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APPLYING SUPPORTIVE CLASSROOM IDEAS 8–2

Planning for Class Meetings
Kelli Selby decided that she would hold class meetings Review the ideas of Nelsen, Lott, and Glenn, and Forrest
this year. However, she knew that good class meet- Gathercoal about effective class meetings. Then, list three
ings do not just happen. She knew that her class suggestions you would give Ms. Selby in planning her first
would include students with a wide range of abili- class meeting. Meet with a group of other students in your
ties—perhaps gifted students, perhaps some who had class who hope to teach on the same level as you do. As a
learning disabilities. What she was unsure about was group, develop a list of suggestions for planning class meet-
how to begin the process. ings and develop an agenda for the first three meetings.
Students and teacher should maintain a class-meeting journal. Each class meeting begins with
journal writing, or, for younger students, drawing in a journal. A prompt for the writing or drawing
might be a question such as “Does anyone have concerns, clarifications, or problem areas they would
like to discuss?” This type of broad statement encourages everyone to write. Now that you have read
about the use of class meetings in several models, Applying Supportive Classroom Ideas 8–2 asks you
to use these ideas to help a teacher plan meetings for her class.
RICHARD CURWIN AND ALLEN MENDLER: DISCIPLINE WITH DIGNITY

Like Judicious Discipline, the Discipline With Dignity model of Richard Curwin and Allen Mend-
ler emphasizes teachers conveying dignity upon students and restoring their hope in democratic,
student-centered classrooms. In addition to providing for supportive classroom environments where
students feel physically and psychologically safe, Curwin’s and Mendler’s model addresses violence,
hostility, and aggression in our schools.
Overview of Curwin’s and Mendler’s Model

Mendler (1992, p. 25) maintains that “most discipline programs incorrectly place their emphases
upon strategies and techniques.” However, such an approach does not work because all students
do not respond the same way or, as Mendler (1992, p. 25) stated, “it is fruitless to expect that
any technique will work with all people who present the same symptom.” Instead, effective dis-
cipline programs should focus on individual students and their specific problem behaviors and
on teacher behavior. Thus, Discipline With Dignity is based upon the key concepts shown in
Figure 8–5.
FIGURE 8–5
Key Concepts of Curwin and Mendler believe the following:
Discipline With Classroom management should be student centered, democratic, nonauthoritarian, and responsibility based.
Dignity Using the seven basic principles of teacher behavior, teachers should
work toward long-term behavior changes rather than short-term quick fixes,
stop doing ineffective things,
be fair without treating everyone the same way,
make rules that make sense,
model what they expect,
believe that responsibility is more important than obedience, and
treat students with dignity.
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Practical Applications of Curwin’s and Mendler’s Model

With Curwin’s and Mendler’s Discipline With Dignity model, teachers do not need to keep track of
offenses and consequences, nor do they have to look for causes of misbehavior as Dreikurs advo-
cated. However, they do have to adopt several roles and accept several responsibilities for successful
implementation. First, regardless of the problem or the student behaviors, teachers must be willing
to convey dignity, to understand the reasons for conveying dignity, and to genuinely believe that
children and adolescents deserve to be treated with dignity. They must consider the effectiveness of
their teaching and management behaviors and must be willing to change behaviors that do not work
or rules that do not make sense. They must also be willing to make personal and social connections
with learners, especially those who demonstrate high-risk behaviors. Finally, to address problem
behaviors, teachers should ensure healthy classrooms in which students experience improved self-
esteem, achieve higher academic grades, feel physically and psychologically safer, enjoy attending
school, demonstrate more cooperative attitudes, and have better interpersonal relationships.
PREREQUISITE ESSENTIALS TO ADDRESSING PROBLEM BEHAVIORS Curwin and Mendler

identify seven basic principles of teacher behavior (Mendler, 1992).
Principle 1. Teachers who practice Discipline With Dignity use long-term efforts to change
behaviors rather than short-term efforts. Maintaining that a program with rigid rewards and con-
sequences is doomed to failure (Mendler, 1992), Mendler thought teachers should look toward
long-term behavior changes. In other words, teachers who try only short-term quick fixes often deal
with the same problem behaviors and miss an ideal opportunity to teach students self-discipline and
long-term behavior changes.
Principle 2. Teachers who practice Discipline With Dignity stop doing ineffective things. It
seems incongruous to state that some teachers might need to stop ineffective efforts to change prob-
lem behaviors; however, many teachers continue to do things even after all feedback suggests that
what they are doing does not work (Mendler, 1992). Perhaps the methods worked with some group
of students at some time, but either the students or the behaviors (or both) have changed, and the
teacher either does not realize the changes or does not know better classroom management methods
to try. Examples of ineffective methods include using “commonsense” methods (p. 28) that do not
get students to respond appropriately, using positive reinforcement that often results in students be-
having worse, teaching social skills that fail to get students to change behaviors, and sending students
to detention when it is clear that being there does not change behaviors.
Principle 3. Teachers who practice Discipline With Dignity think, “I will be fair, and I won’t
always treat everyone the same” (Mendler, 1992, p. 31). Although most teachers have heard repeat-
edly that consistency is the key to effective classroom management, Mendler disagrees and states that
students and their behavior problems deserve individual consideration. Because Discipline With
Dignity seeks to teach students how to be responsible, it is necessary to tailor the consequences to
the individual and to teach students the difference between being fair and treating everyone exactly
the same way. Once students understand this concept, a teacher is free to work with each student
and take the approaches that best meet that student’s needs.
Principle 4. Teachers who practice Discipline With Dignity make rules that make sense.
Although people break rules for many reasons, rules that are viewed as pointless or unimportant are
the least likely to be followed. Instead of school rules being viewed as traps waiting to snare students,
they should be considered guidelines needed in order for success to happen. Students who see little
value in doing homework are unlikely to do it unless they can see how they will benefit in some way.
Students also deserve an explanation for why rules exist (Mendler, 1992). Instead of “I’m the teacher
and you’re the student, so you just go by the rule,” students should be given explanations such as
“The reason for not running in the hall is that someone could fall and get hurt” or “The reason for
not calling other students names is that someone’s feelings might get hurt.” Most students will obey
rules for which they see a reason or how it benefits them in some way.
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Principle 5. Teachers who practice Discipline With Dignity model what they expect. In Mendler’s
(1992, p. 35) words, “actions speak louder than words.” Teachers should let students see them living
and abiding by the same rules as students.
Ms. Carnahan was always prompt in returning homework to the students in her class. “I expect students to
do the assigned homework, and I reinforce the importance of completing homework by making sure that I
return it the next day, if possible.”
Ms. Parker, a student teacher, chewed gum all day long. Although she was secretive about her gum chewing,
some students knew she was ignoring a rule that she enforced for the students. Her cooperating teacher
reminded Ms. Parker that it was her responsibility to model good behavior for the students and that the gum
would have to go.
Principle 6. Teachers who practice Discipline With Dignity believe that responsibility is more
important than obedience. The term obedience means “do not question and certainly do not be
different” (Mendler, 1992, p. 36), but the term responsibility means “make the best decision you
possibly can with the information you have available” (p. 37). Obedience also implies a hierarchical
structure in which one or several powerful individuals dictate the terms of behavior for the masses. Thus,
obedience models of discipline have limitations that hinder their effectiveness (Mendler, 1992).
Within a responsibility model of discipline, students accumulate information, see the options avail-
able to them, learn to anticipate consequences, and then choose the path they feel is in the best in-
terest of themselves and others. Because learning responsibility is an ongoing, dynamic process, bad
decisions are viewed as opportunities by which students can learn to make better ones. This process
also promotes and requires critical thinking.
Principle 7. Teachers who practice Discipline With Dignity always treat students with dignity.
Mendler maintained that the seventh principle is perhaps the most important. Without dignity,
students learn to hate school and learning. When teachers attack students’ dignity with put-downs,
sarcasm, criticism, scolds, and threats, students might follow the rules; however, they also might be-
come angry and resentful. Although teachers should speak to students in a kind and caring manner
even when correcting them, treating others with dignity involves more than our manner of speak-
ing. It involves attitudes, body language, tone of voice, and eye contact. Successful educators always
convey a basic sense of respect to their students by listening, being open to feedback from students,
explaining why they want things done in a certain way, and giving students some say in classroom
affairs that affect them (Curwin & Mendler, 1997a).
Treating others with dignity has to be practiced every day. Teachers cannot have days when
they treat students with dignity and other days when they do not. Students, like adults, do not forget
easily when they or others have been treated poorly.
Ms. Dela Vega always treated Mason with dignity, yet she did not treat Abdul the same way. Hearing the sar-
castic comments that Ms. Dela Vega made to Abdul, Mason wondered when he would be on the receiving end.
Dignity in discipline often can be accomplished by using privacy, eye contact (with sensitivity to cultural
preferences), and proximity when delivering a corrective message to a student. Teachers also should speak
comments quietly so that only the student can hear.
SOCIAL CONTRACTS Curwin and Mendler (2001) maintain that social contracts are one of the
most effective ways for teachers to take charge of their classrooms and still give students a voice in
class decisions. Social contracts are effective because they clearly define acceptable and unacceptable
behavior in the classroom or school before (emphasis Mendler’s and Curwin’s) students misbehave.
Without a contract, many good rules and resulting consequences are fully understood by students
only after they break the rules. In addition, contracts are effective because they give the students a
sense of ownership in what happens in the classroom because they were involved in making the rules.
Finally, social contracts spell out an exact procedure for the students and teacher to follow when
rules are broken. Management Tip 8–4 provides the steps to follow in developing a social contract.
124

Developing a Social Contract
A good contract involves both teacher and students. Accord- • Students develop consequences if these rules are broken.
ing to Curwin and Mendler, teachers need to follow these • Class reviews all rules to ensure everyone understands
steps to develop a good social contract: what they mean.
• The class and teacher decide which of the proposed
• Teacher identifies the rules that are absolutely neces-
rules and consequences will become part of the
sary to maintain minimal control in the classroom.
contract.
• Teacher proposes other clear and specific rules that
• Each student is tested on his or her knowledge of the
are necessary for effective classroom management.
social contract (a perfect score is required for passing).
• Teacher develops consequences for each rule.
• In small groups, students develop rules for the teacher’s
behavior. Source: Developed from Mendler, A. N., & Curwin, R. L. (1983). Tak-
• Students develop consequences for each of the teacher’s ing charge in the classroom: A practical guide to effective discipline.
rules. Reston, VA: Reston Publishing Company, p. 25.
• In small groups, students develop rules regarding each
other’s behavior in class.
Mendler and Curwin (1983) tell about a second-grade class that developed a social contract
containing 17 rules. Figure 8–6 provides three examples of rules (and consequences) that the class
proposed and voted to approve.
CONSEQUENCES The social contract depends on the development of effective rules and conse-
quences. The rules clearly state what behavior is expected, and the consequences clarify, in advance,
what will happen if the agreed-upon expectations are not met.
A consequence is not a punishment. Consequences directly relate to the rule, and they are
logical (see the influence of Dreikurs) and natural. By helping a rule violator learn acceptable behav-
ior from the experience, consequences are instructional rather than punitive. Mendler and Curwin
(1983) offered several examples:
• Rule: Students are not for hitting, fighting, or hurting.
Consequence: Do one nice thing for the victim before the day is over.
Punishment: Stay after school for 2 hours and sit in silence.
FIGURE 8–6
Rules and Consequences for Students Examples of Rules
Rule 1: Students do not yell out. They raise their hands and wait to be called upon. Proposed by Second
Graders in a Social
The teacher reminds students to wait and not to yell out.
Contract
The teacher will not call on students who yell out.
Rule 2: Instead of fighting, hitting, or pushing in school, students should talk to each other to solve problems.
The teacher reminds students of our rule.
The student will take a time-out.
Rule 3: Do not throw anything in the room. Hand things to each other.
The student must pick up what is thrown.
The student must apologize to others and clean up.
Rules 4–17 dealt with topics such as completing homework, doing work neatly, running in the class or school,
sharpening pencils, hanging clothing, taking others’ belongings, and copying others’ work.
Source: Developed from Mendler, A. N., & Curwin, R. L. (1983). Taking charge in the classroom: A practical guide to
effective discipline. Reston, VA: Reston Publishing Company, p. 25.
125
• Rule: All trash must be thrown in the wastebasket.

Consequence: Pick up your trash from the floor.
Punishment: Apologize to the teacher in front of the entire class.
Effective consequences are clear and specific, provide a range of alternative options that allow
the teacher to implement a consequence and still treat students as individuals, relate to the rule as
much as possible, and teach rather than punish (Mendler & Curwin, 1983). Mendler and Curwin
recommend four generic consequences that can be effective for breaking almost any rule.
1. Reminder of the rule: “Jef, we raise our hands before speaking. This is your reminder.”
2. A warning: A warning should be a stern reminder rather than a threat. “Malikah, this is
the second time today that you have gotten out of your seat to bother Kristen. This is your
warning.”
3. Developing an action plan for improving behavior: “Malikah, you are out of your seat both-
ering Kristen. I want you to write for me how you intend to stop breaking this rule. List clearly
what you will do when you want to tell Kristen something.”
4. Practicing behavior: When students do not know how to demonstrate expected behaviors, a
teacher can role-play the appropriate behavior first and then have the student repeat it.
POWER STRUGGLES Power struggles, one of Dreikurs’s four goals of misbehavior, can present
serious problems as teachers and students vie to win a confrontation. Prevention is the best
policy, but sometimes teachers are faced with students who refuse to do something the teacher
has asked.
• A kindergarten student refuses to move from one desk to another.
• A sixth-grade student refuses to read aloud in class.
• A 12th-grade student refuses to give up a knife to the principal.
Teachers need to realize that some power struggles are inevitable. Thus, they need to be pre-
pared to deal with them even if it means refusing to engage in the power struggle at all. According to
Mendler, most problem moments can be defused through a combination of listening, acknowledging
the student’s concern, agreeing that there might be truth in the student’s accusation, and deferring
(emphasis Mendler’s) to a private time for continued discussion (Mendler, 1995). Teachers can use an
“or” statement to defuse the situation or let the student save face, especially if the power struggle is in
front of the class. Another method is to remove the student from the class to avoid having an audience
of students.
“Lars, give me the comic book now or after class.”
“Rosette, either move to the other desk now or stay in for recess.”
“Trey, either stop talking to Sidney or take a time-out.”
“Chin Yuan, let’s discuss this in the hall.”
The ultimate goal is to defuse the situation before it becomes clear that the student will never
obey the request or until the student appears angry or violent. Remember, no one wins a power
struggle. Always look for a way out of the situation as soon as possible, even if the student has the
last word.
ZERO-TOLERANCE POLICIES Zero-tolerance policies originally were intended to improve

safety by ensuring that all students follow the rules and by sending a strong message to the school
community that violent, aggressive behavior will not be tolerated. Developed in the 1990s as
part of a larger package of federal school violence-prevention initiatives, they fall into one of
three groups: (1) violence prevention and conflict-resolution programs; (2) gun-control laws;
and (3) punitive and judicial forms of discipline (Casella, 2003). Although schools need effective
policies to protect everyone in the school community, these policies are, according to Curwin
126
and Mendler, inherently unfair because all students are treated alike, regardless of the circum-
stances. As Dr. Bracken in the opening vignette saw, fear can be a consequence of zero tolerance.
However, eliminating zero-tolerance policies can be difficult because the concept is simple to
understand, sounds tough, and gives the impression of high standards (emphasis Curwin’s and
Mendler’s) for behavior.
As an alternative to zero-tolerance policies, Dr. Bracken could suggest the following
(Casella, 2003):
• Peer mediation, student support teams, and other forms of effective conflict resolution
• Character study as part of academic coursework
• Counseling programs for all students
• Inservice programs for teachers about violence prevention
• Student governance councils and interventions in which all students can participate
• In-school suspension accompanied by academic work, tutoring, or community or school service
• Victim services programs
• Discipline contracts that are agreed to and signed by students, parents, and school staff
• Student-developed problem-solving plans
CRITIQUE OF SUPPORTIVE APPROACHES

The classroom management models that subscribe to the supportive approaches have several advan-
tages. Promoting respect and communication among teachers and students, they focus on demo-
cratic ideals and allow students to take responsibility for their own actions, help establish class
rules, and influence instructional practices. Some of the models, such as Discipline With Dignity,
emphasize restoring dignity, helping students regain hope, and making a special effort to learn
about individual students. In general, the models propose that schools are for students and that
educators are charged with the responsibility of making sure schools address the individual needs of
students. When educators are genuinely committed to helping students, those students feel good
about themselves, their teachers, and their school as a whole and are more likely to demonstrate
appropriate behavior. With these models, teachers do not have to keep detailed records of behavior
or rule violations.
Deikurs’s theories form the basis for many of the supportive approaches. His logical conse-
quences, when used consistently, are a fair and basic element in a discipline plan. In addition, his
theories of social interest and the understanding of causes of behavior can contribute to making
schools safer for students and teachers. For example, when teachers take appropriate actions to
reduce students’ mistaken goals (e.g., inadequacy and attention getting) and when they help students
to develop the ability to interact in a cooperative manner, they often can reduce the feelings of hostil-
ity that might lead to violence. Through Judicious Discipline, students can learn how their behavior
infringes on the rights of others to learn (and vice versa), and a teacher can move management issues
away from a struggle between student and teacher for classroom control and toward a method by
which two people can work together to resolve a conflict.
All classroom management models or theories should take into account our schools’ increas-
ing diversity and should recognize that students might react differently to teachers’ management
techniques. All students need encouragement (a mainstay of the supportive classroom), and all stu-
dents need to feel they are capable, connected, and contributing (Albert’s ideas) to the school com-
munity. The tenets of Positive Discipline demonstrate respect for diversity in their emphasis on
respecting others, conveying mutual respect, and encouraging students to become productive in and
out of the classroom. In addition, the use of class meetings accentuates the emphasis on mutual
respect and confidence in students.
One challenge for educators is to treat students with dignity even they feel the students do not
deserve. With supportive models, successful educators convey their basic sense of respect to their
127
students by listening to what they think, encouraging their feedback, apologizing after acting in a
hurtful way, explaining why they want things done in a certain way, and asking opinions about how
procedures in the classroom are conducted (Mendler & Mendler, 2010).
The supportive classroom models have been tested in schools. For example, Judicious Disci-
pline has been tested in Minnesota, Michigan, and Oregon to determine its usefulness in practical
situations. In these states, the use of Judicious Discipline with class meetings promoted good citizen-
ship and safe, productive learning environments (Landau & P. Gathercoal, 2000). Teachers found
positive results, primarily in reducing fighting and other angry outbursts. In addition, the consistent
use of class meetings based on the framework of rights and responsibilities provided students with an
opportunity to discuss issues of concern peacefully.
However, several disadvantages also are associated with the supportive classroom models. It
might be difficult for teachers to identify and understand students’ reasons for misbehaving. In addi-
tion, even though teachers understand why students misbehave, they might not be able to respond
properly and to provide logical consequences for all misbehaviors. Some deep emotional problems
that lead to serious feelings of inadequacy or to elaborate plans for revenge might require profes-
sional skills beyond those held by classroom teachers or most school counselors and might need
resources that are unavailable in many schools.
Teachers who are inherently autocratic or permissive or those who are insecure might have
difficulty adopting supportive classroom approaches to management. How, they ask, can educators
be expected realistically to instill dignity, especially if they are being threatened in some way. Also,
some teachers might have difficulty the idea of students making rules for themselves and recom-
mending consequences. Applying Supportive Ideas 8–3 asks you to respond to one such teacher.
In contrast, some educators believe that these models do not go far enough. Kohn (1996)
maintains that the supportive classroom models still maintain too much adult control. Punishments
may be replaced with logical consequences, but students are not really in control of their own behav-
ior and are not truly creating their own community (Watson & Battistich, 2006).
There is also the reality that a difference often exists between what a person says is an ethi-
cal or democratic thing to do and what that person does when an actual dilemma occurs. In the
real world, time constraints, unforeseen situational factors, and spur-of-the-moment emotions
come into play. Until you experience a situation, you never can be sure exactly how you will
behave. Thus, in a classroom, educators consistently must try to use the same ethical, democratic
behavior so that students feel secure and know what they can expect. Over time, students will
gain confidence and come to believe that their teachers always will act in the students’ best inter-
ests (F. Gathercoal, 2001).
APPLYING SUPPORTIVE IDEAS 8–3

Implementing Supportive Approaches in a Diverse Urban School
The following comments were made by a teacher in an teaching, or so-called logical consequences. They’d
urban school in a neighborhood with a high number of stu- probably run over me and take advantage of me if
dents on free and reduced lunch. they had a chance. Look what they did to their
teacher last year. Drove her to quit teaching, that’s
Oh, I know all about those supportive approaches of
what they did. Sure, these models look good on
classroom management. In fact, I read about them in
paper, but implementing them is a big question
a book. But they don’t apply to us. They talk about
mark. No, I think I’ll keep this bunch under control
caring and mutual respect, and they expect us to use
and keep my job.
class meetings to help with classroom management
and let the students help develop class rules. My class
is too bad for me to try to use some touchy-feely 1. Is this teacher right or wrong? Why?
stuff. I do my best with this difficult group, but I 2. Are there parts of the supportive approach that apply
don’t think they would respond to any democratic to all schools?
128

Do Supportive Classroom Management Practices Reflect Your Beliefs?
Determine how close your management philosophy is to 5. Do I believe that for democracy to exist there must be a
that to the theorists discussed in this chapter by answering clearly defined social vision that is characterized by
the following questions: high expectations, high levels of honest encourage-
ment, and an insistence that all people are responsible
1. Do I prefer a democratic, a permissive, or an autocratic
for others’ well-being?
classroom?
6. Do I believe in the use of encouragement rather than
2. Do I believe students should have a say in the determi-
praise and clearly understand the difference between
nation of class rules and should participate in class
the two?
meetings?
7. Do I believe in logical consequences (whenever possible)
3. Do I feel comfortable conveying dignity to my students?
instead of a set punishment for misbehavior in general?
4. Do I have the basic philosophical and psychological
8. Can I work toward long-term behavioral change rather
belief that each person is born with the capacity to
than quick fixes?
develop his or her social interest?
It is also possible that students from different cultures will respond differently to the support-
ive classroom models. Because of child-rearing practices that reflect cultural beliefs, students may
have been taught, either consciously or unconsciously, to behave in different ways. In other words,
because of their cultural backgrounds, students might respond differently to feelings of inadequacy
or the need to gain attention. In fact, students in some cultures might not want attention, especially
negative attention (Manning & Baruth, 2009). Other students might associate a negative stigma
with a power-seeking situation, especially with a teacher they were taught to respect. The suggestion
that teachers should use touch and move within close proximity to misbehaving students might
result in psychological discomfort for some students. Another problem might be that the teacher’s
lack of authoritarianism and the fact that students sometimes make rules and set consequences for
teachers can be discomforting to students who have been taught that teachers are to be placed on a
pedestal.
In spite of these drawbacks, the supportive classroom models have great potential. Knowing
that students have a psychological need to belong to a group and to feel valued, a teacher can help
these students by encouraging them to interact with others, helping them achieve academic success,
and helping them develop their own social interest. Students, regardless of their special needs and
specific behavior problems, deserve to be understood as individuals. Overall, the basic philosophical
beliefs of considering individual students, believing in freedom of student decision making, and trust-
ing people to make wise decisions (Dreikurs, 1968) show that the supportive classroom approach is
flexible enough to address specific student needs. All students need encouragement (a mainstay of
Albert’s model), and all students need to feel they are capable, connected, and contributing to the
school community.
Summary
Classroom management theories that are based on the idea of accept responsibility for their own behavior. Jane Nelsen’s,
developing supportive classrooms provide a climate of respect, Lynn Lott’s, and Stephen Glenn’s Positive Discipline model has
a democratic environment, cooperatively developed rules, logi- presented the concepts of barriers, builders, empowering percep-
cal consequences, and a focus on the rights and welfare of both tions, and essential skills for management. Finally, Forrest
educators and students. You have read about Rudolf Dreikurs’s Gathercoal’s Judicious Discipline has emphasized the impor-
model of Democratic Teaching and Management as well as his tance of a democratic classroom, while Richard Curwin’s and
influence on Linda Albert and her belief that students should Allen Mendler’s Discipline With Dignity focuses on individual
129
students, social contracts, healthy classrooms, power struggles, 4. Is it possible to develop cooperation, a sense of com-
and consequences rather than punishments. munity, and an acceptance of civic values at a school
Revisit the opening vignette for this chapter and such as Park Place?
respond to the following questions: 5. Will positive discipline and a climate of respect,
encouragement, and dignity solve the problems that
1. How can the supportive approaches to classroom manage-
the educators at Park Place are experiencing?
ment be used to help “calm down and tame the students”?
6. Think about all the models and theorists in this book.
2. How can Dr. Bracken convince the school administra-
What should Dr. Bracken suggest?
tors to loosen their rules and eliminate zero-tolerance
policies, and also convince students to accept responsi- Then, consider whether you want to implement one of these
bility for their own behaviors? theories singularly or couple it with one of the other support-
3. How can Dr. Bracken help the teachers to examine ive classroom models or with one of the models discussed in
their own teaching behaviors to determine whether this book.
their behaviors contribute to student problems?
Suggested Readings
Bear, G. (2011). Positive psychology and school discipline: Positive Lardas, N. (2010). On positive discipline. International Educator,
is not simply the opposite of punitive. Communique, 39(5), 8–9. 25(1), 21. Positive discipline can reinforce the good qualities of
The author explores the meaning of positive psychology when students and teachers.
applied to school discipline. Mendler, A., & Mendler, B. (2010). What tough kids need from
Curwin, R. L. (2010). Motivating urban youth. Reclaiming Children us. Reclaiming children & Youth, 19(1), 27–31. A strong sense
& Youth, 19(1), 35–39. Teachers need to express hope to stu- of right and wrong can help even tough students develop more
dents and show them that they really care in order to help youth responsible behavior.
make meaningful changes to their lives. Ruen, K. K. (2010). Teaching toward wholeness: The aesthetic in
Ferguson, E. D. (2010). Adler’s innovative contributions regarding education. Encounter, 23(3), 42–45. Aesthetic activities such as
the need to belong. Journal of Individual Psychology, 66(1), 1–7. painting and drawing can aid in the development of a support
Eva Dreikurs Ferguson examines Adlerian psychology and the classroom for young children.
need for well-being.

Visit the following websites for additional information on support- “Safeguarding Our Schools,”—an article by Amy Eckman that
ive classroom approaches to classroom management. appeared in the September 1998 issue of Education Update and
contained information from As Tough as Necessary
L. ALBERT familyeducation.com/article/0,1120,3-6436,00.html
Cooperative Discipline website
cdiscipline.tripod.com/ R. DREIKURS
R. CURWIN AND A. MENDLER Alfred Adler Institute

www.adlercentre.ca/aai.html
Discipline Associates and the Teacher Learning Center
Biography of Dreikurs from New World Encyclopedia
www.disciplineassociates.com
www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Rudolf_Dreikurs
Discipline With Dignity (3rd ed.) by Curwin and Mendler—
Overview and sample chapters Dreikurs and Nelsen
shop.ascd.org/ProductDetail/tabid/55/ProductId/2141/ aqueductpress.blogspot.com/2010/07/horde-of-rebellious-
Subsystem/ECD/ProductCode/108036E4/Default.aspx kids.html
Discipline With Dignity—A brief article by Curwin and Mendler North American Society of Adlerian Psychology
life.familyeducation.com/discipline/parenting/36342.html www.alfredadler.org
Discipline With Dignity Stresses Positive Motivation
www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin534.shtml
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F. GATHERCOAL J. NELSEN, L. LOTT, AND S. GLENN

Biography of Gathercoal Positive Discipline homepage
www.dock.net/gathercoal/bioforrest.html www.positivediscipline.com
Judicious Discipline—an article by Forrest Gathercoal Positive Discipline Association
www.behavioralinstitute.org/FreeDownloads/TIPS/ positivediscipline.org
judicious%20discipline.pdf
Judicious Discipline homepage
www.dock.net/gathercoal/judicious_discipline.html
131
132
Community Approaches
to Classroom
Management
133
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading and reflecting on Chapter 9, you 4. discuss the Child Development Project; its emphasis
should be able to on a caring community, cooperative learning, and
1. discuss what is meant by a community approach to developmental discipline; and its important findings for
classroom management; classroom management;
2. explain Kohn’s ideas on classroom management, 5. evaluate the “community approaches” to classroom
moving beyond discipline, and eliminating rewards management; and
and competition; 6. consider all of the “community approaches” to
3. describe Freiberg’s Consistency Management and classroom management and identify concepts to
Cooperative Discipline; identify its key concepts, goals, include in your own personal philosophy.
and themes; and explain its practical applications;
Digital Vision/Thinkstock
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Community Approaches
to Classroom
Management
VIGNETTE: Selecting a Management Approach
“What do you mean we need stronger rules and structured consequences here at Grover High?” That question
came from teacher Jackie Dela Ossa during a beginning of the year inservice at Grover Cleveland High School
(GCHS). GCHS was an inner-city school that had had an increase in discipline problems over the past two
years. To start the school year, KaVan Wilson, superintendent for the district, had arranged this inservice to
“get some ideas on how to handle the behavior problems before they develop.” The first speaker, Dr. Ricki
Eperson, had advocated a stricter behavioral approach to management. Now, during the Q&A period following
the presentation, Ms. Wilson found that not all of the GCHS teachers favored the speaker’s suggestions.
The comments and questions from the teachers came faster: “Yeah, why can’t the students become in-
volved in helping establish the rules? It’s their school, too!” asked another teacher. This was followed by: “This
school would become a prison and we’d be reduced to guard duty” and “I’m trying to develop a sense of com-
munity with my students, and all your suggestions would do is destroy it!” Then another teacher commented,
“I think rules are exactly what this group of hooligans needs!”
Before things could get completely out of control, Ms. Wilson stepped up to the podium. “OK, I think
there are some other viewpoints out there that we need to consider. I want to thank Dr. Eperson for her com-
ments. Remember, we have other speakers today, so let’s hear what they have to say before reaching any conclu-
sions. Now, let’s take a break before our next presentation.”
Waiting in the audience, Dr. Cheryl Tomasino took a deep breath. She would make the next presenta-
tion and was going to talk about community building. But what should she say to get her audience to listen
with open minds?
OVERVIEW
As we discussed in Chapters 5 and 8, school climate has an effect on self-esteem,
peer relations and student behavior. In school, students are exposed to the “unwritten
or hidden curriculum” (Barr & Higgins-D’Alessandro, 2009, p. 753), which includes the
traditions, values, and beliefs of the school culture. This shared school character has
an impact on the feelings, perceptions, and behavior of both the students and
teachers and the development of a sense of community. As KaVan Wilson found in
the opening vignette, some teachers place a great emphasis on building a community
with their students in the classroom.
In traditional management models based on behavioral theory, teachers thought
about the school and classroom community only to keep the community under
control so that students could learn from teacher-structured activities (Watson &
Battistich, 2006). This focus began to change with the work of Piaget and Vygotsky
135
Community Approaches to Classroom Management
and their work on social relationships (Dalton & Watson, 1997; Weinstein, 1999).
Researchers examined the “social and academic effects of students’ sense of
community” (Watson & Battistich, 2006, p. 255), the shift in control from the teacher
to the community, and the emphasis placed not on extrinsic rewards and
consequences but on “explanation, support, guidance, indication & persuasion”
(p. 275) to increase internal motivation and self-control.
Alfie Kohn (1996a) encouraged teachers to abandon the ideas of adults
controlling student behavior and instead to create a “caring community” (p. 118) with
an “engaging curriculum” (p. 118). Although not everyone agreed with Kohn, a
number of theorists began to examine the role of community as a foundation of
classroom management. While some models discussed in Chapter 8 such as
Cooperative Discipline (Albert 1989, 1995), Discipline With Dignity (Mendler, 1992),
and Judicious Discipline (F. Gathercoal, 2001) stressed the support of the community
in classroom management, these models were, for the most part, still adult centered
and controlled. However, other approaches explored ways to “build relational
communities, trusting that in a supportive environment, students will want to learn
and behave ethically” (Watson & Battistich, 2006, p. 256).
Watson and Battistich (2006) identified six classroom management programs that
focus on the community. These include Just Community (Power, Higgins, & Kohlberg,
1989), Moral/Constructivist Community (DeVries & Zan, 1994), Community of Learners
(Rogoff, Turkanis, & Bartlett, 2001), Democratic Community (Wolk, 1998, 2000),
Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline (Freiberg, 1999), and the Child
Development Project (Battistich, Watson, Solomon, Lewis, & Schaps, 1999). In this
chapter we will discuss both CMCD and the CDP in more detail along with the work
of Alfie Kohn.
There are several themes that are common to all of the community approaches to
classroom management (Watson & Battistich, 2006).
• Educators take a positive developmental view of students and work with them
instead of trying to control them.
• Students exist in a social context that should support them as they mature.
• Communities are relational with an “atmosphere of mutual caring and respect”
(p. 260). Students have developmentally appropriate levels of autonomy and
freedom, and a voice in decision making.
• The curriculum is integrated and student centered and should “appeal to students’
intrinsic learning motivation” (p. 261).
• Bribes, threats, rewards, and punishments are deemed coercive, should be
restricted or eliminated, and should be replaced with explanation and persuasion.
• A common set of activities builds and sustains the community. These include
activities to help students and educators to know and understand each other,
to teach students to resolve conflicts and to work together respectfully, to
involve students in establishing class rules, to provide opportunities for students
to work together, and to use literature to foster empathy and to create shared
experiences.
INDIVIDUAL MODELS FOR COMMUNITY APPROACHES

In this chapter, you will read about the following community approaches to classroom manage-
ment: Beyond Discipline developed by Kohn; Consistency Management and Cooperative Dis-
cipline (CMDC) by Freiberg; and the Child Development Project (CDP) by the Developmental
Studies Center. These management models shift the emphasis for management to the students
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to create a caring community that is built on trust and mutual respect. In many respects these
community approaches are more philosophies than actual models because they often emphasize
a philosophical approach that educators should take rather than providing a list of management
strategies.
KEY TERMS
Table 9–1 identifies the key terms related to community approaches to classroom management.
TABLE 9–1 Key Terms Related to Community Approaches to Classroom Management
Jerome Freiberg—
Alfie Kohn— Consistency Management and Developmental Studies Center—
Beyond Discipline Cooperative Discipline (CMCD) Child Development Project
• Autonomy • 1-minute student managers • Caring school community
• Communities • Citizens • Cooperative learning
• Competence • Consistency • Cross-age buddy program
• Deep modeling • Constitution • Developmental discipline
• New Disciplines • Tourists • Homeside activities
• Relatedness • Literature-based reading and
language arts
ALFIE KOHN: BEYOND DISCIPLINE

Alfie Kohn challenges some commonly accepted beliefs about students and discipline and
encourages educators to move beyond traditional concepts of classroom management. Although
behavior modification approaches may force students to behave in a particular way, they do not
promote “a dedication to, or an understanding of, that behavior” (Kohn, 2004a, p. 185). He sees
disciplinary techniques such as rewards, bribes, threats, coercion, and punishment as instruments
for controlling people. Instead, he maintains that educators need to move beyond rules to a point
where they ask what children need, how those needs can be met (Kohn, 1996a), and how educa-
tors can help students to decide for themselves how best to behave. His ideas of “deep model-
ing” (Kohn, 2004a, p. 186) encourage teachers to help children to see what is behind or beneath
ethical decisions.
Overview of Kohn’s Ideas

Kohn does not provide a well-defined model of classroom management. Rather, he focuses on four
areas: a criticism of the New Disciplines, ideas about the nature of students, suggested alternatives to
punishments and rewards, and ideas on community.
To Kohn, even the New Disciplines such as Canter and Canter’s Assertive Discipline,
Driekurs’s Democratic Teaching, Curwin’s and Mendler’s Discipline With Dignity, and Koun-
in’s Instructional Management are driven by a negative set of beliefs in which it is difficult to
distinguish the so-called logical consequences from the old-fashioned punishments. He main-
tains that the New Disciplines “suggest a subtler, somewhat nicer way by which we can continue
to do things to (emphasis Kohn’s) children—as distinct from working with (emphasis Kohn’s)
them in a democratic environment to promote their social and moral development” (Kohn,
1996a, p. 38). “Traditional classroom management techniques, with their narrow emphasis on
observable behaviors, make it very difficult to attend to the person who engages in those behav-
iors” (Kohn, 2005, p. 22).
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Examining the nature of students, Kohn (1996a) maintains that people usually consider only
the dark side of students’ human nature. However, these cynical feelings about competitive, lazy,
and aggressive students are not real. Rather than being selfish and self-centered, students are decent,
able to feel the pain of others, and prepared to relieve that pain. Drawing on the work of Deci and
Ryan (1990), Kohn (1996a) believes that educators must provide for three universal human needs:
autonomy, relatedness, and competence. Students who are autonomous have self-determination
or the ability to make decisions rather than being the victim of things outside of their control. When
they are related, students have a connection to others and a sense of affirmation and belonging.
Finally, students want to be competent, to learn new things, to acquire skills, and to put them to use.
Worried that teachers often place a value on students because of academic success or test scores,
Kohn (2005) also found that students “require unconditional acceptance to flourish” (p. 21).
Kohn believes that “schools will not become inviting, productive places for learning until we
have dispensed with bribes and threats altogether” (Kohn, 1996a, p. 36). Making students suffer in
order to alter their future behavior might result in temporary compliance, but this approach proba-
bly will not help students to become ethical and compassionate decision makers. Rather than pro-
moting reason, punishment damages relationships between teachers and students and tends to
generate anger, defiance, and a desire for revenge. While a teacher may view a punishment or conse-
quence as justified or logical, the student may have a different opinion. In that case, the consequence
cannot have the intended result of changing the behavior (Kohn, 2008).
Many teachers who see the harmful effects of punishing students turn to using rewards. How-
ever, Kohn claims that “manipulating student behavior with either punishment or rewards is not
only unnecessary but counterproductive” (Kohn, 1993, p. 783). Rewards (e.g., As, awards, stars,
stickers, praise, privileges) and their use elicit only temporary compliance in many cases (Kohn,
1994). Not only are extrinsic rewards ineffective at producing lasting change in attitudes or behav-
iors (Kohn, 1993), they fail to help children become caring, responsible people or lifelong, self-
directed learners (Kohn, 1994).
Kohn links his focus on learning and the classroom environment to an emphasis on positive
behaviors and believes in learner-centered classrooms in which the climate or environment is “often
guided by a certain set of values, a vision of what school ought (emphasis Kohn’s) to be like” (Kohn,
1996b, p. 54). In these rooms, teachers work collaboratively with students, encourage students to
make decisions, and use student interests and questions to drive much of the curriculum. Promoting
deep understanding, teachers should build on students’ natural curiosity and desire to become com-
petent and should help students become proficient learners (Kohn, 1997, September 3). To produce
not only good students but good people, teachers need to focus on promoting positive behaviors
rather than on curbing negative ones as a way to eliminate troublesome or even violent conduct
(Kohn, 1997, September 3).
Kohn (1996a; 1997, September 3; 2008), a leading critic of competition in schools, argues
that it is inherently destructive for students to compete for grades or for good behavior rewards. In
fact, competition means someone has to lose or fail in order that others can win. Thus, teachers
should not expect students to compete with each other to see which ones or which groups demon-
strate the best behavior; neither should discipline become a competition or contest between the
teacher and the students.
Instead of competition, Kohn emphasizes communities, but he also recognizes the difficulty
in defining the term.
In saying that a classroom or school is a “community,” then, I mean that it is a place in

which students feel cared about and are encouraged to care about each other. They experi-
ence a sense of being valued and respected; the children matter to one another and to the
teacher. They have come to think in the plural: They feel connected to one another; they are
part of an “us.” And, as a result of all this, they feel safe in their classes, not only physically
but emotionally. (Kohn, 1996a, pp. 101–102).
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Practical Application of Kohn’s Ideas

Although he does not focus on specific practices to use in a classroom, Kohn does present many
philosophical issues for educators to resolve. First, Kohn (1996a, p. 2) proposed several “profoundly
negative theories” that teachers need to face.
• “If the teacher isn’t in control of the classroom, the most likely result is chaos” (Kohn,
1996a, p. 2).
• “Children need to be told exactly what the adult expects of them, as well as what will happen
if they don’t do what they’re told” (Kohn, 1996a, p. 2).
• “You need to give positive reinforcement to a child who does something nice if you want him
to keep acting that way” (Kohn, 1996a, p. 3).
These assumptions are staples of the classroom management field. To Kohn, teachers who
agree with them believe that disaster will occur if students are not given precise instructions on how
to behave. They imply that requests and explanations never suffice, that reasonable expectations will
not be honored without threats of punishment, and that the only reason a student would ever dem-
onstrate kindness is to be rewarded with an adult’s approval. If qualities like generosity must be
propped up by verbal rewards, they must be unnatural, which suggests that students who are left on
their own are concerned only about themselves (Kohn, 1996a).
Instead, Kohn proposes a different way of looking a management:
• “The real alternative to making children suffer for their offenses (or dangling goodies in
front of them for doing what they’re told) is to work with them to solve problems” (Kohn,
2005, p. 23).
• “The idea is for the teacher to think about what these students need (emotionally speaking)
and probably haven’t received” (p. 23).
• “Accepting students for who they are, rather than for what they do, is integrally related to the
idea of teaching the whole child” (p. 24).
Students should be given the freedom and responsibility to move beyond rules to a point
where they can decide appropriate behavior for themselves. Kohn maintains that teachers who rely
on rules turn children into lawyers who scan for loopholes and narrow the discussion to technicali-
ties when a problem occurs. These teachers also become police officers—a role that is at odds with
being facilitators of learning. Finally, rules usually include a punitive consequence for breaking
them, something that Kohn does not support (Kohn, 1996a). Applying Community Models 9–1
considers this issue of rules.
APPLYING COMMUNITY MODELS 9–1

Eliminating Rules
In contrast to many other theorists mentioned in this book, and fight. What will happen if I tell them the class
Kohn is not in favor of rules or rewards for behavior. Make a does not have or need rules? What we need are strict
list of the theorists that you have studied in this book. Which and specific rules—ones we can enforce.”
favor rewards? Which favor rules? Then, read the following
scenario and respond to the questions at the end. 1. React to Mr. Naylor’s comments.
2. How do you feel about Kohn’s beliefs about rules?
Phillip Naylor was a high school student teacher. In a
3. How do you feel about his beliefs about rewards and
discussion at a weekly seminar, he said, “Kohn’s
punishments? Do you believe they would be effective
opinions on rules might make sense for early child-
in classrooms today?
hood students, but they certainly do not apply to the
high school where I teach. Listen, these students are For another perspective, try reading Brant’s (1995) book
tough with a capital T—they argue, threaten others, Punished by Rewards: A Conversation with Alfie Kohn.
139
Kohn (1995) told of times when things in his classroom did not go well. Reflecting on those times,
he now realizes that the problem was not with the students. Instead, the problem was with his curriculum,
textbooks, worksheets, and diet of disconnected facts and skills. Unfortunately, most discipline plans offer
an array of techniques with which to manipulate student behavior. Many educators find these strategies
convenient and take for granted that the fault lies solely with the student. Kohn, on the other hand,
believes that when students misbehave, a teacher should focus not only on the students, but also on what
they are being asked to do. Also, when a student is off-task, the teacher should ask “What is the task?”
instead of “How do I get this student back on task?” Threats and bribes might produce a short-term
change in behavior, but they cannot help students to develop a commitment to positive values.
According to Kohn (2010), teachers also need to look at their classrooms to see what they say. Bare
walls have an institutional feel, while lists of rules and punishments indicate that control is a primary con-
sideration. Charts with grades or ratings of students show that relative performance is important. Finally,
commercially developed inspirational posters are so generic and often unrealistic for many students that it
makes Kohn wonder if the curriculum is impersonal as well. Instead, the school should reflect the learn-
ing, the people in the school, and the things that students create to develop a sense of community.
In examining contemporary problems, Kohn (1999) recognizes the violence facing schools
today and places most of the blame on structural problems related to secondary education. He
believes that instead of taking more constructive approaches, educators try to curb violence by telling
students what to wear, subjecting them to drug tests, and announcing zero-tolerance policies. When
punishment proves ineffective, then it is wrongly assumed that the answer is more punishment.
JEROME FREIBERG: CONSISTENCY MANAGEMENT

AND COOPERATIVE DISCIPLINE
Jerome Freiberg’s Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline began as a schoolwide
effort designed to improve discipline in inner-city schools. Using terms such as classroom constitu-
tions, 1-minute managers, and tourists, Freiberg designed a program that uses five basic themes to
improve behavior, school climate, and academic achievement as well as to teach self-discipline at all
grade levels and in schools with diverse populations.
Overview of Freiberg’s Model

Consistency management was the name given to a program that translated research in classroom
management, instructional and school effectiveness, school climate, and staff development into
practical classroom and school applications (Freiberg, Prokosch, Treister, Stein, & Opuni, 1989).
Ten years later in Beyond Behaviorism: Changing the Classroom Management Paradigm (1999), Freiberg
expanded the name to Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline (CMCD). We will use
Freiberg’s latest terminology throughout this chapter. The key concepts of consistency management
and cooperative discipline are shown in Figure 9–1.
A foundation of the program is the belief that teachers must shift from a teacher-centered class-
room, in which the teacher assumes full responsibility for leadership, to a person-centered one, in
FIGURE 9–1
Key Concepts Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline contains these concepts:
of Consistency An entire school must develop a continuity of actions and expectations for staff, teachers, and
Management students and must be committed to giving students consistent messages about self-discipline.
and Cooperative Teachers should provide a sense of continuity of actions and expectations that help students
Discipline learn to become responsible for their actions and to develop self-discipline.
Teachers should strive for person-centered classrooms (emphasizing caring, guidance, and co-
operation) rather than teacher-centered classrooms.
Teachers should turn students from tourists to citizens.
Teachers support five themes: prevention, caring, cooperation, organization, and community.
140
which the teacher and students share leadership responsibility (Freiberg & Lamb, 2009). Thus, because
of the emphasis on shared responsibility among students and teachers for classroom discipline, class-
rooms become communities of ownership (Fashola & Slavin, 1998). In addition, representatives of
community and business groups come to the classroom and work with the students and the teacher to
provide a variety of learning experiences rather than having the class rely solely on the teacher.
Freiberg (1996, 1999) bases his CMCD on the belief that students should be turned from
passive into active learners in order to create classrooms where cooperation, participation, and sup-
port are the cornerstones. Using the terms tourists and citizens, Freiberg maintains that students
who behave as tourists are passive onlookers who lack feelings of genuine participation, and students
who behave as citizens are active decision makers who feel they are an integral part of the classroom.
Students need a reasonable degree of freedom in the classroom. However, Freiberg et al.
(1989) caution that a basic distinction exists between freedom and license. In a classroom with free-
dom, the climate is one of mutual respect in which students and teachers share and build responsi-
bilities. In contrast, chaos, disrespect, and a lack of focus are signs of a classroom with license.
CONSISTENCY MANAGEMENT CMCD has two basic components (Freiberg & Lamb, 2009).
First, the Consistency Management component focuses on continuity within a school as well as on
classroom and instructional organization and planning by the teacher. Emphasizing the need to pre-
vent misbehaviors rather than intervene later, Freiberg (1999) believes that “messages that are changed
every year or are inconsistent for every classroom diminish discipline and achievement” (p. 76). Thus,
CMCD involves everyone in a school who works with the students, from the administrators and class-
room teachers to the library media specialist, physical education teacher, bus driver, and custodian.
Everyone must give students the same message about responsibility and self-discipline.
Freiberg et al. (1989, p. 379) explained the importance of consistency and that the term consis-
tency should not be confused with rigidity. Consistency provides a sense of continuity of actions and
expectations for students, teachers, school staff, and even substitute teachers. Management Tip 9–1
suggests ways to provide leadership to substitute teachers.
Freiberg’s model abandons the behaviorism of Skinner in favor of an approach that empha-
sizes self-discipline, community building, and social decision making (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clark,
& Curran, 2004). Students behave appropriately, not out of fear of punishment or desire of reward,
but out of a sense of personal responsibility. In an individual classroom, whether making seating

Providing Leadership to Substitute Teachers
Substitute teachers often face a number of challenges and Schedule of special activities
often do not have the instructional success that the regular List of students who go to special programs
classroom teacher would have. A teacher can create a sub-
stitute survival kit. Although the contents will vary based on
the grade level and the subject, helpful materials include the Pre-K and Elementary
following to ensure consistency in the classroom:
Activities for breaks and rest periods
Lesson plans Specific locations for art, music, physical education,
Class roll and other special activities
Seating chart
Description of the management system
Secondary
List of class rules
Remediation materials for students who might experi-
Description of daily routines ence academic difficulties
Names of students and other teachers who can pro- Name and location of the guidance counselor and the
vide assistance appropriate administrators for discipline and/or
Map of the building instruction
141
arrangements, passing out papers, taking attendance, or providing equal opportunity for class par-
ticipation (e.g., selecting students at random), the teacher becomes the instructional leader who cre-
ates a consistent, supportive, flexible, and caring environment in which everyone (teacher and
students) participates and learns. The teacher “leads” her or his team members toward management
efforts that promote learning and psychological and physical well-being. Teachers provide strategies
to promote positive role models, help students to achieve self-discipline, and allow students to enjoy
reasonable freedom in classrooms through a person-centered leadership style rather than a strict,
teacher-centered style (Freiberg, 1999; Freiberg et al., 1989; Freiberg & Lamb, 2009).
COOPERATIVE DISCIPLINE The Cooperative Discipline component expands the leadership role
in the classroom from the teacher to the student. It gives all students the opportunity to become
leaders (Freiberg & Lamb, 2009). With multiple chances for leadership in small and large ways,
students gain the experiences necessary to become self-disciplined. As partners and stakeholders in
the classroom, students can create a classroom constitution (or compact) or accept responsibility for
tasks that teachers usually do. In addition, this student responsibility also includes knowing what to
do when the teacher is absent, how to solve disputes, how to prevent problems, and how to work
cooperatively in groups. Rather than being the sole responsibility of a single teacher, teaching and
learning become a collaborative effort that extends throughout the entire school and remains consist-
ent as a student moves through the grades.
The overall goal of the CMCD program is to create a warm and supportive, but firm and
orderly, classroom environment in an urban setting (Freiberg et al., 1989). Freiberg has a carefully
prepared staff development program that is provided to all teachers in schools that adopt the CMCD
model and that helps them work with all aspects of CMCD. When a school district adopts the
CMCD model, the first year of the program is implemented at the elementary school level, with the
second and third years implemented at the middle and high schools, respectively. This provides a
consistent framework throughout the school district.
Practical Applications of Freiberg’s Model

When teachers use Freiberg’s CMCD, they must adopt five basic themes, use a progressively ordered
sequence of disciplinary management, teach students to become 1-minute managers, and allow stu-
dents to assume more leadership in the classroom. Figure 9–2 provides an overview of Freiberg’s five
themes of CMCD.
THEME 1: CMCD teachers work to prevent classroom management problems. Freiberg (1999) believes
that 80% or more of classroom management is problem prevention rather than problem interven-
tion. To prevent or minimize future discipline problems, teachers can plan classroom rules as well as
consistent and appropriate rewards and punishments for students’ adherence or lack of adherence to
them (Freiberg et al., 1989). Then, during the first weeks of the year, they can provide students with
opportunities to begin to develop self-discipline, set standards for their own behavior, and develop
the rules more fully and add rules of their own.
• Before the school year began, Ronald Morales worked with the other teachers and staff in his school to identify
the school climate they wanted and the six general rules they would enforce throughout the school. Then he
FIGURE 9–2
Prevention: Focus on problem prevention rather than problem solving and reduce the need for intervention.
Five Themes
of Consistency Caring: Let students know that teachers care by developing a caring environment.
Management Cooperation: Move students from tourists to citizens and help them to assume ownership and responsibility
and Cooperative for self-discipline.
Discipline Organization: Share the responsibility for classroom organization to build ownership and increase valuable
teaching and learning time.
Community: Build teams, involve the community, and link the school with the home.
Source: Developed from “Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline.” www.ed.gov/pubs/ToolsforSchools/cmed.html
142
planned the physical layout of his room, the routines he would follow, and the jobs that he felt he could assign
to students. During the first weeks of school, he worked with the students to develop a class constitution that
stated the rights of everyone in the classroom, the rules they would follow, and a grievance procedure for any
complaints. Mr. Morales was pleased to see that the students took an active role in identifying the things they felt
would make the classroom a place where they could learn and feel safe.
Although a class constitution can take many forms, it usually lists the rights of the students and
the rules for learning and helps students gain a sense of ownership and pride in their class and their
school (Freiberg et al., 1989, p. 380). Teachers should guide students in the development of the consti-
tution to be sure it is a set of positive rules and objectives that have meaning for the students. For exam-
ple, in one fifth-grade Magna Carta that Freiberg (1996, p. 33) cites, the students listed the following
rights: “feel safe, complain to the grievance committee . . . , ask questions, speak freely, have friends, not
be put down, . . . get help, . . . and be treated kindly.” Rather than being a fixed document, the constitu-
tion can be reviewed and revised as conditions in the classroom change (Freiberg, 1999). Applying Com-
munity Approaches 9–2 looks at a teacher who is having difficulty developing a classroom constitution.
THEME 2 CMCD teachers provide an environment where students know teachers care for them.
Students want to know that their teachers care about them. Thus, teachers should listen to students,
reflect on what they say, trust them, and respect them while also helping students to learn proper
behavior. Teachers should also work to get students to care for each other and to understand that
words can be as harmful as actions. How much the teacher cares is more important to students than
how much the teacher knows (Freiberg, 1996).
THEME 3 CMCD teachers cooperate with students to help them develop a feeling of ownership, to
become involved, and to have opportunities for self-discipline. In a cooperative classroom, students
develop a sense of ownership and involvement, and they have more opportunities for self-discipline
(Freiberg, 1999).
Freiberg (1999) shares the story of Sergio, a student from an inner-city middle school. One
day when his teacher was absent and the substitute did not show up, Sergio wrote in his journal: “I
feel lucky today because the day has just started and we have already been trusted in something we
have never been trusted on, being alone. It is 8:15 and everything is cool. Nothing is even wrong . . .”
(p. 83). In the class, one student took attendance and sent the list to the office. Another student led
the homework review and began the scheduled classroom presentations. The students were on-task
and on schedule when the substitute arrived.
THEME 4 CMCD teachers work with students to organize the classroom to increase teaching and learn-
ing time and to help students build ownership and self-discipline. Because classroom organization is
APPLYING COMMUNITY APPROACHES 9–2

Creating a Constitution
Review Freiberg’s comments about a class constitution and that won’t work, so I drew up a constitution myself
the steps used to develop one. Then read the following sce- and presented it to the class. They weren’t enthusias-
nario and respond to the questions at the end. tic about it, but what else could I do?”
Fred Rainey thought he was a true believer and advo-
1. What choices does Mr. Rainey have?
cate of Freiberg’s CMCD, but he was having trouble
2. Is it necessary for the students to write their constitution?
getting his class to develop a constitution. “I talked a
3. How should he introduce the idea of a constitution to
little about the U.S. Constitution and how it protects
his class?
the freedoms and liberties of all citizens. Then I let the
4. How will that introduction vary by the grade level Mr.
students come up with ideas, but all they wanted was
Rainey teaches?
things like no homework, free ice cream, and the right
5. What procedures should he use?
to talk to their friends whenever they wanted to. Well,
143
a mutual responsibility of the students and the teachers, students assume classroom management
positions, become 1-minute student managers (Freiberg, 1996, p. 34), and free the teacher for
instructional activities by assuming responsibility for routine classroom tasks.
At the beginning, jobs can be identified by the teacher, but students also should be involved in
revising the list. Although teachers in the primary grades often select students for classroom manage-
ment positions, in grades 3 through 12, many teachers have students complete applications for spe-
cific jobs. These applications are reviewed, interviews sometimes are held, and students are selected
for positions based on their interests and skills. By rotating the jobs every 4 to 6 weeks, all students,
not just a select few, are able to hold management positions in the classroom. Students work for the
intrinsic reward of contributing to the organization and smooth operation of the class.
THEME 5 CMCD teachers involve parents and community members in school activities and try to link
the school with the home. When students see adults other than the school staff in the school, they
are exposed to additional positive role models who validate the importance of education (Freiberg,
1999). With the diverse makeup of today’s families and communities, teachers need to use a variety
of flexible approaches to reach out to families and community members.
Freiberg et al. (1989) suggest that CMCD teachers use a system of progressively ordered discipli-
nary management to help students. Realizing that students will not abandon disruptive behaviors auto-
matically, teachers need to prepare students to assume responsibility for self-discipline and classroom
management. This might take extra planning and work with students in the beginning, but the long-
term dividend is worth the effort. Even when the plan is in place, teachers still need to have a disciplinary
management plan that will help students to regain self-control. Thus, when a problem begins to develop,
a teacher can start with a subtle intervention, such as the use of nonverbal eye contact. If the student
continues to break a class rule, the teacher might need to use more overt interventions, such as standing
next to the disruptive student or revoking the student’s privileges. This progressive sequence of manage-
ment applies to students who disregard the class constitution as well as to those who disobey other rules.
Freiberg (1996, 1999) has many other ideas for developing a CMCD school, most of which
are covered in the extensive staff-development programs that are provided exclusively to CMCD
schools. These intensive programs begin in the spring of the year preceding the implementation of
CMCD and continue throughout the first and second years of implementation, with special sessions
for new teachers. An attempt is made to time the staff development to the needs of the students and
teachers. As Fashola and Slavin (1998) suggest, CMCD can be a standalone model or can comple-
ment other classroom management models—even models directed at improving curricula and
instruction. Management Tip 9–2 provides information from a first-year teacher who, after attend-
ing a Freiberg workshop, analyzed her teaching.

Analyzing Instruction for Management
Freiberg (2002, p. 59) believes that self-assessment is a “cru- • How did I give directions?
cial component of instructional change” and helps new • Did I make sure all students understood the directions?
teachers to develop a repertoire of instructional strategies • What strategies did I use to make sure all students
that contribute to classroom management. He suggests that were on-task and learning?
new teachers audio- or videotape a class and analyze the les- • What types of questions did I ask?
son. They should ask themselves the following: • Did I allow an adequate amount of time for students
to answer?
• How did I begin the lesson?
• How did I move throughout the classroom?
• Did I gain the students’ attention?
• Did I favor or ignore any students?
• Did I make the objectives clear to the students?
• Did I provide sufficient time for student questions?
• Did I involve all of the students in the lesson?
144
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES CENTER:

THE CHILD DEVELOPMENT PROJECT
Started in 1987 by John Bates, Kenneth Dodge, and Gregory Pettit, the Child Development Project
(CDP) is designed to study the “various family, child, peer, neighborhood, and school factors that
influence the social, behavioral, and scholastic development of children (Child Development Project,
n.d.). The program is now part of the Developmental Studies Center, a nonprofit organization in
Oakland, California (Guhn, 2009).
As a multifaceted model for elementary schools, the CDP incorporates some of the ideas dis-
cussed in previous chapters (e.g., ecological, self-regulating, process outcomes, supportive classroom
approaches) to “promote prosocial behavior, not only as a classroom management tool, creating a
positive academic learning environment, but [also] for the sake of the moral development of stu-
dents” (Sanger & Osguthorpe, 2009, p. 26). It is probably one of the most studied management and
developmental programs, with longitudinal studies following students into middle school, high
school, and beyond.
Overview of the Child Development Project Model

The CDP developed as a “social constructivist approach to cooperative learning” (Watson & Bat-
tistich, 2006, p. 263) and as an attempt to “integrate sociomoral and academic learning through
activities that appeal to students’ interests, develop their understanding, and build community”
(p. 263). Based on the philosophy that children have a need to belong, to become competent, and
to have autonomy, the CDP incorporates some of the research of Johnson and Johnson (Chapter 7
of this book) and the attachment theory of Ainsworth and Bowlby (1991). The emphasis is on
noncoercive ways to develop internal motivation, pro-social behavior, and academic engagement
(Watson, 2008).
The CDP is a whole school program that is designed to help elementary schools become com-
munities of caring that foster the students’ social, ethical, and intellectual development (Battistich,
Schaps, & Wilson, 2004). A comprehensive program, the CDP enhances the development of chil-
dren by changing the home, school and classroom environments (Battistich, Watson, Solomon,
Schaps, & Solomon, 1991). Although there are schoolwide rules and expectations, the emphasis is
still at the classroom level with both in-school and after school activities.
At present, the CDP has two component parts. The first is a literature-based reading and
language arts curriculum that incorporates high-quality multicultural children’s literature. This
program is “designed to help children see that reading can be both fun and informative, encourage
them to explore the values and behaviors of characters in a wide variety of fictional situations, and
sensitize them to the needs an perspectives of diverse others” (Schaps, Battistich, & Solomon, 2004).
In the second component, the emphasis is on community building and creating a caring school envi-
ronment. We will focus our discussion on this second component.
When a school adopts the CDP, the Developmental Studies Center provides teaching materi-
als and activity guides for school and home use, staff development workshops, and other school-
based assistance including support for teachers, administrators, and other school personnel. Three to
four years are usually required for complete implementation of the CDP, which expects both school
and community involvement and support. Applying Community Approaches 9–3 asks you to con-
sider the issue of community and parental involvement.
Practical Applications of the CDP Model

There are a number of elements in the CDP, primary of which is the creation of a caring community
which satisfies the need of students so they bond with it and internalize its values and goals (Watson
& Battistich, 2006). According to Schaps (2009), in a “high-community school” (p. 9), there are
“respectful, supportive relationships among and between students, teachers and parents” (p. 9).
Figure 9–3 shows the characteristics of such a school.
145

Voting for Privacy
The community approaches to management involve parents how to do things. With the parent volunteers and senior
and members of the general community in education. How- citizen volunteers constantly popping in and out of my
ever, not all teachers seem comfortable with it. Read the fol- room, there are no jobs left for the students to do. I don’t
lowing scenario and then respond to the questions at the end. know about this community thing, but any more com-
munity involvement and I will not get anything done.”
Ms. Romanski was a teacher in a school with an excellent
reputation and tremendous parental and community
involvement. However, even the principal admitted that 1. Think back to what you have read about the commu-
perhaps the school had too much support. Although the nity approaches. Is this what they mean by community
principal was reluctant to express his views, Ms. Roman- involvement?
ski had no problem making her beliefs clear. “Absolutely, 2. Can you have too much parental and community
we have too much involvement at this school. Parents involvement in a school?
and community members are always walking down the 3. What advice would you give Ms. Romanski and the
hall, poking their noses in our business, and telling us principal of this school?
The CDP (Schaps, 2003, 2009) identifies several ways in which to build this sense of com-
munity. One is to provide regular class meetings where students are active participants in identifying
and discussing issues and solving problems. Another is for teachers to use collaborative learning
activities to engage all students. These cooperative learning projects should promote the ethical,
intellectual, and social development of students (Muñoz & Vanderhaar, 2006). The CDP also rec-
ommends “cross-age buddy programs” (Schaps, 2009, p. 9) so that younger and older students
have opportunities to work together and learn from each other. Whole-school events such as “Fam-
ily Heritage Week”, “Family Hobbies Fair”, “Family Film Night” and “Family Heritage Museum”
link students, parents, educators, and the community.
Service learning projects take students into the community and bring the community into the
school. Finally, “homeside activities” (Schaps, 2003, p. 22) provide a cycle for learning to begin in
the classroom, continue in the home, and then return to the classroom. This allows both teachers
and students to learn about the other students in the classroom and to experience a variety of per-
spectives from other cultures. Many of these activities are conversations or interviews conducted by
the students to “connect school learning with home experiences and perspectives” (p. 23).
• A teacher in a CDP classroom said: “The year I first started doing relationship-building activities in the class-
room, I really got to know the kids. I had never gotten to know them so well and so quickly before, and they
got to know me. At the same time, things were very hectic that first month in my classroom. Instead of just
putting names on the board when kids were doing something wrong, I constantly had to be talking to people
about what they were doing. But suddenly it became obvious to me that there was no more humiliation in
my classroom, no more manipulation of the students by threats, no more punishments at the end of the day”
(Watson, 2006, p. 3).
FIGURE 9–3
Characteristics of a In a school which is a caring community:
School with a Sense 1. All students, no matter what their diverse backgrounds, are engaged.
of Community 2. Parents take an active roll in education.
3. The school emphasizes academics as well as social and civic participation.
4. There are regular opportunities for students to collaborate with others.
5. There are chances for students to have some autonomy and to have a voice in decision making (Schaps, 2009).
146

Learning Students’ Backgrounds
The CDP maintains that it is important for teachers to under- • Use of discipline in the home and culture
stand students’ cultural backgrounds to develop skills for • Cultural concepts of time and space
cross-cultural interaction. Specifically, teachers must learn • Religious beliefs and restrictions
about the following: • Food customs and preferences
• Health and hygiene
• Family background and structure
• Traditions, history, and holidays of the culture
• Educational background
• Interpersonal relationship styles
As a teacher uses activities to help students know each other and build a classroom commu-
nity, a caring school community develops. Students learn from each other and through community
service as they fulfill a need for influence, autonomy, and a sense of belonging (Solomon, Battistich,
Watson, Schaps, & Lewis, 2000). Because the students are part of a community, they also learn to
have respectful, supportive relationships with peers and adults and “standards of competence and
character by which to live and learn” (Developmental Studies Center, n.d.). Management Tip 9–3
lists some things teachers need to know and understand about students.
Although the CDP contains individual classroom, schoolwide, and family involvement com-
ponents, the CDP sees the “individual teacher as the major change agent” (Guhn, 2009, p. 345).
Thus the program includes an “intensive classroom program [with] three major elements: collabora-
tive learning, a literature-based language arts curriculum [which is now broken out into a separate
program called Making Meaning] and ‘developmental discipline,’ an approach to classroom man-
agement that emphasizes the development of students’ self-control and personal responsibility” (Bat-
tistich et al., 2004, p. 244).
In the following discussion, we will look at the two components that comprise the Caring
School Community part of the CDP. Although the literature-based component is now in a separate
program, literature is still used in the Caring School Community to promote pro-social values and
developmental discipline.
As you read above, cooperative learning is a major part of the CDP. It emphasizes working
on meaningful yet challenging tasks, and it promotes the benefits of collaboration by encouraging
students to work with others in “fair, caring and responsible ways” (Muñoz & Vanderhaar, 2006,
p. 49). Students are taught the skills to work together cooperatively, not competitively, to reach
common goals. Instead of a separate character development program, the regular school day becomes
the school’s character-building and misbehavior prevention program (Schaps, 2003).
Developmental discipline focuses on developing “caring, respectful relationships among all
members of the classroom community”(Muñoz & Vanderhaar, 2006, p. 49), and encourages prob-
lem solving to “promote student responsibility and competence” (p. 49). With developmental disci-
pline, the emphasis is on self-discipline. By using “internal academic and prosocial motivation”
(Watson, 2006, p. 2), the CDP provides a “developmental, problem solving approach to student
misbehavior, and focuses on student needs and helping students develop and uphold classroom
norms and values” (p. 2).
Thus, students are granted developmentally appropriate autonomy as they participate in the
development of class rules and use class meetings to discuss issues. Students and teachers work
together to develop solutions to discipline problems (Schaps & Solomon, 1990). Because the focus
is on intrinsic motivation, teachers avoid extrinsic rewards and punishments, which may in fact
inhibit the development of intrinsic motivation. The CDP promotes positive development for all
students rather than preventing misbehaviors among students “deemed at risk” (Battistich et al.,
2004, p. 244). Applying Community Approaches 9–4 asks you to consider what creates a caring
school environment.
147

Creating a Caring School Environment
The following are some activities that can create a caring for students to decorate showcases to show their hob-
environment in the classroom and the entire school. After bies and interests.
reading them, identify other ways in which educators can 3. Individual birthdays can be celebrated in the classroom
show they care about students. on the date they occur, and a whole-school celebration
can be held each month for all students and staff with
1. Administrators can visit classrooms to read stories, teach
birthdays during the summer. This is a common prac-
lessons, and share their own experiences. This allows
tice in elementary schools, but it rarely occurs in the
students to see them as more than disciplinarians.
secondary schools (Freiberg, 1999).
2. Each month, library media specialists can feature new
displays of student work in the library and can arrange
CRITIQUE OF COMMUNITY APPROACHES

Can the development of a sense of community among students, educators, parents, and community
members be an effective management tool and promote academic excellence? According to a number
of studies, the answer seems to be “yes.” For example, Freiberg (1999, 2000) found that CMCD led
to increased student and teacher attendance and fostered positive school and classroom climates. Its
use has also provided significant gains in student learning as measured by standardized national tests
(Slavin & Lake, 2008; Freiberg, Huzinec, & Templeton, 2009). Longitudinal studies of the CDP
show that when a sense of community is developed in elementary school, the benefits persist through
at least middle school (Schaps, 2009). Battistich et al. (2004) reported that a number of studies show
that the CDP has a positive effect on “students’ sense of the school as a community [emphasis in origi-
nal], and other school-related attitudes and motives [emphasis in original]; social attitudes, skills, and
values [emphasis in original] and involvement in problem behaviors” [emphasis in original] (p. 245)
such as substance abuse.
The community approaches to discipline have considerable potential for addressing nonviolent
(but still disturbing) as well as violent student behaviors in contemporary classrooms. For example,
Freiberg (2002, p. 58) wrote that when classes are poorly managed, “disorder and chaos steal time from
learning and exhaust the teacher.” Poor management can lead to student discipline problems. In addi-
tion, student misbehavior often discourages teachers from using the interactive instructional approaches
(e.g., cooperative learning, learning centers, projects, experiments) that foster student achievement and
active learning. The community approaches can reduce these problem behaviors as students realize they
have ownership in the school and the individual classroom and as they develop the self-discipline to
behave appropriately. These models, with their framework of schools adapting to individual needs and
their focus on caring, cooperation, and community, can be used successfully to address the needs of all
students, rather than only those with specific behavior problems (Fashola & Slavin, 1998). Applying
Community Approaches 9–5 asks you to apply these models to a student who is goofing off.
Freiberg (Freiberg, 1999, 2000; Freiberg et al., 1989) points out that community models,
especially CMCD, can prove successful with behavior problems that require disciplinary refer-
rals. The reasoning is that students who feel a sense of community and know the teacher cares for
them will not see a need for violent behaviors. In one at-risk, urban elementary school that
adopted CMCD, disciplinary referrals for its 276 students dropped from 109 in the year before
implementation to 19 the next year, with suspensions decreasing from 24 to 0 (Freiberg et al.,
1989). In two rural intermediate schools, discipline referrals decreased 40% to 60% in 3 years
(Freiberg, 1996).
We believe the community approaches have and can continue to reduce disciplinary referrals, but
we are less sure what a teacher using one of these approaches will do if a student brings a gun or knife to
148

Helping Tiwanda
Review the key concepts and themes of the community did nothing. When questioned, Tiwanda would say,
approaches to management. Then read the following “What’s the point in studying? I’ll just get to high
scenario. school, get pregnant, and get on welfare like my mom
and my sister. So why should I worry about school? I’ll
Tiwanda was not a violent student. Good-natured and
never graduate anyway.”
usually a pleasure to be around, she just did not have
a lot of interest in schoolwork. Instead, she looked for 1. Consider each of the five themes of CMCD. How
other things to do so that she could avoid working on would each of them apply to Tiwanda’s situation?
her assignments. During independent practice time, 2. What would the CDP say about Tiwanda?
she said, “No problem—I’ll do this at home tonight.” 3. Using the ideas of the community approaches, give
However, she never did. Other times she just sat and her teacher some suggestions to help Tiwanda.
school and threatens to use it. However, in all fairness, other classroom management programs discussed
in this text thus far have not offered solutions to this problem either. The community approaches have
the potential for creating a school climate that should lessen the possibility of acts of violence.
All of the community approaches to management respect diversity. All cultures, all social classes,
and both genders should appreciate caring teachers who have a positive view of children. In addition,
these models do not require punishment, threats, bribes, rules, and other forms of compliance. Undue
attention will not be given to individual students and their misbehaviors. Also, the emphasis on the
three universal human needs (autonomy, relatedness, and competence) of all individuals should help
students to succeed. To be successful with the community approaches, teachers must have a desire to
develop caring, compassionate, and ethical students, regardless of their specific differences.
For example, Freiberg’s CMCD has been evaluated primarily with inner-city schools in Hou-
ston, Texas, and is used in urban schools in Chicago, Illinois, and Norfolk, Virginia, as well as in
some rural schools. In schools with many African American and Latino students, student behavior
and academic achievement have improved (Fashola & Slavin, 1998). The program has proven its
effectiveness with boys and girls, as well as with students of various cultures and social classes.
Freiberg (2000) maintains that an emphasis on compliance rather than self-discipline leads to
dissatisfied teachers and students. Instead of bribing students with rewards and punishments, teach-
ers should provide opportunities for students to become leaders. As Freiberg (1999, p. 12) wrote: “In
the person-centered learning environment there is discipline—self-discipline” (emphasis Freiberg’s).
Objecting to rewards and punishments that shape students’ behavior, Freiberg believes that self-dis-
cipline in a person-centered classroom will eliminate the need to use behaviorist approaches.
There are, however, some disadvantages with the community approaches. Teachers must
adhere to the person-centered philosophical position and must maintain consistency. A teacher who
sends students inconsistent messages, believes in an autocratic management style, does not believe in
students’ taking a role in the governance of the classroom, or follows a strict behaviorist approach
probably will not be successful with either CMCD or the CDP. Another disadvantage is that the
CMCD and CDP models must be purchased as a complete package by an entire school because they
are not designed to be adopted by a single teacher or group of teachers in a school. The cost for the
required staff development could be prohibitive for some schools.
Developing Your Personal Philosophy identifies questions you can answer to determine your
propensity toward the community approaches to classroom management. Realistically, teachers
probably will not like these approaches if they believe teachers control discipline and consider stu-
dents to be passive learners. However, teachers who are person centered should seriously consider
some of their approaches. Although both CMCD and CDP are whole school packaged models,
individual teachers can adopt some of the philosophical stances and activities from them for use in a
specific classroom.
149

Subscribing to a Community Approach
Respond to the following questions to examine your philo- 5. Do I agree with the five themes of CMCD or the princi-
sophical and psychological beliefs and their relation to the ples of the CDP, and how would I design my classroom
community approaches to classroom management. and instruction to reflect them?
6. Do I agree that students should be assigned classroom
1. Do I agree with person-centered philosophies, and would
jobs that teachers traditionally have done? What jobs
I feel comfortable implementing them in my classroom?
would I feel comfortable assigning to my students?
2. Do I agree that my classroom and school should be a
7. Do I believe that students can and will develop self-
caring community?
discipline? Am I prepared to help them do this?
3. Do I feel comfortable using collaborative activities?
8. Do believe that parents and community members must
4. Do I agree that students should have opportunities for
be involved in education?
autonomy and influence in the classroom?
Summary
In this chapter, you have explored some community Revisit the opening vignette for this chapter and
approaches to classroom management. After examining the respond to the following questions:
ideas of Kohn’s Beyond Discipline, you read about Freiberg’s
Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline and the 1. Suppose you were Dr. Cheryl Tomasino. What major
Developmental Studies Center’s Child Development Project. points would you include in your presentation on
When these approaches to management are implemented, community approaches to classroom management?
teachers can show caring and concern for their students and 2. The community approaches to management are
can develop cooperative skills and attitudes. With the empha- schoolwide models. However, they are based on a
sis on students assuming responsibility for self-discipline and number of principles that any teacher can use. What
accepting leadership positions within the classroom, these are these principles?
approaches offer opportunities for improved student behaviors 3. If Alfie Kohn were addressing this group of teachers,
and increased academic achievement. As students move from what might he say to them?
tourist to citizen roles, they become an integral part of the 4. How effective do you think a community approach to
classroom, school, and outside community. You can find addi- management would be in a school like Grover Cleve-
tional information about these approaches by visiting the web- land High School? What if this was an elementary
sites in “Reaching Out with the Internet” at the end of this school? A middle school?
chapter or checking some of the suggested readings.
Suggested Readings
Burns, R. W. (2010). Desperate times call for drastic measures: the Child Development Project examines possible early adoles-
How far would you go to teach a lesson in respect? Catalyst for cent antecedents of adolescent and adult behaviors.
Change, 36(2), 18–25. The author examines her experiences in Shields, D. L., & Bredemeier, B. L. (2010). Competition: Was
creating a sense of belonging and community in a classroom. Kohn right? Phi Delta Kappan, 91(5), 62–67. The authors
Kohn, A. (2010). Bad signs. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 47(1), 4–9. examine Kohn’s views on the problems of competition in
Reflecting on the use of signs in school such as “No Whining” or education.
inspirational posters, Kohn examines what he sees behind the sign. Tokarz, B. (2010). Building community: Lessons learned from
Lansford, J. E., Yu, T., Erath, S. A., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., & small islands. Exchange, 195(Sept./Oct.), 74–78. After living
Dodge, K. A. (2010). Developmental precursors of number on an island, the authors draws parallels between the sustain-
of sexual partners from ages 16 to 22. Journal of Research on ing community on the island and building a community of very
Adolescence, 20(3), 651–677. This follow-up study of students in young children.
150

Visit the following websites for additional information on under- “Measuring School Climate: Let Me Count the Ways”—an article
standing community approaches to classroom management. written by Freiberg
Consistency Management and Cooperative Discipline—Tools for
CHILD DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Schools
Child Development Project cmcd.coe.uh.edu/article/measure.html
www.cdp.auburn.edu www.ed.gov/pubs/ToolsforSchools/cmcd.html
Child Development Project—Caring School Community
www.devstu.org/caring-school-community A. KOHN
Child Development Project—Programs That Work Alfie Kohn
www.promisingpractices.net/program.asp?programid=138 www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Alfie_Kohn
Alfie Kohn’s homepage
J. FREIBERG www.alfiekohn.org/index.php
Consistency Management & Cooperative Discipline Biography of Alfie Kohn
cmcd.coe.uh.edu www.alfiekohn.org/bio.htm
151
152
Whole-School
Approaches to
153
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading and reflecting on Chapter 10, you 4. discuss the Resolving Conflict Creatively
should be able to Program, including the curriculum and use of
peer mediators;
1. discuss the need for and define the term whole-school
approaches to classroom management; 5. evaluate the whole-school approaches to classroom
management; and
2. describe the Positive Behavior Support framework of
classroom management including its components, 6. consider all the whole-school approaches to
implementation, and levels of interventions; classroom management and identify concepts to
include in your own personal philosophy.
3. explain Project ACHIEVE, its Stop and Think social skills
process, and its emphasis on teaching social skills;
Anthony Magnacca/Merrill
154
Whole-School
Approaches to
VIGNETTE: Combating Vandalism

“I don’t know what’s going on in this school!” Kate Aronson, a fifth-grade teacher, was walking down the hall
with Kevin Hertzog, the assistant principal. “First it was the drawings on the walls in the bathrooms. Then it was
those gang symbols in the second floor stairway. Now someone defaced a display in the library yesterday. This
can’t be the Northwest Elementary School that I’ve taught at for six years, can it? Can I really feel safe here?”
“Things have changed,” Kevin said with a sigh. “You know we expected some problems with the com-
pletion of the new wing on the school and the redistricting. It’s brought a whole new group of students into
the school—kids who have never been together before. They’ve come from schools where the expectations were
different.”
“But it isn’t just the students,” Kate replied. “I don’t think some of the new teachers have the same
ideas about discipline that we’ve had here at Northwest. I’ve heard everything in the lounge from a get-tough,
zero-tolerance approach to a ‘kids will be kids’ hands-off attitude. But I’ve also heard some expressions of fear
of violence.”
“Yeah, you’re probably right, Kate. We need to do something soon before this petty vandalism does
turn into violence and someone gets hurt. But this is a new problem here at Northwest and I’m not sure Mrs.
Donehoo knows where to begin. She’s a great principal, but she’s never had to face these kinds of problems.
“Well, Kevin, let’s go to her with our concerns and some suggestions!”
OVERVIEW
Many models and theories of classroom management were designed to be used by
individual teachers in their own classrooms. Sometimes, however, the discipline
problems extend outside a single classroom. As Kate Aronson and Kevin Hertzog saw
in the opening vignette, vandalism, bullying, violence, and general misbehaviors
undermine the feelings of safety throughout the school.
In the previous chapters, you have read about a variety of models and theories for
classroom management including behavioral, ecological, self-regulating, process-
outcomes, supportive classrooms, and community approaches to classroom
management. Some of these models and theories focus on character education, the
development of social skills and social learning, a reduction in off-task behaviors, and
the strengthening of instruction. Although some models (e.g., Consistency
Management and Cooperative Discipline, the Responsive Classroom®) were
developed to be used throughout a school, in examining them, we used the
perspective of an individual classroom teacher. In this chapter, we change our focus
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Whole-School Approaches to Classroom Management
APPLYING WHOLE-SCHOOL APPROACHES 10–1

Developing a Sense of Belonging
The following are a few examples of ways in which to help 3. Use bulletin boards in the classroom, library, other
students have a sense of belonging at school. After you read school locations, or even the walls of the halls to dis-
them, identify additional ways in which you could help stu- play the work of all students rather than just a
dents to develop this feeling. selected few.
4. Encourage students to work in groups (e.g., peer tutor-
1. Allow students to participate in developing class rules
ing groups, cooperative learning groups) so that all stu-
and determining acceptable behavior in the classroom.
dents get to know their classmates.
2. Have the students identify a name for their class or team.
to look at the use of whole-school management models and provide information on a

few of them.
In looking for the causes of aggressive and sometimes violent behavior,
researchers have found that both parents and communities contribute to the
problem because of their failure to help students develop appropriate social skills
and by failing to model these skills. Thus, it falls to the schools to help students
develop the skills they need to avoid misbehaviors and function in a social
environment. Unfortunately, many school discipline policies and practices (e.g.,
ambiguous rules, zero-tolerance policies, suspensions and expulsions that may
target specific cultural groups) only contribute to the problem and do nothing to
change the misbehaviors. In addition, once patterns of misbehavior are
established, it becomes more difficult to change or redirect the behavior (Lewis &
Sugai, 1999).
Therefore, in response to increased concerns about violence in schools and
the need for safe schools, schools have begun to look at more than dealing with
discipline problems once they occur. With a focus on preventing problems, more
schools are “decreasing problem behaviors by teaching appropriate behavior”
(Horner & Sugai, 2000, p. 231). Rather than targeting students with the potential
for misbehaviors, schools are instead using whole-school approaches and
establishing schoolwide management programs. These programs are a direct
contrast to the “traditional ‘get-tough’ approach to managing problem behavior”
(Sugai & Horner, 2006, p. 246), which tends to increase rather than stop
misbehaviors.
Why use a whole-school approach? Luiselli, Putnam, Handler, and Feinberg
(2005) found that “large-scale, multicomponent, skill-building, and preventative
interventions” (p. 85) result in “positive social and character development” (p. 85) for
students, an improved school climate, and a reduction in antisocial behavior. This
helps students to develop a sense of pride in their school and a sense of belonging.
Applying Whole-School Approaches 10–1 asks you to consider the importance of a
sense of belonging for students.
A whole-school plan is usually designed for a particular school by a consultant and the educators in
the school. The planners examine existing management models to identify one that fits the needs of
the school and will improve instruction, identify behavioral expectations, increase engagement in
classroom activities, reinforce appropriate behaviors, and provide for the evaluation of the success of
the program.
In the following sections you will read about whole-school approaches to classroom manage-
ment that are supported by research by educational professionals and written about in peer-reviewed
156
journals in education, psychology, and the social sciences. We also looked for models that were rep-
licated in a variety of schools in different states, are currently in use, or both.
Unfortunately, this meant that either the Seattle Social Development Project (Skills, Oppor-
tunities and Recognition—SOAR) or the Peaceable Schools and Communities (PSC) model could
not be included. Cited for its long-term success (Hawkins, Kosterman, Catalano, Hill, & Abbott,
2008; Huang, White, Kosterman, Catalano, & Hawkins, 2001), SOAR used a public health model
to prevent at-risk behaviors. It was implemented in Seattle elementary schools for 6 years beginning
in the 1980s. Researchers have followed students in the program throughout their school years and
into adulthood (Elias & Schwab, 2006).
PSC was developed by educators at the Center for Peaceable Schools and Communities and
the Peaceable Schools Institute at Lesley University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Focusing on con-
flict resolution and the development of the skills students need to work together and to understand
the roots of peace and justice, the program was used in schools in Louisiana, New York, and Califor-
nia (Brion-Meisels, Brion-Meisels, & Hoffman, 2007; Townley, 1999). Unfortunately, limited
financial resources forced the closing of first the center and then the institute in 2010 (Hoffman,
Brion-Meisels, & Brion-Meisels, 2011).
There is one other schoolwide program, restitution, that does not meet the criteria men-
tioned above but has “potential as [an]effective school-wide approach to classroom management”
(Evans & Lester, 2010). Restitution was developed by Diane Gossen from Glasser’s Reality Ther-
apy and Canadian aboriginal practices such as doing what is morally right. Because it requires
self-evaluation, the program helps students to examine their behavior to determine whether it is
helping them to achieve or hindering them from achieving personal success (Gossen, 1998). Key
phrases that teachers use in the program are: “I’m not so interested in what went wrong as in how
we can make it right” (p. 186), and “I’m not interested in blame, shame, fault, apologies or
excuses, only in fixing” (p. 187). Gossen (2006) reports significant reductions in misbehaviors in
schools using this mode.
INDIVIDUAL MODELS FOR WHOLE-SCHOOL APPROACHES

In this chapter, we look at the following whole-school approaches to classroom management: the
Positive Behavior Support framework, Project ACHIEVE, and the Resolving Conflict Creatively
Program. Rather than provide detailed information about establishing the model in individual
schools, we have done two things. First, we have provided information in “Reaching Out with the
Internet” at the end of this chapter to help you locate additional information on each model. Then,
in the discussion of the model, we have tried to identify information that you can use in developing
your own philosophy and model of classroom management.
KEY TERMS
Table 10–1 identifies key terms related to whole-school approaches to classroom management.
TABLE 10–1 Key Terms of Whole-School Approaches to Classroom Management
Educators for Social

Positive Behavior Knoff—Project Responsibility—Resolving
Support ACHIEVE Conflict Creatively Program
• Primary or universal level of • Social skills • Core skills
interventions • Stop and Think • Peace in the Family
• Secondary level • Peer mediation
• Tertiary or individual level
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POSITIVE BEHAVIOR SUPPORT

Emerging from the behavioral, biobehavioral, physical and environmental, and social roots of human
behavior, Positive Behavior Support (PBS) is “the application of positive behavioral interventions
and systems to achieve socially important behavior change” (Sugai et al., 2000, p. 131). Rather than
being a management model, PBS is a systems approach to help schools to plan, implement, and
evaluate appropriate behavior support and disciplinary practices in order to efficiently and effectively
provide behavior support for everyone in the school from the students to the teachers and the staff
(Lewis & Sugai, 1999). Based on the premise that “intensive individualized emotional and behavio-
ral support interventions work better as part of a comprehensive continuum of behavior support”
(Sugai & Horner, 2008, p. 68), PBS attempts to prevent and change the patterns of misbehaviors
while improving the quality of life in schools through a three-tiered continuum of interventions.
Overview of Positive Behavior Support

PBS is a philosophical stance that refers to the use of systems and positive interventions to “achieve
socially important behavior change” (Sugai et al., 2000, p. 133). Originally developed to deal with
students who had severe disabilities and problems of violence and aggression, PBS has expanded to
include the management of all students within a school. Preventative and proactive, PBS is based
upon the principles of applied behavior analysis and is designed to use “collaborative, data-based
decision-making” (Safran, 2006, p. 3) to create a schoolwide intervention plan.
Although there are several names for PBS (e.g., Effective Behavior Supports or EBS; Positive
Behavioral Interventions and Supports or PBIS; School-Wide Positive Behavior Support or SWPBS), we
will refer to it as PBS. In all variations, PBS includes parent training, social skills training, proactive man-
agement policies, individual behavioral interventions, and academic restructuring to make the curriculum
more appropriate for the students (Lewis & Sugai, 1999). Educators teach behavioral expectations in the
same way they teach any subject in the curriculum with the goal of “establishing both the overall social
culture and intensive behavior supports needed to achieve academic and social success for all students”
(Horner et al., 2009, p. 133). Figure 10–1 outlines the components of a PBS approach to management.
In PBS, the central idea is for educations and other stakeholders to create and sustain a school
environment that “improves lifestyle results (personal health, social, family, work, recreation, etc.) for
all children and youth by making problem behavior less effective, efficient and relevant and making
desired behavior more functional” (Sugai et al., 2000, p. 135). In the PBS approach, interventions
should be culturally appropriate and “consider the unique and individualized learning histories (social,
FIGURE 10–1
Components of a • Identify three to five schoolwide behavior expectations.
PBS Approach to • Teach social skills and behaviors expectations.
Management • Provide reinforcement for appropriate behavior.
• Correct misbehaviors by using a consistent set of consequences.
• Collect and analyze data on behavior.
• Involve all stakeholders.
• Replace reactive discipline with proactive management and prevention.
• Use administrative support and resources on both the school and district level to facilitate the
implementation of PBS.
Source: Developed from Blonigen, B. A., Harbaugh, W. T., Singell, L. D., Horner, R. H., Irvin, L. K., & Smolkowski, K. S.
(2008). Application of economic analysis to School-Wide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS) programs. Journal of Positive
Behavior Interventions, 10(1), 5–19; Horner, R. H., Todd, A. W., Lewis-Palmer, T., Irvin, L. K., Sugai, G., & Boland, J. B.
(2004). The school-wide evaluation tool (SET): A research instrument for assessing school-wide positive behavior support.
Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6(1), 3–12; and Luiselli, J. K., Putnam, R. G., Handler, M. W., & Feinberg, A.
B. (2005). Whole-school Positive Behavior Support: Effects on student discipline problems and academic performance.
Educational Psychology, 25(2-3), 183–198.
158
community, historical, familial, racial, gender, etc.) of all individuals . . . who participate in the PBS
process” (p. 134). When educators identify appropriate behavior, teach students how to demonstrate
that behavior, and provide consistent consequences for misbehaviors, most common misbehaviors in
schools will be eliminated and the academics of the school will be strengthened. As one teacher told us
• I didn’t think I’d like this whole-school management idea. There was lots of planning and then, too, I had
to modify what I did in my classroom. But, now that we’ve done this for two years, I really see a difference
in the students. I don’t have to spend time quieting them down when they come back from another
teacher. We’re all on the same page with discipline, and that counts!
Practical Applications of PSB

Rather than a list of classroom management strategies, PBS is a framework that educators can use to
identify problems, establish methods to solve those problems and improve outcomes, assist in the
implementation of those methods, and evaluate the success of the plan. Consisting of three levels or
phases, PBS provides for a continuum of processes to deal with varying degrees of behavior problems
from the universal strategies or rules and procedures through more intense secondary and tertiary
phases of interventions for continuing or more severe misbehaviors.
Because PBS is a structure for schoolwide management, schools must select specific management
practices, such as those found in Chapters 3 through 9 of this book, to use with PBS. To be successful,
these strategies must be evidence based, “grounded in a theoretical model that has been experimentally
validated” (Sugai & Horner, 2006, p. 248). For example, using the PBS approach, a leadership team of
teachers, administrators, staff and other education professionals collects data about the misbehaviors in
the school. If the leadership team finds that there is a need to address bullying in the school, the team
should examine classroom management strategies that specifically address bullying and decide on an
approach to solve the problem that will have the support of at least 80% of teachers and administrators
in the school. Then, the school may use staff development professionals from the district or paid out-
side consultants to provide staff training on the specific management model. Finally, everyone in the
school implements the model in the school. Members of the leadership team provide ongoing training,
support, coaching, and evaluation of the practice (Sugai & Horner, 2006).
DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING THE PLAN To implement PBS, a school must have the sup-
port of its administration and the district-level administrators who are willing to commit both time
and money to the plan. After everyone in the school is trained on the use of PBS, a team of teachers,
administrators, staff, and other professionals from the school identify three to five positive behaviors that
at least 80% of the adults in the school can agree to and support. While individual teachers may describe
what these behaviors look like in the classroom, the leadership team identifies what these behaviors look
like in the nonclassroom parts of the school such as the playground, halls, and cafeteria and how these
behavioral expectations will be taught to the students (e.g., in classroom, at an assembly, through a
morning show broadcast to all classrooms). Applying Whole-School Approaches 10–2 looks at some of
these plans. Finally, the team develops an office discipline referral form that helps everyone in the school
be consistent in dealing with misbehaviors (Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports, 2011).

Teaching Appropriate Behavior
On the Internet, the website Positive Behavioral Interven- plans that are appropriate for the grade level(s) you plan to
tions & Supports has a number of sample lesson plans for teach, and evaluate them. How effective do you think the
teaching appropriate behavior to students. Visit www. lesson plans would be in helping students learn appropri-
pbis.org/training/student.aspx, select two or three lesson ate behavior?
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THREE LEVELS OF INTERVENTIONS PBS has three levels of interventions for misbehaviors. Each
is more specific and moves from the general school population to the group level and finally to
the individual. The universal or primary level of interaction consists of the schoolwide discipline
and management practices that are developed by the leadership team and supported by the entire
school. These practices consist of teaching strategies and interventions that are designed to help all
students to develop pro-social skills and appropriate behavior. Their purpose is to prevent and deal
with behavior problems while maintaining positive student–teacher relationships and instructional
quality. Because this is a schoolwide plan, there are schoolwide rules that are consistently followed
by everyone in the school. Educators assess the entire process and monitor the success of the plan
across the school.
On the primary or universal level, there is an emphasis on “defining, teaching, monitoring,
and rewarding a small set of behavioral expectations for all students across non-classroom and
classroom settings” (Horner et al., 2009, p. 134). There is also a “clearly defined and consistently
implemented continuum of consequences and supports for problem behaviors” (p. 134). One key
to the success of PBS is that the educators consistently collect data about misbehaviors and the
social behavior of the students and use that data to make decisions about management. As one
principal said:
• I know I resisted at first, but PBS forced us to collect information about student behavior. Now, when I
want more money for teacher workshops, I can point to our data to show that our program works and
should be supported. I got enough extra money from the superintendent to send four team leaders to a
national institute for training!
For students who do not respond on the universal level, educators move to the secondary level
and repeat the process—What are the problems? What are the strategies that can be used to prevent
or deal with the problems? The secondary level contains group interventions that address the needs
of groups of students who are at risk of social failure, academic failure, or both. These students may
have high risk factors for misbehavior such as low achievement, poor self-esteem, or limited family
support and may require additional help to be successful (Lewis & Sugai, 1999). Sometimes all that
is needed is additional support for these students. Management Tip 10–1 provides a suggestion for
helping students who are easily distracted.
Finally, the leadership team develops a system of support for students who, because they
do not respond on the secondary or group level, move to the tertiary level. The tertiary or indi-
vidual interventions are designed to help specific students with emotional and behavioral chal-
lenges as well as to assist the children’s families (Lewis & Sugai, 1999; Sugai & Horner, 2006).
At this level, school psychologists, counselors, and special education teachers join with other
educators to develop a behavior intervention plan that has individualized interventions to elimi-
nate misbehaviors.
At each of the three PBS levels, there are specific intervention strategies that educators
can use, especially at the secondary and tertiary levels. For example wraparound from the men-
tal health field (Scott & Eber, 2003), Behavior Education Plan (Crone, Horner, & Hawken,
2004) with its component Check-In, Check-Out (Fairbanks, Simonsen, & Sugai, 2008), and
First Steps to Success (Walker et al., 1997) are specific programs that have been suggested for
use with PBS.

Helping Distracted Students
Some students are easily distracted, especially by noise in the these students to use old headphones to keep ambient noise
classroom while they are working independently. Allow to a minimum.
160

Catching Students in the Act
Some schools use “Caught in the Act” (CIA) slips to reward grade level, reason for the reward, and the location. The stu-
students for appropriate behavior such as following rules and dent then places the slip in a special container in the adminis-
procedures, cooperating appropriately with others, using con- trative office or school library. A drawing is held weekly and
flict resolution strategies, demonstrating appropriate behavior monthly with prizes such as key chains, pens, books, T-shirts,
over a period of time. The slip includes the student’s name, special privileges at school, or gift cards (Luiselli et al., 2005).
REWARDS FOR POSITIVE BEHAVIOR Educators reward students who demonstrate appropriate
behavior. Some schools use schoolwide assemblies to recognize the students who “do the right thing”
(Lohrmann-O’Rourke et al., 2000). Still other schools give students who exhibit proper behavior a
token that can be redeemed at a special school store. Management Tip 10–2 has an additional sug-
gestion for reinforcing social skills.
PBS IN THE INDIVIDUAL CLASSROOM Although PBS is designed to be implemented on a

schoolwide basis, its strategies can be used in an individual classroom to decrease problem behav-
iors, to support a positive classroom climate, and to increase academic success for all students. First,
the discipline code or code of conduct should be agreed to by everyone, including students and
teachers. The code should be written in positive terms that outline acceptable behaviors and should
be taught to the students. Students earn rewards when they adhere to the rules and demonstrate
appropriate behavior.
Applying Whole-School Approaches 10–3 looks at rules and accompanying behaviors.
PBS focuses on the positive, but this does not mean it ignores misbehaviors. There are conse-
quences for students who misbehave. The goal of these consequences is to help students change their
behavior. For groups of students who are having problems with their behavior, the teacher makes a
special effort to teach the skills and positive behaviors related to the problem. If there are still stu-
dents who misbehave, the teacher addresses these on an individual basis.

Identifying Behavior Expectations
On the following chart, list positive rules (a few are given for dents are following the rules. You do not have to complete
your consideration) and some behaviors that show that stu- each column for each rule.
Rule In Class Behavior In Small Group Behavior Individual Behavior During Instruction
Be responsible Do not bother your neighbor Contribute to the group Do your own work Listen to the teacher
Be productive
Be honest
Be polite
Be safe
Be on time
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HOWARD KNOFF: PROJECT ACHIEVE

Created by Howard Knoff, Project ACHIEVE began as an initiative of the University of South
Florida’s School Psychology Program to provide training for guidance counselors, school psy-
chologists, and elementary instructional consultants in racially diverse elementary schools with
students from low socioeconomic areas (Knoff, 2000; Knoff & Batsche, 1995). A “cognitive-
behavioral program whose purpose is to teach children how to manage themselves and their
behavior” (Kilian, Fish, & Maniago, 2006, p. 8), it was selected by the U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services in 2001 as a model program and identified as an effective, evidence-based
social skills program by the National Association of School Psychologists (National Association of
School Psychologists, 2002).
As a school-based program, Project ACHIEVE focuses on staff development to prepare all
school employees to “address the immediate and long-term academic and behavioral needs of all
students” (Knoff, 2000, p. 19) especially those who are underachieving and at risk of failing.
Included in the program are classroom-based social skills instruction, an emphasis on student prob-
lem solving, and the development of intervention techniques for both academic and behavioral
problems (Knoff & Batsche, 1995) in elementary and middle schools.
Overview of Knoff’s Model

In Project ACHIEVE, Knoff (2000) connects students’ mental health needs and school safety in a
continuum that “begins with classroom and grade-level student discipline and behavioral (self-)man-
agement, continues with the analysis of school-based ‘special situations,’ extends to planning for
potential crisis situations, and ends with outreach to parents and the community” (p. 18). Thus,
management operates on a prevention-intervention-crisis management scale.
Project ACHIEVE began with six goals: (1) enhance the problem-solving skills of teachers, (2)
improve the classroom management skills of teachers and the classroom behavior of students through
social skills training, (3) improve school services, in regular classrooms whenever possible, to stu-
dents whose academic performance is below average, (4) support the social and academic progress of
students by involving parents in the education process, (5) collect data to validate the project, and
(6) create a school climate in which all adults in the school believe in and support every student. To
reach these goals, the project focuses on strategic planning, effective teaching, parent education, and
behavioral support and interventions (Knoff, 2000). Students learn “prosocial interpersonal, prob-
lem-solving, and conflict resolution skills” (p. 20) with the teachers developing appropriate class-
room, grade-level, and schoolwide accountability systems that consistently reinforce appropriate
behavior and provide consequences for misbehaviors. All adults in the school, including the cafeteria
staff, custodial staff, and bus drivers as well as the parents, are trained to provide consistency in the
program (Knoff & Batsche, 1995).
Practical Applications of Knoff’s Model

The integration of Project ACHIEVE into a school is spread over several years. The year before
the project actually begins, an advisory board plans the implementation. The members of the
advisory board present an overview of the requirements of the plan to the educators in the school.
Eighty percent of the faculty and staff must vote to accept the plan in order to implement it. With
that approval, a variety of teams (e.g., school climate team, grade-level leaders, pupil personnel
support team) are established, baseline data are collected, and a data management system is estab-
lished (Knoff, 2000).
Actual implementation of Project ACHIEVE with students begins in the second year. For
more information on the implementation process, refer to the websites at the end of this chapter and
to Knoff’s (2000) detailed explanation. However, we want to examine some of the components of
the program which we believe you should consider for your personal classroom management phi-
losophy and plan.
162
FIGURE 10-2
1. Stop and Think (Calm down and think). The Stop and Think
2. Are you going to make a Good Choice or a Bad Choice? (Think about possible choices). Process
3. What are your Choices or Steps? (Identify good choices).
4. Just Do it! (Act on the good choice).
5. Good Job! (Provide self-reinforcement).
Sources: Developed from Kilian et al. (2006). Making schools safe: A system-wide school intervention to increase student
prosocial behaviors and enhance school climate. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 23(1), 1–30; and Center for
the Improvement of Child Caring. (n.d.). Stop and Think. Retrieved June 1, 2011, from ciccparenting.org/NewsLetters/
StopandThink.htm#event5.
As part of Project ACHIEVE, teachers learn to use a Stop and Think social skills process
(Knoff, 2000) that helps them learn to analyze student behavior problems, identify “replacement”
(p. 21) behaviors for the misbehaviors, and teach social skills. The Stop and Think process (see
Figure 10–2) is a basic part of Project ACHIEVE. When students use this process, they decrease
impulsive behavior, examine their choices, demonstrate appropriate social skills, and provide self-
reinforcement (Kilian et al., 2006). Management Tip 10–3 has ideas for reinforcing the process.
All teachers in the school use the same basic process to teach each social skill: teach the steps of
the skill, model the steps using appropriate language, role-play the skill, provide feedback to students
on the use of the skill, and have the students use the skill in increasingly complex situations (Kilian
et al., 2006). The program, which is available commercially, has four developmentally appropriate
curricula for teaching the social skills in Pre-K and first grade, second, and third grades; fourth and
fifth grades; and middle school or grades 6 through 8. Project ACHIEVE’s core and advanced social
skills are divided into four categories as shown in Table 10–2.
At each grade level, all of the teachers on that level use the same instructional practices or
“teaching steps” (Knoff, 2000, p. 24) to teach the same skill. While designed specifically for Project
ACHIEVE, the teaching routine for each skill can be used by individual teachers. For example, each
skill is taught for two weeks in a 25- to 30-minute social skills class. In Pre-K and first grade, the
lessons will be shorter. Knoff (2000) suggests using “circle time” for younger students and a period
between the “first and second academic period of the morning” (p. 24) for older students. On the
first day of the first week, the teacher discusses the importance of the skill, explains where and when
the skill should be used, teaches the skill and how to use it, models the skill, and role-plays with
students the use of the skill. The teacher consistently uses the Stop and Think language. On the
second and third days, the teacher reviews the skill and helps students to role-play more situations
where the skill is important. Knoff (2000) suggests that each student should have at least two oppor-
tunities to demonstrate the appropriate skill either through individual, small group, large group, or
entire class role-plays.
After the first three days, the teacher begins to integrate the social skill into the academic
instruction in the next four days by providing opportunities for students to practice the skill. “For
example, to practice the Following Directions skill, the teacher could take a math lesson and tell the
students that they have to (a) do the math work required in the lesson for that day and (emphasis

Using Stop and Think
To help students learn and use the Stop and Think process, yellow “Stop and Think” stickers, Good Job! stickers, and
teachers can use a number of tangible reinforcers as well as hand-held Stop and Think signs that all adults in the school
verbal praise. Some schools use red and white or red and have available.
163
TABLE 10–2 Project ACHIEVE Social Skills
Prerequisite Skills or
Survival Skills Interpersonal Skills Problem-Solving Skills Conflict Resolution Skills
• Evaluating yourself • Waiting your turn • Asking for help • Dealing with teasing
• Following directions • Interrupting • Accepting consequences • Dealing with losing
• Listening • Sharing • Deciding what to do • Dealing with being left out
• Rewarding yourself • Asking for permission • Apologizing • Dealing with anger
• Using brave talk • Joining an activity • Setting a goal • Walking away from a fight
• Using nice talk • Contributing to discussions • Avoiding trouble • Dealing with accusations
• Answering questions • Understanding the • Dealing with peer pressure
• Waiting for an adult’s feelings of others • Dealing with fear
attention • Responding to failure • Dealing with the anger
• Beginning/ending a of others
conversation
• Giving/accepting
compliments
Sources: Developed from: Kilian et al. (2006). Making schools safe: A system-wide school intervention to increase student
prosocial behaviors and enhance school climate. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 23(1), 1–30; and Center for
the Improvement of Child Caring. (n.d.). Stop and Think. Retrieved June 1, 2011, from ciccparenting.org/NewsLetters/
StopandThink.htm#event5.
Knoff’s) (b) practice the social skill (Following Directions) . . . at least 1 to 2 times whenever appro-
priate or requested” (Knoff, 2000, p. 24). The teacher should gradually increase the application of
the rule to more challenging situations. Finally, in the last three or four days or the infusion period,
teachers “prompt and reinforce students at every reasonable opportunity (emphasis Knoff’s) for using
the targeted social skill and [the Stop and Think process] . . . during actual, real-life classroom situ-
ations” (Knoff, 2000, p. 25). Applying Whole-School Ideas 10–4 asks you to consider the use of the
Stop and Think process.
EDUCATORS FOR SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY:

RESOLVING CONFLICT CREATIVELY PROGRAM
Started in New York City in 1985 by Linda Lantieri and Tom Roderick, the Resolving Conflict
Creatively Program (RCCP) is now an initiative of the nonprofit organization Educators for Social
Responsibility. With a focus on social and emotional learning, and character education, the K–8
program is designed to create a peaceable and caring community while improving school success
APPLYING WHOLE-SCHOOL IDEAS 10–4

Assisting Arturo
Mr. Satcher could tell that Arturo was angry or emotionally dropped a beaker. Arturo became very upset. It was clear he
upset in some way. As Arturo came into class after lunch, he was about ready to explode.
slammed his books on his desk and left no doubt that he How could Mr. Satcher use the Stop and Think proc-
was furious. Later Arturo was working with his group on a ess to help Arturo?
science project, when Tumaro, a member of Arturo’s group,
164
and preventing violence (Selfridge, 2004). “The RCCP is based on a relatively simple idea that is
often hard to carry out: that people should listen to one another when there are problems and work
toward peaceable solutions” (Lantieri, 1995, p. 387). Studies of the program have found that “high
rates of instruction in the RCCP curriculum across 2 years were significantly related to positive
changes in children’s academic achievement and social and emotional development trajectories,
reducing their risk of future school failure, aggression, and violence” (Brown, Roderick, Lantieri, &
Aber, 2004, p. 161).
Overview of the Resolving Conflict Creatively Program

In response to the concerns about violence in schools, a number of violence prevention programs
have been developed. “What distinguishes the Resolving Conflict Creatively Program from
[other programs is the] emphasis on transforming the culture of participating schools and mak-
ing them nonviolent learning communities” (Lantieri & Patti, 1996, p. 29). In RCCP schools,
student talk about their problems rather than “shov[ing] them under the table” (p. 29). They
learn to “express and control their anger appropriately” (p. 29) because they have the skills they
need to resolve conflicts on their own or with the assistance of a peer mediator or an adult.
Because they take part in making the rules, the students also know what will happen if they break
a rule.
RCCP uses many of the social and emotional learning (SEL) strategies that you read about
in Chapter 5 to encourage responsibility and self-management and to provide a caring and sup-
portive school environment. Everyone in the school, from the office staff to the custodial and
cafeteria staff, models positive communication, respectful interactions, and the peaceful resolu-
tion of conflicts (Selfridge, 2004). Central to RCCP is professional development for teachers and
administrations, parent education, the involvement of the entire school, and student-led peer
mediation. The curriculum, which consists of developmentally appropriate lessons, focuses on
key skills of “active listening, empathy and perspective taking, cooperation, negotiation, the
expression of feelings in appropriate ways, and assertiveness as opposed to aggressiveness or pas-
sivity” (Lantieri & Patti, 1996, p. 30). The skills are taught to promote intercultural understand-
ing, conflict resolution, and a positive classroom climate (Aber, Pederson, Brown, Jones, &
Gershoff, 2003).
Practical Applications of the Resolving Conflict Creatively Program

Like most whole-school approaches to classroom management, implementation of RCCP begins
with a needs assessment by consultants and district leaders to identify local needs and resources.
They also provide the baseline data that will be used to evaluate the success of the program. Next is
training for teachers and staff in the goals and objectives of the program, and the ways to implement
RCCP. This is followed by on-going and advanced support for the teachers and staff once the pro-
gram actually begins, outreach programs for parents, and the training of peer mediators (Aber et al.,
2003). Teachers learn how to teach the lessons that will help students learn and practice the skills
for academic, social, and emotional success (Selfridge, 2004). “Peace in the Family” (p. 63) work-
shops involve parents in the process and take conflict resolution skills into the home. Some schools
prefer to begin RCCP with the school administrator(s) and a few teachers in a school. Then, in sub-
sequent years, more teachers are involved (Aber et al., 2003).
Part of the RCCP is the use of detailed teaching guides that provide age-appropriate activities
to help student learn SEL skills. Figure 10–3 identifies the core skills of RCCP. Some sample ele-
mentary lessons are contained on the RCCP website listed at the end of this chapter.
Another important part of RCCP is peer mediation. “Students identify potential conflict situa-
tions and offer their expertise to their schoolmates to resolve their problems peaceably and amicably”
(Selfridge, 2004, p. 60). Students who will be trained as peer mediators are selected from grades 4–8
after being nominated by other students and recommended by their teachers. Some schools also use a
formal application process in addition to the nominations and recommendations. After training, the
165
FIGURE 10–3
Core Skills of RCCP • Communicating and listening
• Dealing with anger and expressing feelings through assertiveness
• Resolving conflicts through negotiation and mediation
• Supporting collaboration
• Appreciating and celebrating diversity
• Countering bias and eliminating discrimination
Developed from Aber, J. L., Pederson, S., Brown, J. L., Jones, S. M., & Gershoff, E. T. (2003). Changing children’s
trajectories of development. New York: National Center for Children in Poverty; and Brown, J. L., Roderick, T, Lantieri, L., &
Aber, J. L. (2004). The Resolving Conflict Creatively Program: A school-based social and emotional learning program. In J.
E. Zins (ed.). Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say?
(pp. 151–169). New York: Teachers College.
students work in pairs, wear special T-shirts, and mediate conflicts during recess and lunch. They also
offer their assistance in individual classrooms. Trained to help other students to settle a conflict, the
peer mediators do not intervene in fights (Aber et al., 2003). As one teacher mentioned:
• Peer mediation really does work. Last week, Rich and Karron started to argue about whose turn it was to
lead the class back from the cafeteria. Before I could do anything, Melisha and Brian, two fifth-graders,
came over and offered to help. You know, I think Rich and Karron listened better to them than they would
have to me! Those yellow T-shirts send a visual signal to stop and listen.
CRITIQUE OF WHOLE-SCHOOL APPROACHES

The models selected for inclusion in this chapter have been the subject of a great deal of research
throughout the years. Most of these studies have pointed out the success of the whole school
approaches. In fact, some studies have followed the original participants through their school careers
and into adulthood.
Perhaps the most studied model is the PBS framework. Researchers in elementary schools in
Hawaii (Horner et al., 2009) found that students in PBS schools saw their schools as safer than stu-
dents in the control group. Luiselli et al. (2005) reported on the implementation of a PBS model at
an urban elementary school in which the “intervention included the entire student population, had
a prevention focus, emphasized academic and social competence, stressed positive reinforcement,
enlisted the full cooperation of school administrators, and evaluated outcomes through data-based
monitoring” (p. 192). The result was fewer suspensions and office referrals. Teachers reported “bet-
ter learning in classrooms” (p. 192), an observation that was reflected in standardized tests in reading
comprehension and mathematics. In another study, Lassen, Steele, and Sailor (2006) found signifi-
cant reductions in discipline referrals and suspensions as well as gains in standardized reading and
math scores in schools using PBS.
Maryland implemented the Maryland Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports model
based on the PBS approach. With state-level coordination and support, more than 33% of the
individual school divisions in the state had implemented the PBS structure when Barrett, Brad-
shaw, and Lewis-Palmer (2008) released performance data. Overall, schools using PBS reported a
reduction in suspension rates and significantly fewer discipline referrals when compared to students
on a national level.
Other studies of whole-school models have also reported success. A study of the use of
Project ACHIEVE in elementary schools (Kilian et al., 2006), found “consistent decreases in
undesirable behaviors across all grades in classroom and non-classroom settings” (p. 24 ).
Included were decreases in office referrals and suspensions, reductions in bullying behaviors,
and positive changes in attitudes and school climate. Accompanying the behavior changes were
166

Do Whole-School Approaches Contain Strategies You Can Use?
Determine whether you can use any of the strategies dis- 4. Am I willing to give up the autonomy of developing my
cussed in the whole-school approaches by answering the own classroom management plan?
following questions: 5. Am I willing to use prescribed lessons to teach social
skills to my students?
1. Do I believe that classroom management can have an
6. Do I believe in a three-level intervention continuum for
impact on vandalism, bullying, and violence?
misbehaviors?
2. Do I believe that having everyone in the school using
7. Do I believe that a process like Stop and Think will
the same approach to management will increase the
improve student behavior?
chance of success of any model?
8. Would I feel comfortable working with peer mediators?
3. Would I be willing to go through the training required
to implement a whole-school model?
improvements in academic achievement as shown on standardized test scores. Likewise, an

extensive study of RCCP by the National Center for Children in Poverty at Columbia Univer-
sity (Aber et al., 2003) found that “RCCP benefits all children regardless of race/ethnicity, gen-
der or classroom and neighborhood context” (p. 6). Finally, in a study of RCCP in elementary
schools, Garibaldi, Blanchard, and Brooks (1996) found that teachers “claimed they could
more effectively address problems that they could not identify or address prior to RCCP train-
ing” (p. 408).
The whole-school models are most effective when teachers support the program and actually
implement it in each classroom. Failures often occur when teachers believe they are coerced to par-
ticipate or when they think a program will take too much time or too many resources to implement.
Because the programs rely on consistency throughout the entire school, the success of a model relies
on its use by each teacher.
Project ACHIEVE and RCCP rely on teachers providing social skills instruction for students.
The outcomes from this instruction often depend on the quality of the classroom instruction and the
beginning skills of the students. “Implementing [a whole-school approach] may not reduce problem
behavior if students have such low skills that classroom instruction is aversive” (McIntosh, Horner,
Chard, Boland, & Good, 2006, p. 288).
In addition, the administration at both the school and the school district level must be pre-
pared to support and adequately fund the program. Each of the whole-school models requires sig-
nificant training for educators and staff before the program begins. This often means hiring
consultants and purchasing the materials that are specifically required by the program. If training is
ongoing, time must be allocated for that training once school begins. This can mean the use of
inservice days or the hiring of substitutes to release teachers for the training.
Summary
One approach to classroom management is to use a whole- In this chapter you have read about a few of these
school model. Fortunately, there are a number of evidence- whole-school models. You have read that Positive Behavior
based, well-researched models and approaches to management Support is a systems approach to management that provides
that involve everyone in the school. From the cafeteria staff a framework with a three-tiered continuum of interventions.
to the librarian, the classroom teachers, and the administra- Project ACHIEVE focuses on the Stop and Think social
tors, everyone follows the same management plan, stresses skills process and emphasizes the consistent teaching of sur-
the same rules, reinforces the same skills, and provides the vival, interpersonal, problems solving, and conflict resolu-
same rewards and consequences. tion social skills. Finally, the Resolving Conflict Creatively
167
Program uses classroom instruction, peer mediators, and a 2. How would you make the connection between the
Peace in the Family program for parents to help students vandalism that Kate and Kevin noted and more violent
learn core skills such as dealing with anger, assertiveness, behavior?
collaboration, and respect for diversity. 3. Using the information in this chapter, provide a rationale
Now revisit the opening vignette for this chapter and for a whole-school approach to classroom management.
respond to the following questions: 4. What could Kate and Kevin do to present their con-
cerns to other teachers?
1. If you were going with Kate and Kevin to Mrs. Done-
5. What would you say if individual teachers questioned
hoo, what would you say to her? What suggestions would
the use of a whole-school plan?
you make?
Suggested Readings
Bradshaw, C. P., Mitchell, M. M., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Examining Powell, N. P., Boxmeyer, C. L., Baden, R., Stromeyer, S., Minney,
the effects of schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and J. A., Mushtaq, A., & Lochman, J. E. (2011). Assessing
supports on student outcomes: Results from a randomized and treating aggression and conduct problems in schools:
controlled effectiveness trial in elementary schools. Journal of Implications from the Coping Power Program. Psychology in
Positive Behavior Interventions, 12(3), 133–148. The authors re- the Schools, 48(3), 233–242. The authors explore a contextual
search the impact of PBS in 37 elementary schools. social-cognitive model to handle aggression and other disrup-
Carter, D., Norman, R., & Tredwell, C. (2011). Program-wide tive behaviors in schools.
Positive Behavior Support in preschool: Lessons for getting Scott, T. M., Rosenberg, M., & Borgmeier, C. (2010). Decision-
started. Early Childhood Education, 38(5), 349–355. The au- making in secondary and tertiary interventions of school-
thors look at the Program-wide Positive Behavior Support wide systems of Positive Behavior Support. Education and
model to support appropriate behavior in young children. Treatment of Children, 33(4), 513–535. The researchers ex-
Forthun, L. F., & McCombie, J. W. (2011). The efficacy of crisis amine the secondary and tertiary interventions that are part
intervention training for educators: A preliminary study from of PBS.
the United States. Professional Development in Education, 37(1), Zehr, M. A. (2011). A progressive approach to discipline. Education
39–54. Crisis intervention training goes beyond traditional class- Week, 30(22), S12–S13. Sylvester Middle School in Burien,
room management strategies to train the entire staff of a school Washington, uses PBS to improve student behavior.
to de-escalate conflict while addressing the causes of the conflict.

Visit the following websites for additional information on school- Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports
wide approaches to classroom management. www.pbis.org
SCHOOL-WIDE APPROACHES School-wide Positive Behavior Support: Investing in Student
Success
Classroom Management from the National Center on Accessible ici.umn.edu/products/impact/182/over2.html
Instructional Materials
School-wide Positive Behavior Support Team Training Manual
aim.cast.org/learn/historyarchive/backgroundpapers/
classroom_management pbismanual.uoecs.org/manual.htm
University of Oregon study on Positive Behavior Support
POSITIVE BEHAVIOR SUPPORT uonews.uoregon.edu/archive/news-release/2009/7/gains-
Association for Positive Behavior Support seen-school-wide-positive-behavior-support
www.apbs.org
Biography of George Sugai
RESOLVING CONFLICTS CREATIVELY PROGRAM
www.education.uconn.edu/directory/details.
cfm?id=249 Educators for Social Responsibility
Florida’s Positive Behavior Support System Project esrnational.org
flpbs.fmhi.usf.edu
168
Linda Lantieri homepage PROJECT ACHIEVE

lindalantieri.org Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice
Resolving Conflict Creatively Program—Elementary http://cecp.air.org/resources/success/project_achieve.asp
esrnational.org/professional-services/elementary-school/ Project Achieve homepage
prevention/resolving-conflict-creatively-program-rccp
www.projectachieve.info
Resolving Conflict Creatively Program—Middle School
Project Achieve at Amphitheater Public Schools
esrnational.org/professional-services/middle-school/
prevention/resolving-conflict-creatively-rccp www.amphi.com/departments/achieve
PEACEABLE SCHOOLS RESTITUTION
Tennessee Center for Civic Learning and Engagement RealRestitution
tccle.org/peaceable.html www.realrestitution.com
169
170
in Inclusive Classrooms
171
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading and reflecting on Chapter 11, you 5. explain how effective and positive classroom
should be able to management can be accomplished in inclusive
1. define special needs and identify how these factor(s) classrooms;
affect classroom management; 6. identify and explain classroom management theorists
2. define inclusion, inclusive classrooms, and least and models with particular promise for addressing
restrictive environments; special needs; and
3. explain the often complex relationships between 7. consider whether your personal philosophical beliefs
special needs and other diversities as well as their allow for developing and implementing classroom
effects on classroom management; management plans in inclusive classrooms.
4. explain the practice of co-teaching wherein general

education teachers and special education teachers
collaborate;
Jack Hollingsworth/Photodisc/Thinkstock
172
in Inclusive Classrooms
VIGNETTE: Supporting Inclusion

A university professor, Dr. Emerson was well known internationally for her workshops in implementing class-
room management practices in inclusive classrooms. Because of her expertise in “co-teaching” or the working
together of general education teachers and special educators, she agreed to serve as a consultant for a large school
system that had a reputation for its “reluctance for change,” especially in terms of addressing the problems of
students with special needs. To present her ideas, she planned to visit one school for a week, with representative
teachers from all the schools attending meetings there each day.
Very organized and well spoken, Dr. Emerson came prepared to “give her all” about managing students
with special needs in inclusive classrooms. About the middle of the first day, she faced a major stumbling block
when she confronted such questions as “Why do we have do this?”, “Why do we have to manage disabled chil-
dren? Don’t they belong in special education classes?”, “Some of us have been here for years and don’t think the
government should dictate who we teach and manage. We were trained in subject matter and teaching meth-
ods, but we weren’t trained to work with these disabilities!”, and “Who can be an expert in how to teach learners
with so many disabilities?” One teacher even commented that she had spoken with the union representative to
determine whether “teaching disabled kids was included in the teachers’ contract.”
Dr. Emerson was somewhat “taken aback” and knew she had to change her consulting plans for at least
the first several days. She decided: (1) the teachers did not understand concepts such as “inclusion,” “inclusive
classrooms,” or “co-teaching;” (2) the teachers did not fully understand the legal requirements for teaching
learners with special needs in the least restrictive environment; and (3) the teachers did not understand class-
room management models and theories that held potential for working with all students. Before she could
address number 3 (which she had actually come to do), she would need to spend at least some time changing
attitudes, that is, numbers 1 and 2.
OVERVIEW
Managing student behavior and maintaining appropriate classroom climate is
important for all teachers in grades Pre-K through 12. All students, including
learners with special needs, can misbehave at times, and it is the responsibility of
the teacher to develop a management plan to promote appropriate behavior for
everyone in a classroom.
In response to federal legislation, more students with special needs are now
placed in classrooms with other students rather than in dedicated special
education classes. Although learners with special needs do not inherently
misbehave, their behaviors can challenge educators to make appropriate
responses that take into consideration the needs and capabilities of these learners.
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Classroom Management in Inclusive Classrooms
As Dr. Emerson found in the opening vignette, some teachers have not welcomed
students with special needs into their classrooms and have been apprehensive
about the special challenges these students might create for both instruction and
management.
It is important to emphasize that simply because a student has special needs
does not mean she or he will demonstrate behavior problems. Just like all other
students, some students with special needs misbehave and some do not. The
challenge for educators is to provide an adequate response to all students’
misbehaviors. The response might include taking deliberate action or not taking any
action at all.
This chapter provides a summary of special needs or disabling conditions,
examines some of the challenges faced by educators, and then shows how selected
classroom management models and practices contribute to positive student behavior
in inclusive classrooms. Because of the number of special needs that exist, we will
not attempt to identify each of them and the strategies to work with them. Rather, we
encourage you to use the references, suggested reading, and Internet sites to locate
additional information.
KEY TERMS
Table 11–1 identifies the key terms related to classroom management and inclusion.
TABLE 11–1 Key Terms Related to Classroom Management and Inclusion
• Behavior Support Plan • Inclusion

• Collaboration • Inclusive classrooms
• Co-teaching • Learners with special needs
• Functional behavioral assessments • Least restrictive environment (LRE)
SPECIAL NEEDS
We define a “learner with special needs” as:
A student who differs from other students in ways such as mental characteristics, sensory
ability, physical abilities, or multiple conditions and who requires specialized services from
educators in teaching and learning situations as well as classroom management.
You might question this preference for the term special needs rather than disabling conditions. We feel
that special needs has a more a positive tone or perspective than disabling conditions. “Disabling”
seems to accentuate the negative, while “special” emphasizes the positive. You do not have to agree
with this opinion. In fact, we encourage you to consider both terms and make your own individual
decisions about the term to use.
A comprehensive list of selected special needs of students in Pre-K through 12 schools
today can be found in almost any special education textbook or on websites in the Reaching
Out with the Internet section at the end of this chapter. Selected examples include attention
deficit disorder, blindness and low vision, chronic health impairments, deafness and hearing
loss, developmental disabilities, head injury, learning disabilities, mobility impairments, and
psychological disturbances. Special needs also include gifted and talented students who need
assistance making the most of their unique abilities. We encourage you to use the resources at
174
the end of this chapter and to consult additional resources for a more in-depth look at these
special needs.
Unfortunately, some learners have more than one physical, psychosocial, or cognitive need.
Further, as you will read in the next section, a complex and intricate relationship exists among these
areas of special needs. This increases the importance of your having at least a basic knowledge of
special needs, so your classroom management plan can reflect the needs of all students rather than
the class as a whole.
Too often, teachers make statements such as: “Bethany is a visually impaired girl who needs
special allowances for her handicap.” Such a statement ignores all Bethany’s strengths and special abili-
ties. Bethany might be extremely bright in many areas, and her one special need should not take prec-
edence over her talents. Also, as Dr. Emerson experienced in the opening vignette, sometimes teachers
make critical remarks such as, “I don’t know how to teach and manage students who have special
needs—I’m not a special education teacher.” These two factors (i.e., emphasizing student weaknesses
instead of strengths and claiming lack of knowledge in working with special needs children) can create
a limited learning environment.
ACHIEVEMENT, INTELLIGENCE, AND COGNITIVE PROCESSES

A learner’s achievement level can be defined as the individual’s previously acquired knowledge
that relates to what is being taught. Along with achievement, a learner’s overall intelligence, abili-
ties, or special expertise contributes to the degree to which he or she processes and reacts to infor-
mation. Students organize their perceptions and experiences of the school and physical world into
cognitive structures. Although much is still to be learned about cognition, we do know that cogni-
tive development is an active process in which learners assimilate information into cognitive cat-
egories and adapt their previous categories to accommodate new information. These functions of
assimilation and accommodation cause the change and growth in learners’ thinking that consti-
tutes cognitive development.
Students functioning at lower cognitive levels may misbehave. Faced with repeated academic
struggles, underperforming students may become frustrated and disaffected and have lower self-
confidence. All of this may contribute to a higher rate of school disruption. Low literacy achieve-
ment in the elementary grades is linked to later aggression in the third and fifth grades. Similar
patterns have been found in later grades—low achievement in the middle and high school is linked
with more serious forms of aggression a year later (Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010). On the other
hand, high-achieving students can also become discipline problems as a result of academic boredom
in the classroom.
The learner’s developmental stage is perhaps the most significant individual difference affecting
academic achievement and classroom behaviors. Learners functioning at one developmental level
simply cannot comprehend the management tasks required of the next higher developmental level.
That is why classroom management expectations and practices designed for middle or high school
learners often will not work for Pre-K or elementary students without significant modifications. A
youngster at the concrete-operations stage cannot master intellectual challenges that demand formal,
abstract thinking abilities that lead to specific classroom management behaviors. Classroom manage-
ment practices might make sense to a more advanced level of students, but they may appear totally
foreign to another less developed group of students. As thinking abilities move from one developmen-
tal stage to a more advanced stage, educators should change classroom management practices.
Rather than assume that learners can succeed by committing more effort to positive classroom
behavior, educators should understand that development and readiness, not effort alone, affect how
students behave. Although some behaviors might be learned, students will be unable to learn class-
room expectations that are beyond their cognitive ability at any given age. A significant (although not
insurmountable) task is to decide developmentally appropriate classroom management practices when
one, two, or three developmental levels exist in the same class. Developmental levels and cognitive
readiness of all students must be considered and addressed with any classroom management plan.
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INCLUSION, INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS,

AND LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Inclusive education involves educating students with special needs in age-appropriate general educa-
tion classes where they can be valued members of the class and receive the supports and services they
need to succeed. Inclusive education should promote acceptance, belonging, and tolerance among
students with and without special needs and allow all students to have access to a high-quality edu-
cational program. Today parents, students, teachers, and administrators throughout the United
States expect schools to educate as many students as possible in general education classes. This means
that teachers must use effective classroom management including teacher-directed, peer-mediated,
and self-discipline strategies to promote academic achievement (Soodak & McCarthy, 2006).
In previous chapters, you read about the importance of community building as a part of class-
room management and examined some community and whole-school approaches. Because inclusive
education is about belonging, membership, and acceptance, when learners with special needs are
included in the general education classroom, teachers need to use the classroom management poli-
cies and practices that promote diversity and community. Community-building management strate-
gies should help all students to build friendships, collaborate, and address challenging behaviors in a
positive, proactive manner that is consistent with the goals of inclusive education (Soodak, 2003).
Parents are an important part of inclusive education. Historically, the movement grew out of
a parent initiative that focused on the rights of children with special needs to participate with their
peers who do not have special needs. Parents and many educators supported the belief that separat-
ing learners on any characteristic, such as ability or race, inherently leads to inferior education for
those “tracked” (Soodak, 2003, p. 328) out of the mainstream. In addition, allowing only part-time
involvement in targeted subject areas based on student “readiness” (p. 328) to participate did not
produce the desired outcomes. Thus, quality inclusion is not merely determined by student place-
ment, but rather by creating an environment that supports and includes all learners.
Social relationships are important in inclusive classrooms. This does not mean that academics
are neglected. Instead, both are supported and encouraged. Important to students, parents, and teach-
ers, friendships provide learners with an opportunity to develop appropriate skills and attitudes,
enhance the life of learners and parents, and promote academic success. To promote friendships in
your classroom, you can use activities that involve cooperation and collaboration rather than competi-
tion; develop rituals that involve all members of the class; use children’s and young adult literature to
promote discussions about friendships and belonging; and establish classroom rules that encourage
respect, such as requiring turn-taking, listening to others, and involving all students (Soodak, 2003).
Some confusion exists concerning the similarity of inclusive classrooms and mainstreaming.
A philosophical or conceptual distinction should be made between these terms. Those who support
the idea of mainstreaming believe that a child with special needs belongs in the special education
environment and must earn his or her way into the general education classroom. In contrast, those
who support inclusion believe that the child always should begin in the general environment and be
removed only when appropriate services cannot be provided in that classroom.
SPECIAL NEEDS AND OTHER DIVERSITIES: COMPLEX RELATIONSHIPS

Rather than looking at only one special need of a learner, the most effective teachers consider the
whole child. For example, instead of considering only Ben’s loss of hearing, perceptive teachers look
at Ben’s strengths, for example, his academic abilities, gender, cultural background, social class, and
his other talents. Realistically speaking, a learner whose parents are on a higher socioeconomic level,
regardless of cultural background, might have a better chance of school success than one with less-
involved parents who work two to three jobs just to pay for rent and food. The student from the
lower socioeconomic level will in some cases need more support to be successful in school. A man-
agement plan must take that into consideration.
Some students face double or even triple jeopardy. For example, a girl might be a second lan-
guage learner, hearing impaired, and speech impaired. Being a girl or a being a minority (regardless
176
of the majority culture) might contribute to her difficulties. All these special needs can result in per-
ceptions of failure even before the actual teaching, learning, and management process begins. In
addition, multiple special needs can damage a student’s self-esteem as well as impede appropriate
identity development. The student may ask, “Why me?” and “Why am I not like everybody else?”
While such conditions or needs do not automatically lead to behavior problems, a student might
withdraw into her or his own world or show aggression. Still, perceptive educators need to be able to
address multiple special needs.
CO-TEACHING
In co-teaching, a general education teacher and a special education teacher or other specialist pro-
vide instruction to students in an inclusive classroom. Both educators are both responsible for devel-
oping a management plan, planning instruction, teaching and facilitating learning activities, and
assessing their own effectiveness as well as student progress (Friend, Cook, Hurley-Chamberlain, &
Shamberger, 2010). The method contrasts with the consultation model of providing support for
students with special needs. In the consultation model, general and special educators may work
cooperatively, but the special educator only suggests instructional design modifications. He or she
usually does not implement instruction in the inclusive classroom. Proponents of co-teaching argue
that the model allows special educators to bring their expertise to bear on the instructional design
process, while the consultation model does not. In fact, researchers (Scruggs, Mastropieri, &
McDuffie, 2007) found that when the teachers are personally compatible, both benefit from co-
teaching. Ultimately, the collaboration between educators should increase the academic achieve-
ment of all students in the inclusive classroom. In addition, co-teaching limits the “pull-out” (Soodak
& McCarthy, 2006, p. 476) time from the classroom for students with special needs and should
decrease the isolation and stigmatization of students.
• Gary Sauers, a general education teacher, and Loretta Treese, a special education teacher, successfully
co-taught a fifth-grade class. When asked what made them such an effective team, Ms. Treese replied,
“We’re a team and we leave our egos at the door. We do a lot of talking about things like what to do with
the class and what management strategies we want to use. And, we share daily tasks like taking attend-
ance or lunch money, or being in charge of the class.
Effectively co-taught classrooms, in which both teachers have the same perception of teaching
and management, have a positive classroom climate, activity-based instruction, and high expectations
for behavior and academic performance (Soodak & McCarthy, 2006). Unfortunately, co-teaching is
not always successful. Supports such as training, planning, and reflection time are necessary. In addi-
tion, the teachers need to share a “common belief system, demonstrate parity, share leadership roles
while completing tasks, and practice a cooperative process” (Conderman, Johnston-Rodriguez, &
Hartman, 2009). Management Tip 11–1 provides information on co-teaching.

Managing During Co-Teaching
As you know, when managing a traditionally taught class, 2. Discuss management philosophies and reach compro-
teachers can make their own decisions, and if necessary, mises, whenever necessary.
adjust for individual needs. However, during co-teaching, 3. Leave “egos” at the door—managing during co-
the general education teacher and special education teacher teaching should not be a contest of “who is the best
must work collaboratively. When deciding on management manager.”
with a co-teacher: 4. Plan management strategies that reflect knowledge
and positive attitudes toward individual learners both
1. Decide each teacher’s specific management roles—
with and without special needs.
rather than teachers competing, demonstrate to stu-
dents agreed-upon management goals and strategies.
177
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS

Teachers must effectively manage Pre-K through grade 12 students in any classroom, whether it is a
general education or inclusive classroom. Their practices should make learners with special needs feel
they are welcomed classroom participants who are capable of social, behavioral, and academic suc-
cess. Throughout this text, you have explored classroom management models and theories, exam-
ined misbehaviors behaviors and accompanying causes, and identified effective practices, both group
and individual. In the following section, you will look at management strategies that may have par-
ticular meaning to inclusive students.
Remember that classroom management is more than rules and procedures. It also includes
establishing a supportive learning environment for everyone in the classroom. As Soodak (2003)
indicated: “The inclusion of children with disabilities in general education classes provides an oppor-
tunity for teachers to identify classroom management policies and practices that promote diversity
and community” (p. 327).
Inclusive Classrooms—Rationale
The philosophy behind inclusive education is primarily about belonging, membership, and acceptance
(Soodak, 2003) and the creation of a welcoming community in the classroom. Any management system
that educators use in inclusive classrooms should facilitate friendships among students, teach and promote
positive and supportive behavioral strategies, respond to misbehavior in a manner to support change,
promote schoolwide use of positive behavioral supports, and eliminate exclusionary discipline polices.
For many decades, learners with special needs were taught in isolated classrooms, away physi-
cally, socially, and academically from other learners. The outdated rationale was that these students
could not keep pace with regular classroom learners and in some cases might hold other learners
back academically. In addition, their special needs were believed to lead to special management
problems that regular classroom teachers could not handle.
More contemporary thinking and the passage of the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA) established a goal to teach and manage all students to the best of their ability in the
general education classroom and to avoid any feelings of segregation because of special needs. Some-
times, inclusion is referred to as teaching in the least restrictive environment.
It is important for you, as a teacher, to remember that learners with special needs and learners
without special needs are probably more alike than different. The attitude for teaching in an inclusive
classroom requires that you replace “if” (if I should try to include students with special need in this
activity) with “how” (how can I modify this activity to include all of the students in my classroom).
Rather than single out a student with a special need, remember that some of the other students in your
classroom are also on different achievement levels and may on occasion misbehave. All students will
benefit from differentiated instruction and the use of a variety of instructional techniques that will help
students with a variety of learning styles and preferences. In inclusive classrooms, behavior interven-
tions must be equitable and support all students. Instead of excluding some students or demeaning
them, educators must be prepared to teach students new behaviors and to make changes in the class-
room (e.g., seating arrangements, schedules) that will support positive behavior (Soodak, 2003). Man-
agement Tip 11–2 provides information on promoting friendships to help all students.

Promoting Friendships
To promote friendships and create a caring community, the ideas of belonging, friendship and helping each other;
teachers can use activities that emphasize cooperation establish class rules to encourage respect for everyone, and
instead of competition; use peer-mentors; hold class meet- taking turns; and ensure that everyone has a chance to par-
ings and discussion circles; use children’s literature to discuss ticipate in activities.
178
Inclusive Classrooms—Practices
What are inclusive classrooms like? In inclusive classrooms, students are active, not passive learners.
Students with special needs learn at their own pace and have accommodations and alternative assess-
ment strategies to help them succeed. To learn from and support each other, students often work in
small groups. This means that classroom rules have to allow for the activities (e.g., talking, move-
ment) that occur in groups.
Teachers encourage students to make choices, permit students to make mistakes, and allow
them to learn from those mistakes. However, teachers also provide support so that all students are
successful. Instructional goals are attainable but challenging (Watson, 2011).
What must a management plan do in an inclusive classroom? First, the plan must provide a
safe environment where learning can take place and students feel free to make choices. Second, the
plan should help create a sense of community for all students, no matter their academic and/or
behavioral differences and abilities. Key terms are “membership, friendships, and collaboration”
(emphasis Soodak’s) (Soodak, 2003, p. 328). Finally, the plan should identify the accommodations
that must be made to ensure fair expectations for all of the students.
Teachers should not assume that students know the class rules for behavior. Emmer and
Stough (2001) found that some researchers believe that the best approach to classroom management
in an inclusive classroom is what is called an instructional approach. Here, teachers actually instruct
students in what is appropriate behavior and how to act during specific class activities and school
situations. You have read about this practice as part of some models discussed in Chapters 2 through
10 of this book.
Oliver and Reschley (2010) noted five broad categories of management strategies for inclu-
sive classrooms based on the work of Simonsen, Fairbanks, Breisch, Myers, and Sugai (2008).
These categories are shown in Figure 11–1. Researchers characterize these as primarily anteced-
ent strategies because they occur before rather than after misbehaviors. Oliver and Reschley
(2010) note the success of models such as the Good Behavior Game in the management of inclu-
sive classrooms.
As in any classroom, behavior interventions in an inclusive classroom must be identified
both for the students who are not typically disruptive as well as for students at risk for “patterned
disruptive behaviour” (Jull, 2009, p. 493) because of a clinical diagnosis. In addition, any stu-
dent who is performing low academically is at “a great risk for behavioral problems because inap-
propriate behavior typically results in escape from difficult academic tasks” (Oliver & Reschley,
2010, p. 188).
In inclusive classrooms, Soodak (2003) suggests the following when students misbehave:
• Diffuse and redirect the behavior by providing the student with choices (e.g., redo the work,
replace materials) and natural consequences.
• Do not use punishment.
• If it is necessary to remove a student from a class, do so for only a short time and allow the
student to return without humiliation, shame, or anger.
FIGURE 11–1
Classroom management strategies in inclusive classrooms should Categories of
1. provide structure and predictability; Management
2. allow teachers to post, teach, model, review, and provide feedback on behavior expectations; Strategies
3. engage students in observable ways using reinforcement strategies;

4. include a continuum of strategies to reward appropriate behavior; and
5. include a continuum of strategies to respond to misbehaviors.
Source: Developed from Oliver, R. M., & Reschly, D. J. (2010). Special education teacher preparation in classroom
management: Implications for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 35(3), 188–189.
179
APPLYING INCLUSION PRACTICES 11–1

Exploring Peer-Mediated Strategies
Select one of the peer-mediated strategies listed in this text, Websites:

then use library databases and online information to locate
www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/detail?accno=
addition information on the strategy and respond to the
ED255017
questions.
For example: eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/detail?accno=EJ481379
Reverse-Role Tutoring Questions:
Database article: Tournaki, N., & Criscitiello, E. 1. Define the peer-mediation strategy.
(2003). Using peer tutoring as a successful part 2. Explain how you could use this strategy in an inclusion
of behavior management. Teaching Exceptional classroom.
Children, 36(2), 22–29.
PEER-MEDIATED STRATEGIES To assist students with special needs, teachers frequently use
peer-mediated instructional strategies such as Reverse-Role Tutoring, Learning Together, Classwide
Peer Tutoring, Student Teams-Achievement Divisions, Teams Games Tournaments, Peer-Assisted
Learning Strategies, Cooperative Homework Teams, Numbered Heads Together, Cooperative
Learning Groups, Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition, reciprocal teaching, and lit-
erature circles. By pairing or grouping students with and without special needs, teachers can expect
benefits for everyone. “The research on peer-mediated instruction generally shows that these strate-
gies improve the achievement of students with and without disabilities in inclusive settings” (Soodak
& McCarthy, 2006, p. 469). Applying Inclusion Practices 11–1 asks you to explore one of the peer-
mediated strategies in more detail.
In order for peer mediation to work, teachers must instruct the students in the ways they are
expected to act. Peer mediators do not do the work for the other students. Instead, they learn to sup-
port and instruct other students, coach them, and provide feedback (Hall & Stegilla, 2003). The
teachers monitor the process and assist without taking over the process. Although peer mediation is
often used with academic goals, it can also be employed as a strategy to help students achieve behav-
ioral and social goals.
SOCIAL INTERACTION As noted above, membership and friendship are very important for all
students, but especially for students with special needs (Soodak, 2003). Classroom management
practices in inclusive classrooms must promote social interaction and should lead to acceptance for
all students. Although this might sound like a simple task, it sometimes requires determined efforts
on the part of students, educators, and parents to promote friendships among students.
Social interaction is more than teacher-designed peer-mediated strategies. It requires stu-
dents to learn to accept themselves and to accept others. Many learners face complex relation-
ships because of a combination of their special needs, level of self-esteem, and cultural identities
that affect their ability to make friends or interact in small groups. For example, Carasha, an
African American girl, might face a sense of double or triple jeopardy. She is a female African
American, has poor self-esteem, comes from a family in a lower socioeconomic class, and has a
special learning need. Individually and together, these might affect her ability and motivation to
make friends.
Only by understanding each individual learner can teachers determine how those students will
interact socially. However, such a task takes time. Teachers must learn the student’s personal charac-
teristics, family and home background, special interests, and myriad other factors that influence the
learner’s strengths, weaknesses, and in this case ability and motivation to demonstrate appropriate
behavior in the classroom.
180
Maintaining that classroom management is crucial, Beaty-O’Ferrall, Green, and Hanna

(2010) explained that some students experience a decline in academic achievement and self-esteem
because of teacher–student relationships in the classroom. When teachers adopt a relationship-building
approach to classroom management by focusing on developing the whole person, they can help stu-
dents to develop positive, socially acceptable behaviors. Building relationships as a means to manage
classrooms includes using gentle interventions, finding time for bonding, avoiding punishments,
and building activities that ensure the success of all students.
Parents, Family Members, and Caregivers

Teachers, both general and special education, as well as resource professionals understand the need
to involve all parents, family members, and caregivers in inclusive classrooms. Nelson and Guerra
(2009) noted that some parents, while having high expectations for their children, are not involved
in the classroom. Sometimes this leads to parents and teachers having different expectations for chil-
dren. Although parents are involved in the creation of the Individualized Education Program (IEP)
for a child with special needs, some parents believe that the IEP means that the school will assume all
responsibility for the child, including both academic and social development. Other parents see the
IEP as a partnership and collaborate with the school. Thus, teachers need to make sure that parents
and caregivers are aware of classroom management plans and how they are implemented. In addi-
tion, they can actually ask parents, family members, and caregivers what management practices
might work best for their children. Applying Inclusion Practices 11–2 looks at relationships with
parents and caregivers.
Perceptions of Special Needs

When planning and implementing classroom management strategies in inclusive classrooms,
teachers need to be sure that their policies strive to change perceptions of students with special
needs as being “deficit-driven” (i.e., the learner is responsible for his or her condition). Instead,
their policies should reflect the view that teachers can change learners’ academic performance as
well as classroom behavior. For example, instead of focusing on weaknesses and special needs,
effective teachers in inclusive classrooms build on the students’ strengths. This does not mean
that teachers can ignore special needs. Rather, it places emphasis on the learners’ strengths
and abilities.
In using Positive Behavior Support (PBS) (see Chapter 10 and the next section in this chap-
ter), teachers develop management plans for individual students. To do this, general and special
education teachers may work with other professionals. For these partnerships to be successful, all
participants must share the same philosophy of inclusion. Just as Dr. Emerson found in the opening

Working with Parents, Families, and Caregivers
Several decades ago, educators used the term parent involve- 3. How might you “educate” parents, families, and car-
ment, basically meaning to involve parents in parent teacher egivers about the management of learners with special
associations as well as helping with classroom tasks. Now, needs? Vice versa?
nearly all publications use parents, families, and caregivers. 4. A parent once told one of the authors, “I make him
behave at home; it is your job to make him behave at
1. Why do you think the term “parents” has been
school.” What would your response have been?
changed to parents, families, and caregivers?
2. While involving parents, families, and caregivers is
important for managing all learners, why might it be
more important for learners with special needs?
181
vignette, not all teachers readily accept IDEA. Some do not agree philosophically with inclusion, and
some might feel inadequate to teach and work in inclusive classrooms.
• For example, in one middle school, the Hawk team was working toward inclusion. Unfortunately, although
the team leader was enthusiastic, another teacher on the team was vehemently opposed and two were
apathetic. Fortunately, the team leader was well versed in inclusion and inclusive classroom management
techniques. By showing the other teachers that they were legally bound to inclusion and that they could
work effectively with learners with special needs, the team leader succeeded in changing the other teach-
ers’ mindsets toward inclusion. Eventually she engaged the other teachers in classroom teaching and
management techniques that promoted inclusion.
Behavior Support Plans

Behavior Support Plans (BSP) are part of the IDEA, and they are explained in detail by Horner,
Sugai, Todd, and Lewis-Palmer, (1999–2000). A BSP may be developed on the tertiary level of the
PBS model discussed in Chapter 10. “Failure to reduce disruptive behaviours can expose students to
increased risk of short- and longer-term problems, including exclusion and dropout” (Jull, 2009,
p. 497). Thus, an intervention strategy such as a BSP that includes behavioral interventions and
teaching strategies is necessary for some students.
An alternative to punishment or traditional behavior modification approaches to classroom
management, a BSP is designed to teach positive behaviors and replace an adversarial relationship
with a climate of civility. It is based on the idea that problem behaviors are context-related and that
interventions should reflect respect for and an understanding of the individual student. In addition
to using traditional strategies to reinforce positive behaviors, the BSP teaches students how and
when to use appropriate behaviors (Soodak, 2003). Students who have emotional and behavioral
difficulties benefit from the specific supports in the BSP.
By defining how the school and classroom environment will change, a BSP helps a specific
student reduce problem behaviors, improve pro-social behaviors, and become more successful within
the school. The BSP outlines what each person involved in the plan will do and how the effectiveness
of the plan will be determined. In addition to increasing management consistence, the BSP provides
professional accountability for everyone involved in the plan. Typically developed by a team of indi-
viduals (although an individual teacher can use the process) including teachers, administrators, fam-
ily members, educational specialists, and, sometimes, the student, the BSP identifies the actions to
be taken, the resources needed, and the expected outcomes of the plan.
To obtain the information that they need to develop the BSP, educators often conduct a func-
tional behavioral assessment (FBA) in which they examine the function of the student’s misbehav-
ior and the motivation for it. With that knowledge, educators can work with others to develop a BSP
that provides either interventions, or instructional or environmental accommodations to help the
student (Emmer & Stough, 2001).
• For example, Timoura may act out when the class is directed to get into a small group because she is frustrated
when working in a small group. Using a FBA to determine the reasons for Timoura’s behavior, the teacher may
provide behavioral assistance by giving clear directions for forming the groups, have another student help
Timoura get to her group, and give Timoura extra help once group work has begun (Soodak, 2003). When
Timoura no longer acts out before getting into a small group 80% of the time, the plan is considered successful.
Because classrooms are dynamic places, a BSP will not solve all problems. Teachers need to
respond to situations as they occur, as well as take the time needed to design and implement a plan
to support change. When students misbehave, particularly when the behavior disrupts learning or
threatens the well-being or safety of others, teachers may need to respond with immediacy to restore
order, preserve dignity, and provide guidance. The goal is to manage the problem behavior without
losing sight of how the behavior connects to the individuals’ history and the context.
A number of researchers have reported success with the use of a BSP (Soodak, 2003). By being
proactive and teaching expected behaviors, whether to one student, an entire class, or the whole
182
school, educators are able to decrease the rates of problem behaviors, increase perceptions of school
safety, and reduce chaos in nonclassroom settings (Sugai & Horner, 2008).
Exclusionary Policies
As you read in Chapter 2, the use of exclusionary policies (e.g., zero-tolerance policies) can create
problems when managing students in any classroom. However, the use of these policies can create
even more problems in inclusive classrooms. “Designed to send a message that aggressive behavior
will not be tolerated, many schools have adopted a tough, clear, and seemingly simple plan: evict
students who commit specific acts of aggression” (Soodak, 2003, p. 331). The opposite from the
positive approaches to classroom management that are consistent with the goals of inclusive educa-
tion, these policies punish and exclude children from school.
Soodak (2003) notes two major problems with the use of exclusionary policies in inclusive
schools. First, because they erode civility and disenfranchise those students most in need of emo-
tional connectedness (Skiba & Peterson, 2000, 2005), the policies undermine the purpose of inclu-
sive education. Second, many schools do not apply exclusionary policies equally to all students. As
you will read in Chapter 12, many minority groups are impacted unfairly by these policies because
of cultural differences. In addition, students with special needs including emotional and behavioral
needs have a great risk of expulsion. Instead of trying to find ways to include students with special
needs, the goal of some educators “may well be the removal of troublesome students from main-
stream educational environments” (Skiba & Peterson, 2000, p. 340).
There are legal safeguards included in IDEA to protect students with special needs from being
“unfairly punished for behaviors beyond their control or when the consequences of the behavior
were not understood” (Soodak, 2003, p. 331). A school must determine whether a misbehavior is
related to a student’s special needs before providing a consequence for the behavior. “In addition,
school personnel must also determine whether the student was receiving an appropriate education as
defined by his or her own individualized education plan (IEP) at the time the incident or behavior
occurred (Soodak, 2003, p. 331).
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT THEORISTS

AND MODELS FOR INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS
Educators must provide a classroom environment in which students agree to cooperate with every-
one in the classroom and to focus on academic achievement (Brown, 2004). To do so, effective
classroom managers must use many essential research-based pedagogical processes (e.g., all the mod-
els and theorists in this book) as well as have the ability to respond appropriately to the needs of
students in inclusive classrooms. As you review these theories, Management Tip 11–3 cautions you
to remember to view students as individuals.

Managing Individuals
Managing learners with special needs should be considered resource people, and the Internet (e.g., “Reaching Out
a rewarding challenge rather than an insurmountable hur- with the Internet” found in this text).
dle. Several helpful tips include: 3. Clearly explain management practices, for example,
behavior expectations and reasons.
1. Focus on the individual’s strengths rather than weak-
4. Consider specific special needs and plan for particular
ness; for example, a learner with one or more special
needs rather than expect all learners to abide by the
needs might have special talents in art or music.
same rule.
2. Learn as much as possible about the special need
through inservice experiences, university courses,
183
It is somewhat difficult to pinpoint models and theorists who have particular relevance for
inclusive classrooms because teachers differ in their commitment to promoting inclusive classrooms.
As Dr. Emerson in the opening vignette learned, some teachers have reservations about inclusive
classrooms. Other more supportive teachers will use any model or theory to help learners with spe-
cial needs and to promote the idea of inclusion. Below are a few examples of theories and models
that teachers could use in inclusive classrooms.
Although some educators might not agree with the concepts of rewards and punishments for
learner behavior, B. F. Skinner (1948, 1971) (Chapter 3) believed that most learned human behav-
ior is shaped by positive rewards. Skinner felt that when educators reward a learner for desirable
behavior, responsibility is placed upon the learner to learn proper behavior in order to receive credit
for behaving in a desired manner. Thus, students repeat behaviors that are rewarded and stop those
undesirable ones that are ignored or not rewarded. With inclusive classrooms, this of course depends
on the learner’s knowing right behavior from wrong behavior and having the ability (and motiva-
tion) to make correct decisions.
Teachers can also have a positive influence on learners with special needs by using proven
teaching techniques and behaviors. In direct contrast to Skinner, Thomas Gordon (1970, 1974,
1989) (Chapter 3) believed that rewards and punishments were ineffective. Even before the develop-
ment of inclusive classrooms, Gordon wrote that effective teachers need skills that include the ability
to identify problems and student needs and change the class environment and instructional practices
to improve student behavior. Believing in self-discipline, teachers should avoid yelling, screaming,
and punishing students. Similarly, Kounin and Gump (1958, 1974) (Chapter 5) proposed Instruc-
tional Management, another model that suggested appropriate learner behavior, depended upon
effective instructional practices. Likewise, Evertson’s and Harris’s (1992) Classroom Management
and Organization Program (Chapter 7) was based upon effective teacher behaviors. These models
proposed teachers’ behaviors and instructional practices influenced student behavior, but ultimately
learners must develop self-discipline.
A comprehensive Pre-K through grade 6 management program, the Child Development
Project (CDP) (Chapter 9) uses class meetings, pair and small group learning activities, and
open-ended literature discussions to develop students’ social, ethical, and intellectual skills. Pro-
moting positive development, CDP is based on the belief that prevention efforts are most likely
to be effective when they are employed early in a child’s development, before antisocial behavio-
ral patterns have a chance to become firmly established. When a school becomes a caring com-
munity of learners, educators provide a supportive environment for all students that fosters
collaborative relationships and builds students’ sense of community in school (Promising Prac-
tices Network, 2004). Although designed only for the elementary grades, we think this model is
appropriate for the inclusive classroom because of its goals and activities that are designed to
teach appropriate behaviors.
Applying Inclusion Practices 11–3 asks you to apply some of these ideas to an inclusion setting.
Schoolwide PBS (Lewis & Sugai, 1999) is actually a decision-making framework for improv-
ing academic and behavior outcomes. However, the tertiary interventions in PBS often use the BSP
discussed earlier in this chapter. In fact, the PBS model was originally designed for use with students
with special needs. By using evidence from research and developing a continuum of behavior and
academic interventions and supports, teachers teach social skills. They also arrange the classroom to
prevent misbehaviors and to use appropriate instructional and management strategies to help all
students (Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports, 2011).
Because PBS teaches pro-social skills and behaviors, we think it is appropriate for students
with special needs and overall inclusive classrooms. Although some special needs learners might not
have the ability to make important decisions, we believe most students with special needs can be
taught some degree of decision-making, for example, right and wrong behaviors, appropriate actions
toward others, and respect for basic school rules and procedures. In fact, Jull (2009) suggests that
self-monitoring is a universally beneficial intervention strategy, especially when a “problematic
behavioural pattern is identified” (p. 497) and when the misbehaviors are expected to stop after a
184

Using Effective Instructional Practices
Many classroom management theorists such as Kounin, worked well in groups in the past. Suddenly, you
Gump, Evertson, and Harris focus on effective teaching hear Tracey call Leon a “cripple” and a “retard.”
behaviors. In fact, teachers who are organized and demon- What should you do? How will this impact instruc-
strate effective teaching behaviors usually have fewer behav- tion and management?
ior problems. 2. Lance has recently moved to your community and
has had a FBA. Unfortunately, the teacher in whose
Part 1: Effective Instructional and Management Practices
class Lance was placed has left on a medical leave
1. Choose two or three special needs. What effect
and Lance is now being moved to your classroom.
would having students with those special needs in
What should you do before Lance’s first day in
an inclusive classroom make on instructional and
your class?
management practices?
3. Janna was also recently assigned to your class-
2. How might a teacher in an inclusive classroom
room. Although she was in the gifted and talented
with students having those special needs modify
program in the previous school she attended, she
instruction and management, with regard to class-
has not been tested for the program in your school
room arrangement, organization of materials, and
division. She is an excellent student, gets her work
teaching of behavior expectations?
done quickly and then, perhaps because she is
Part 2: Dealing with Misbehaviors bored, begins to talk to her neighbors who are still
1. Tracey and Leon are working in a small group in working. This is a violation of your class rules. What
your classroom. Leon has special needs, but has should you do?
short intervention period. Applying Inclusion Practices 11–4 asks you to identify desired behaviors
for your classroom.
We hope that you have noticed the differences in the theories discussed above. Skinner believes
in rewards and punishments; Gordon does not believe in rewards and punishments; Gordon,
Kounin, Gump, Evertson, and Harris believe effective teacher behaviors and instructional practices
(as well as other tenets) influence learner behavior. Schap’s CDP supports communities of learning,
while PBS emphasizes a decision-making framework. Many similarities and differences exist among
these models. That is one reason that all educators should consider individual models and make an
informed decision on which one (or ones) best reflects their philosophy of classroom management in
inclusive classrooms. Applying Inclusion Practices 11–5 asks you to consider the other models, theo-
ries, and ideas presented in this book and to determine whether they would be appropriate to use in
an inclusive classroom.

Identifying Pro-social Behaviors
You are the general classroom teacher in a co-teaching situ- 3. A student deliberately disregards one of your pro-social
ation. You have read about teaching pro-social skills. First, skills. What action will you take, for example, punish-
determine your grade level and the needs of your learners ment, another explanation of the skill, ignoring the
with special needs. Then, respond to these questions: situation? Be sure to consider everything you know
about exclusionary practices as well as rewards and
1. What pro-social skills are appropriate for the age group
punishments.
or developmental level?
2. What methods will you use to teach your desired pro-
social skills?
185

Evaluating Models for Inclusion
Throughout this book, you have read about models, theo- 4. Will this management model bring students with spe-
ries, and ideas for classroom management. Review several or cial needs into the classroom or exclude them?
all of the models that you think have, on the surface, the 5. Does this classroom management strategy institution-
potential to be used successfully in an inclusive classroom. alize the idea that students with special needs are
Then ask the following questions about each model: second-class citizens?
6. What would need to be done to make the model more
1. Would a student with a special need be unfairly subject
responsive to the needs of students with special needs?
to disciplinary actions with this model?
Is that feasible?
2. What are the goals of this model, and how will stu-
dents with special needs respond to them?
3. What effect will the disciplinary techniques, conse-
quences, or punishments have on preventing future
misbehaviors?

What Are Your Beliefs About Inclusive Classroom Management Practices?
As Dr. Emerson learned in the opening vignette, all teachers 5. Do I feel capable of co-teaching where I plan and
cannot align their individual mindsets with the philosophical implement instruction with another teacher, without a
beliefs required for effective inclusive classroom manage- sense of ego that limits the team’s effectiveness?
ment practices. Some teachers feel ill equipped to work with 6. Do I agree that exclusionary practices do not have any
learners with special needs, or they simply do not believe place in the inclusive classroom?
inclusive classrooms are best for learners with special needs. 7. Do I agree with positive behavioral supports and the
We suggest you answer the following questions as accompanying functional behavioral assessment?
you develop your personal philosophy of inclusive classroom 8. Do I believe a complex relationship exists among learn-
management practices: ers’ special needs and other distinguishing characteris-
tics such as gender, cultural backgrounds, and
1. Do I agree with IDEA and its amendments requiring
socioeconomic conditions that can result in a sense of
students with special needs to be provided educational
double or triple jeopardy?
experiences in “least restrictive environments?”
9. Do I believe in a collaborative approach of educators
2. Do I perceive disabilities and special needs as “deficit-
and parents, families, and caregivers for learners with
driven” phenomena (i.e., the learner is responsible for
special needs?
his or her condition)?
10. Do I believe I have the motivation and ability to teach
3. Do I view myself as capable and motivated to work
learners with special needs or do I feel like the teachers
with learners with special needs?
in Dr. Emerson’s consulting group?
4. Do my classroom management philosophy and prac-
tices reflect any negative bias toward (sometimes called
ableism) learners with special needs?
Summary
At one point in history, Pre-K through grade 12 educators and did not mingle with students in the general classrooms.
thought all learners should “behave” in the same manner Fortunately, for students and educators, this scenario has
conducive to academic achievement. Some did; some did changed in most situations.
not; and others were intimidated to behave properly. Most In this chapter, you have read about special needs,
students with special needs were sent to special classrooms inclusion, inclusive classrooms, and least restrictive environ-
186
ments and how they affect classroom management. In addi- 1. What should Dr. Emerson say when educators make
tion to exploring the complex relationships between special negative statements?
needs and other diversities, you have read about the practice 2. Do the teachers have a valid point? Why or why not?
of co-teaching and how effective and positive classroom 3. Why would the writers of IDEA insist that learners with
management can be accomplished in inclusive classrooms. special needs be taught in a least restrictive environment?
Finally, you have seen how different models reflect the prin- 4. How do the management expectations of inclusion
ciples of inclusion and have had an opportunity to examine and least restrictive environments vary with grade
your own beliefs about inclusion. levels?
Now, review the opening vignette about Dr. Emer- 5. Some secondary teachers view themselves subject mat-
son’s reluctant group of teachers. Then, review what we have ter specialists, for example, “I am a math teacher.”
written about inclusion and inclusive classrooms and respond How can we best convince all teachers that they are,
to the following questions: first, teachers and managers of learners?
Suggested Readings
Bickel, P. S. (2010). How long is a minute? Teaching Exceptional practices for students with behavior problems: Relationship
Children, 42(5), 18–22. Bickel discusses a proactive plan for to role and level of training in ADHD. Child & Youth Care
emergency crisis interventions. Forum, 40(3), 193–210. The authors identify recommended
Conderman, G. (2011). Middle school co-teaching: Effective management strategies and how frequently teachers use these
practices and student reflections. Middle School Journal, 42(4), strategies.
24–31. Although Conderman looks mainly at middle schools, Scott, T. M., Anderson, C. M., & Alter, J. (2012). Managing class-
he provides a comprehensive examination of co-teaching that room behavior using positive behavior supports. Boston: Prentice-
will help teachers of all grade levels. Hall. These authors focus solely on positive behavioral supports
Hoyle, C. G., Marshall, K. J., & Yell, M. (2011). Positive behav- and provide an example of an actual behavior plan.
ior supports: Tier 2 interventions in middle schools. Preventing Utley, C. A., Obiakor, R. E., & Bakken, J. P. (2011). Culturally
School Failure, 55(3), 164–170. These authors suggest that al- responsive practices for culturally and linguistically diverse
though school personnel attempt to implement a variety of posi- students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities—A
tive behavior supports, they continue to need assistance in iden- Contemporary Journal, 9(1), 5–18. Some students with special
tifying the best interventions. needs also have other diversities that can impact the effectiveness
Martinussen, R., Tannock, R., & Chaban, P. (2011). Teachers’ of management practices.
reported use of instructional and behavior management

Visit the following websites for additional information on special National Association for Gifted Children
aspects of classroom management. www.nagc.org
Council for Exceptional Children
National Association of Special Education Teachers—Classroom
www.cec.sped.org/am/template.cfm?section=Home Management
Data Accountability Center: Individuals with Disabilities www.naset.org/?id=783
Education Act (IDEA) Data
National Dropout Prevention Center for Students with
www.ideadata.org/default.asp Disabilities
Federation for Children with Special Needs www.ndpc-sd.org
fcsn.org/index.php National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented
How to Teach Special Needs Students www.gifted.uconn.edu/nrcgt.html
www.ehow.com/how_4597419_teach-special-needs-stu- Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services; U.S.
dents.html Department of Education
Intervention Central www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/osep/index.html
www.interventioncentral.org Special Education from About.com
Learning Disabilities Online specialed.about.com
www.ldonline.org
187
188
Developing Your Personal
Philosophy
189
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading and reflecting on Chapter 13, you 4. explain how your philosophy meets the psychological
should be able to and developmental needs of students;
1. present a rationale for developing a personal philosophy 5. discuss the need to provide an inclusive model of
of classroom management and explain the role of management; and
various models in the development of that philosophy; 6. explain the need for educators to seek collaborative
2. identify the problems you believe should be addressed assistance and advice from other stakeholders in
in a management plan; classroom management efforts.
3. explain which definition of discipline (i.e., imposed
discipline or self-discipline) best reflects your
philosophical beliefs;
Anthony Magnacca/Merrill
190
Developing Your Personal
Philosophy
VIGNETTE: Dealing with a Schoolwide Model

Ms. Sharon Faletti, a fourth-grade teacher, taught in a school that was known for its well-behaved students.
Although the usual minor management problems existed, the school had been free of violence and serious
behavior problems. Ms. Tamika Story, the principal, required all teachers to use a specific management model
and had started the year with a series of workshops on the model and its use. As Ms. Story liked to say, “If we
all adhere to the same classroom management system, children will see consistency from class to class.”
Although Ms. Faletti remembered the workshops, she was not convinced that all teachers needed to
adopt the same model rigidly. As she said, “We’re all different—our management philosophies, our strategies,
and our goals. Sure, we can make children behave with our adopted model, but with varying degrees of suc-
cess. Plus, why shouldn’t we be allowed to develop our own more personalized model that reflects our own
philosophy? We should be able to look at the various models and choose among them to determine what
works best for us.”
However, although some teachers wanted a model based on their personal philosophy—one they could
tweak when necessary—most teachers liked having a schoolwide model. Ms. Faletti assumed she had no choice
except to go along with them. As she said to herself, “Maybe I could change a few things, maybe change a few
rules and use some flexibility in individual situations. No, I guess not; everyone is supposed to do the same. I
just don’t know. Maybe the only option is to transfer to another school.”
OVERVIEW
This book has provided you with an opportunity to review a variety of classroom
management models and theories. Now you need to decide whether you want to adopt
one management model or eclectically select ideas from a combination of models to
develop a personal classroom management philosophy. Most teachers reflect on their
own beliefs about children and adolescents, their ideas about classroom management
practices, and the practices of successful teachers. They then combine these ideas
with a consideration of the specific behaviors they will need to address, the various
definitions of discipline, their students’ psychological and developmental needs, the
goals of the safe schools movement, and commonly accepted management models,
such as those examined in this text, to develop their own personal management
philosophy. As you read through this chapter, examine your own philosophical
perspectives to develop a personal philosophy of classroom management. To help, you
may wish to use the responses of educators to the situations in the opening vignette
and case study. Then, in the next chapter, the experiences of practicing teachers will
help you to translate your philosophical position into application.
191
Developing Your Personal Classroom Management Philosophy
KEY TERMS
Table 13–1 identifies the key terms related to developing your personal classroom
management philosophy.
TABLE 13–1 Key Terms Related to Developing Your Personal Classroom Management
Philosophy
• Imposed discipline
• Inclusion
• Taught discipline
RATIONALE FOR DEVELOPING A PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY

As a result of our hundreds of visits to elementary, middle, and secondary schools, we have con-
cluded that some educators have not engaged in a deliberate process to develop a personal philoso-
phy of classroom management. They try one strategy, throw it out when it is not immediately
effective, and move on to another. Some even move back and forth from one strategy to another,
alternating between the autocratic and democratic classroom management methods within the same
lesson and then wondering why classroom management is such a problem. We also have seen many
educators who have developed carefully thought-out blueprints for their management practices.
These effective classroom managers
• use classroom management practices that reflect their philosophical beliefs,
• think about their management practices and why they use them,
• take into consideration the steadily increasing student diversity in the classroom,
• provide actions to be used in the case of violent and aggressive behaviors to ensure safe schools,
• keep in mind how students, parents, administrators, and other teachers will react to their plan,
and
• make sure their management ideas are concrete and can be translated into practice.
Synthesis of Management Plan and Philosophical Beliefs

What kind of classroom manager do you want to be? Think back to Dreikurs, Grunwald’s, and Pep-
per’s (1971) discussion (Chapter 8) of autocratic and democratic teachers. Do you recall how Coloroso
(1994) (Chapter 6) labeled teachers as brickwall, jellyfish, or backbone? Dreikurs’s and Coloroso’s
types of teachers reflect particular philosophical beliefs. For example, autocratic and brickwall teachers
see themselves as adults who must control students, who lack the ability to achieve self-discipline. In
contrast, democratic and backbone teachers believe students can learn to discipline themselves. Some-
where in between are the jellyfish teachers, who appear to have neither the philosophical perspectives
nor the desire to manage students.
If you are allowed the freedom to choose your own classroom management model or eclecti-
cally choose concepts from several models, you probably will be in a good position to have a manage-
ment model that reflects your philosophical perspectives. Consider the range of models from the
Canters’ (1976, 1992) fairly rigid Assertive Discipline or Nelson’s (1996) Think Time™ to Kounin’s
(1970) emphasis on teachers’ instructional management or Gathercoal’s (2001) beliefs in judicious
discipline. Do you feel comfortable using Skinner’s behavior modification with its punishments and
rewards, or are you inspired by Kohn’s (1996) call to move beyond discipline?
If, on the other hand, you teach in a school that has adopted a specific classroom management
model, you probably will have to adjust your philosophical thinking to meet the expectations of the
model. However, even in a single-management-model school, your daily interactions with students
will demonstrate your personal philosophical perspectives. In this chapter’s opening vignette, Ms.
192
RESPONDING TO THE VIGNETTE: Helping Ms. Faletti

Consider the following questions about the opening vignette. Included are the responses of some educators to
the questions.
1. How important is it for all the teachers in a school with a schoolwide management model to use the
approved plan in their classrooms?
• Teacher consistency and “buy-in” are big factors in the success of a schoolwide model.
• A schoolwide model can be a big plus. Students don’t need to worry about what rules apply in which
classroom. Behavior in the common areas is regulated, too. If your school has a plan, go with it!
• Consistency in discipline is important with a schoolwide model.
2. Is there a way Ms. Faletti could be more eclectic and select some aspects of other theorists to use along
with the approved model?
• Usually, there is some room for personalization to meet the needs of the students in your classroom and
to align more closely with your own philosophy. I worked in a school that required teachers to “hire”
students for classroom positions. But each teacher could design the jobs that fit his or her classroom.
• I’ve worked in a school that requires a classroom constitution with rules for schoolwide use, as well
as for use in each classroom. Teachers have some flexibility to guide and develop goals in their own
classrooms to match their personal philosophies and beliefs.
3. What can teachers do if the approved schoolwide model is not in line with their philosophical beliefs and
there is no opportunity to incorporate other ideas into the approved model?
• I’ve seen some training for a schoolwide model that is highly structured and without flexibility. It
wouldn’t work for me. I’d seek a transfer to another school.
• Ask to visit schools that have this model and talk with teachers in that school. E-mail works, too.
• Some of the same rules [in a management plan] can work [for all teachers], but I do not believe that
the same plan will work. Each teacher has a different personality and philosophy, and the level of stu-
dents makes a big difference. Talk to your principal and see if you can’t work something out that will
allow you to use some of your own ideas along with the plan.
Faletti was not pleased with a schoolwide classroom management model. After rereading the vignette,
look at the questions and the reactions of some educators in Responding to the Vignette.
By now you may be asking how to go about developing your own management philoso-
phy. Surprisingly, something that sounds as lofty as a philosophy can be relatively easy to
develop, although it will take some time and thought. The first step is to determine how you feel
about students, your role as a teacher, and the ultimate goals of your classroom management
ideas. A number of items must be considered in reaching your conclusions, and Developing Your
Personal Philosophy 13–1 contains a list of several questions to help you begin the process.
The Need for a Personally Effective Plan

You need to feel effective with whatever classroom management technique you adopt. Realistically
speaking, what works for one teacher might not work for another.
Charlotta Kayama spoke softer and softer as her students grew louder. Without fail, her students also became
quieter. Ms. Kayama was a teacher who could manage her class by softening her voice. We have seen other
teachers try the same technique with the opposite results.
Elliott Purcell taught in a school that had adopted the Good Behavior Game (GBG). He liked it and had
refined the model to a fine art. Kena Sample, an excellent student teacher, was placed with Mr. Purcell, but
she did not like the GBG and never developed any degree of expertise with it.
Whenever we are in teachers’ lounges and hear one teacher say to another, “Try my classroom
management technique; it always works,” we are skeptical. It is our belief that you have to decide for
yourself what works for you and what you feel comfortable with. That is one reason we encourage an
eclectic approach to decide what works most effectively. Remember, a teacher might be able to make
193
DEVELOPING YOUR PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY 13–1

Understanding Philosophical Beliefs
To help identify your philosophical beliefs about classroom 3. Do I believe that I should make all the rules and assign
management, ask yourself the following questions. consequences, or do I believe that students should
offer their input?
Beliefs About Students 4. Do I want to “manage” or “discipline” my students?
1. Do I believe that students need to be “controlled and What do I perceive as the difference?
disciplined” or that they can be taught self-discipline? 5. Do I believe that the time spent teaching classroom
2. Do I believe that students are basically good, or are rules or developing rules with the students is time that
they naturally disruptive and therefore need to be could be better spent on instruction?
molded and conditioned to behave appropriately?
3. Do I view students as equals or as subordinates? Classroom Management
4. Do I believe that establishing a democratic classroom 1. Do I believe in rewards, punishments, structured time
and giving students responsibility means letting them for reflection, bribes, and threats, and do I think these
take over the classroom? are necessary for effective classroom management?
2. Is the ultimate goal of my classroom management plan
Teachers’ Roles to manage to control the class for another day, to
1. Do I see myself as an autocratic or a democratic make everybody follow the rules, or to teach students
teacher? A brickwall, jellyfish, or backbone teacher? self-discipline so they will discipline themselves?
An assertive teacher? 3. Do I feel more comfortable adhering to the tenets of a
2. Do I see my management role as being a leadership school-adopted classroom management program, or
process or a collaborative process with students, par- do I want to have more freedom to choose my own
ents, and other professionals? classroom management practices?
students behave but might still feel ineffective or uncomfortable because of the management strate-
gies that must be used.
The Need for a Plan That All Parties Consider Fair

Ms. Slate’s class complained that she was unfair. Their comments included “She’s mean,” “A
control freak,” “She’s got classroom pets and picks on the rest,” and “Never listens to our side of
the story.” Everyone acquainted with Ms. Slate knew she could control her class. In fact, her
principal once said, “I have no problems with Ms. Slate’s class; she always makes the students
behave.” However, the students and some of the parents complained that she had favorites and
used “heavy-handed tactics” such as sarcasm, ridicule, and autocratic demands to keep the rest
under control.
We are concerned that many people did not think Ms. Slate’s management philosophy was
based on fairness and equitable treatment for all students, but we are equally concerned about the
role model that she presented. As she demonstrated the opposite of equality, fairness, collabora-
tion, and positive human relations, her students began to adopt many of the negative behaviors
she modeled.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Models

Although some classroom management models and theories almost purport to make miraculous
changes in student behavior, it is realistic to say that all models and theories have their advantages
and disadvantages. In our examination of each model in this book, we listed advantages and disad-
vantages in the respective chapters. Now, in Developing Your Personal Philosophy 13–2, you learn
how you might question the advantages and disadvantages of a few selected models in relation to
your own philosophical perspectives.
194

Comparing Theories and Models to Your Management Philosophy
As you begin to develop the philosophical basis for your own 3. Does this model expect me to control students’ behav-
classroom management plan, consider the following general ior through rewards, punishments, bribes, and threats,
questions. Then, go back and review all the information that and do I feel comfortable doing this?
you recorded in the Developing Your Personal Philosophy 4. Would I have to ask administrators and parents to
sections in Chapters 1 through 12. intervene in efforts to maintain proper behavior if I
General Questions to Consider used these ideas?
5. Would I have to use management techniques that I do
1. Do I believe that I can manage students’ behaviors
not like?
effectively and positively with this model or these prac-
6. What impression would I give students if I used this
tices?
model in my classroom?
2. Would I feel comfortable or would I feel constant anxi-
ety or frustration using these ideas?
DEVELOPING A PERSONAL CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHY

As you begin to develop your personal classroom management philosophy there are a number of dif-
ferent questions you must consider. You must also take into consideration the factors that will
impact the success of your plan.
Considering Which Problems to Address

When you develop your personal philosophy of classroom management, you need to consider the
specific student behaviors you want to address in the plan. Do you want to respond to all behavior
problems or just ones that interrupt the teaching and learning process? Are there problems you
believe you can ignore? Table 13–2 illustrates three general categories of misbehaviors. As you
develop your own philosophy of classroom management, you need to consider which misbehaviors
your plan will address and which, if any, it will ignore.
TABLE 13–2 Levels of Misbehaviors
Levels of Misbehaviors Examples

Minor Misbehaviors While completing an in-class assignment, Eli asks Dunca for a
pencil.
During silent reading, Leah stops and stares out the window for a
long time.
In the middle of a lesson, Mason walks across the room and
throws something in the wastebasket.
Disruptive Misbehaviors Kanesha calls out the answers all the time instead of raising her hand.
Ty shoots paper wads at other students.
Anita starts aimlessly walking around the room and stopping to
talk to other students when she is supposed to be working on a
project with her group.
Aggressive Misbehaviors Trina pushes Sherena out of her chair and starts pulling Sherena’s
hair.
Cade pulls a knife out of his pocket.
Nelson calls Lakeisha “trash from the projects” and makes a crude
gesture.
195
Although minor misbehaviors can escalate into more serious problems, most teachers ignore
them whenever possible.
As one teacher explained: “I try to ignore a lot because I think it’s better to address behaviors that actually
interfere with my teaching. It’s taken me a long time to come to this conclusion, but now I seem to know what
behaviors to correct and which ones to ignore. Things like minor talking, a little walking around the room,
and occasional goofing off don’t bother me anymore. The students know the limits, but they know they have
some freedom, too.”
Rather than stopping the instructional momentum and losing students’ attention, a teacher
should try to ignore minor misbehaviors and proceed with the lesson. However, Redl and Watten-
berg (1959), discussed in Chapter 3, believe that misbehavior is often contagious. Once one student
misbehaves and the teacher fails to provide an adequate response, other students misbehave because
they assume the teacher is not going to take action. It takes talent and experience to determine which
minor misbehaviors will probably not spread and which ones will escalate into more serious prob-
lems. Thus, the most effective managers usually consider each misbehavior to determine its serious-
ness rather than trying to address all misbehaviors. Unless the teacher believes a disruptive behavior
is only temporary, it should be addressed before it interferes with teaching and learning. Finally,
aggressive behaviors should always be dealt with firmly and decisively.
As you can see, trying to address all misbehaviors might be inviting disaster, but not address-
ing any misbehaviors creates an environment in which students fail to learn and are even physically
and psychologically harmed. Case Study 13–1 looks at Mr. Vannostrand as he tries to determine
which misbehaviors he can ignore and which ones to address. The included comments from educa-
tors should help you to begin to determine specific behaviors you want to address in Developing
Your Personal Philosophy 13–3.
Discipline: Imposed or Taught?

As you develop your management philosophy, you also need to consider whether you believe disci-
pline should be imposed or taught. This is a crucial point because if you favor imposed discipline,
then you must be willing to accept total responsibility for managing students’ behavior. If, however,
you believe in taught discipline, then you must work to teach discipline and to teach students to
eventually discipline themselves. When imposing discipline, a teacher punishes students in order to
convince them to demonstrate appropriate behavior.
“I will discipline Jodette for talking without raising her hand.”
In contrast, a teacher who teaches discipline tries to help students learn or develop the self-
discipline to demonstrate appropriate behavior.
“I will teach Jodette self-discipline so that she knows to always raise her hand before speaking.”
You might remember this topic from Chapter 8, which covered Rudolf Dreikurs’s Demo-
cratic Teaching. In that chapter, we discussed how Dreikurs, Grunwald, and Pepper (1971, p. 21)
thought that “the teaching of discipline is an ongoing process, not something to resort to only in
times of stress or misbehavior.” The teacher who seeks only to impose discipline has a never-ending
challenge; the teacher who seeks to teach discipline has hope that students will learn self-discipline.
However, the answer might not be so clear cut. Teachers who want to teach discipline or teach stu-
dents to discipline themselves might have to impose discipline until students learn self-discipline. In
other words, instead of teachers facing an either-or situation, the reality is that students have varying
degrees of self-discipline, perhaps even changing daily.
Students’ Psychological and Developmental Needs

Whether you decide to adopt one of the models in this book or eclectically select the “best” from a
number of models, you need to consider how your management philosophy and practices affect your
196
Case Study 13–1

Identifying Misbehaviors That Need Attention
Mr. Stuart Vannostrand, a 10th-grade teacher, wanted to productive classes are the result of the time and
develop his own personal classroom management philoso- energy teachers devote to careful planning, mean-
phy and model. Unwilling to address every minor misbe- ingful activities, and a sense of fair play.
havior, he wanted to identify those that would warrant his • To take action sometimes and not at others for
attention as well as the nondisruptive ones that he would the same misbehavior—well, it wouldn’t work in
ignore. When he mentioned his idea to some of his col- my classroom. I treat everyone the same way.
leagues, they were skeptical and told him that it would be 2. How much time will be involved with all the deci-
unfair for him to address some problems and ignore oth- sion making, and is it worth spending this amount
ers. Most of the teachers in his school posted a fairly rigid of time?
set of rules and imposed penalties for all misbehaviors. To
• It’s important to establish an environment condu-
them, all behavior situations were clear-cut. Students
cive to learning right at the beginning. That
either broke the rule or they did not. If they broke the
means discussing and developing with students
rule, they were punished. “You have to be consistent,” one
needed classroom rules and consequences.
of his colleagues said. “You can’t do all this deliberation.
• To teach without a classroom management plan is
Spend your time teaching, and stop all this dallying
unthinkable. If you do not have a plan, your stu-
around trying to figure out what misbehaviors need to be
dents will. Take the time upfront or you will
addressed—do something about all of them. That’s the
spend more time later!
easiest thing to do.”
Unwilling to give up his idea, Mr. Vannostrand tried 3. Does Mr. Vannostrand risk having students say he is
to determine a way to differentiate between behavior prob- unfair and inconsistent?
lems to be addressed and ones to be ignored. As he jotted a • Mr. Vannostrand should explain that he expects
few words and diagrams on his notepad, he pondered: What students to follow class rules but that he alters
should I do if a student breaks a behavior rule, yet the misbe- consequences depending on the situation. He
havior does not disturb anyone else? What should I do if a should clarify his expectations, using examples,
student breaks the same rule, and others begin to break the and should show that to treat each person and
rule, too? For example, if Deon leans over to ask April a ques- situation exactly the same is not always fair. Most
tion about an assignment, should I remind him that it is quiet 10th-grade students will be able to understand
time? Then, what if Josh starts talking to Wansa about the and accept this concept. Although asking another
basketball game last night and Sherina joins the conversation? student a question about the assignment during
How can I address one misbehavior and ignore the other? “quiet time” breaks one of his rules, it does not
Although the misbehavior is the same, the result differs. Can I warrant the same consequences as an off-task con-
consider the effects of misbehaviors to determine my response? versation about a basketball game.
If Rohlin has a knife, then I have to address the problem. If he • The answer really depends on the grade level. This
utters a relatively minor obscenity, do I have to say some- might work with high school students, but I’m
thing? I realize I have to have a management philosophy, I just not sure primary students could understand the
don’t see why I should address every misbehavior. difference. Their idea of fair can be very literal.
• The incident with Deon and April offers an
opportunity for Mr. Vannostrand to demonstrate
Questions for Consideration
his classroom management style and begin to earn
1. Are there times when one student could misbehave the respect of his students. Teenagers value teach-
and Mr. Vannostrand should do nothing and other ers who are not afraid to confront problems,
times when another student would misbehave and whether it is to help a student or to diffuse an
he would have to take action? explosive situation; they appreciate teachers whose
• Teachers need to respond to misbehavior. How- priority is education, not rules.
ever, the best way to deal with classroom manage- 4. What models of classroom management featured in
ment problems is to prevent them. Well-behaved, this book would you suggest to Mr. Vannostrand?
197

Determining Specific Misbehaviors to Address
Make a list of misbehaviors you might expect to see in your 5. Does it appear that the misbehavior is temporary?
classroom. Then use the following questions to categorize 6. Does it appear that other students might copycat the
them. Which are misbehaviors you need to address and misbehavior?
which, if any, can you ignore? 7. Is it a violation of a stated rule, or should the student
just know better?
1. What seems to be the goal of the misbehavior?
8. Will the correction of the misbehavior cause more dis-
2. What is the result of the misbehavior?
ruption than the actual problem?
3. Does the misbehavior directly affect or annoy someone?
4. Is a student being physically or psychologically harmed
(e.g., fight is beginning, someone is being called
names, someone is being threatened)?
students’ psychological and developmental needs. Will your philosophy help students to feel safe,
physically and psychologically, from your actions as well as the actions of other students? You also
must let students know that you respect their diversity: cultural, gender, social class, cognitive, phys-
ical, and sexual orientation.
Although you should avoid embarrassing or ridiculing students into compliance, you also
must use developmentally appropriate philosophical practices; management strategies appropriate
for preschool or elementary students are probably inappropriate for middle school or high school
students (and vice versa). Along with this, you must consider the powerful effects of peer pressure
(negative and positive) on middle school and higher students and remember the disastrous effects
that can occur when students are harassed, bullied, ridiculed, and threatened on a daily basis.
Although it can be difficult at times, you must work to leave students’ self-esteem intact, regardless
of their misbehaviors. Finally, you always must consider your students’ cognitive, psychological,
and physical developmental characteristics and then examine how your classroom management
practices (and the underlying philosophical beliefs) affect students’ many developmental and psy-
chological needs.
Case Study 13–2 looks at Dr. Kellerstrass, a principal who thinks a kindergarten teacher is
failing to provide appropriate classroom management practices that meet the developmental and
psychological needs of her students and asks some questions about how you would handle the situa-
tion. The case study also includes some responses of educators to the questions posed.
Considering the Challenges of Inclusion

Inclusion, or the teaching and managing of special needs students in regular classroom settings,
should also be considered as you develop your management philosophy. First, you need to explore
honestly your beliefs about educating and managing special needs students in regular or general
education classes. In addition, you should consider how your management responsibilities will
change as you have increasingly diverse student populations in your classes. Your philosophical
deliberations should address the academic and the behavioral needs of students with disabilities
(Gable, Hendrickson, Tonelson, & Van Acker, 2000).
Positive student–teacher relationships and quality academic instruction are key factors that
help all students achieve (Osher et al., 2004). According to Gable et al. (2000), to meet the behavio-
ral needs of all students, you must accept the beliefs that all students learn best
• in an environment that reflects a unified approach to positive disciplinary practices, with
emphasis on early intervention so that minor difficulties are resolved before they escalate and
become major problems;
198
Case Study 13–2

Questioning a Teacher’s Management Style
Dr. Marissa Kellerstrass, a new principal, thought that Ms. • Yes, but an established routine is an absolute
Laverne Sallo, a primary school teacher, used management necessity for a functioning classroom. Each child
techniques that failed to consider the developmental and is an individual with fears and concerns that have
psychological needs of her kindergartners and that were to be met. Their sense of security depends on
more appropriate for students 4 or 5 years older. For exam- understanding what is expected of them at all
ple, Dr. Kellerstrass was concerned that Ms. Sallo tried to times. There are times to talk and times to listen
keep her 5-year-olds too quiet and seated for too long. The and that has to be established. “Do we have our
principal also believed that Ms. Sallo did not give her stu- listening ears on?” is a key for my students to lis-
dents enough opportunities to be creative and spontaneous ten to me.
in their learning. In one meeting with Ms. Sallo, Dr. Kel- 2. What are some of the developmental characteristics
lerstrass explained, “You keep your students seated and and psychological needs of kindergartners that she
quiet for too long. These are 5-year-olds. They should be would need to consider?
given more opportunities to move around, explore their
• To meet the developmental needs of kinder-
world, and develop self-discipline.”
gartners, you have to give them choices of activi-
In reply, Ms. Sallo said, “True, but I’m afraid to give
ties. They need to socialize, make decisions about
them too much freedom; they are too much trouble to get
their own behavior, and have choices and limits
calmed down again. You know, they’re such a rowdy
provided so that they can develop self-discipline
group at times. I’m afraid you might walk in the room and
and begin to think for themselves.
the children might be going bonkers. What if you did an
• When children are actively engaged, they can
impromptu evaluation and they were loud? What if I tried
sound loud or seem unruly at first glance. How-
to get them back in their seats and they wouldn’t go?”
ever, if you look closely, you’ll see children talking
Dr. Kellerstrass tried to help Ms. Sallo understand
about their learning and learning through play.
about 5-year-olds’ development and the activities they
• Kindergartners need lots of practice with things
needed. “Your children need to socialize, experience freedom
like lining up, walking quietly in the hall, read-
of movement, learn self-discipline, make decisions about
ing aloud, calendar time, cleaning up, moving
their behavior, move around to the various learning centers,
between centers, and so on. For example, cent-
and talk quietly among themselves. Please reconsider your
ers should be introduced slowly, modeled, and
philosophical beliefs about classroom management and chil-
practiced at the beginning of the year so that
dren’s developmental and psychological needs.”
students understand what exactly is to be done
After the meeting, Ms. Sallo thought about the con-
at each center. Classroom management takes
versation for a long time. She had to admit that the princi-
less time at the end when you spend more time
pal was correct in thinking that she did not have a
in the beginning.
management philosophy that was compatible with kinder-
gartners’ development. However, she also knew that she 3. How can Ms. Sallo balance being too firm with
had difficulty managing her kindergarten class. She had being too nice?
always had management problems, even during her student • New teachers have to establish classroom manage-
teaching. In fact, she chose to teach kindergarten because ment procedures the first week of school and then
she feared she could not get older students to behave. Now follow through on a consistent basis.
she faced another predicament: Her principal did not like • Let Ms. Sallo pay several visits to developmentally
her management philosophy and style. With her annual appropriate kindergarten classrooms so she can
evaluations at stake, she knew she had to take some action observe center time, transitions, and direct
to show Dr. Kellerstrass that she was at least trying. instruction.
4. What management models would you recommend
Questions for Consideration Ms. Sallo consider using to meet Dr. Kellerstrass’s
1. Is it possible for Ms. Sallo to let her kindergartners expectation of considering the developmental and
talk a little and walk around and still get them back psychological needs of her students and, at the same
on-task when she wants them to be? time, making the children behave?
199

Exploring Your Beliefs About Inclusion
Explore your beliefs about inclusion by responding to the fol- 4. How do I feel about special needs learners who will be
lowing questions: educated in regular classrooms?
5. Can I manage special needs learners in a caring and
1. Do I believe that inclusion is the best way to educate
professional manner?
special needs students?
6. What special management methods should I employ as
2. Do I agree with the philosophical assumptions sug-
I work with these children and adolescents?
gested by Gable et al. (2000)?
3. If I do not agree, how can I best meet the challenge so
I can stay in compliance with Individuals with Disabili-
ties Education Act?
• in an environment in which schoolwide and classroom academic and behavioral supports are
routinely provided;
• when discipline is addressed through instruction, with appropriate behavior taught in a routine
and systematic manner; and
• in an environment in which administrative leadership fosters a school, home, and community
partnership for promoting positive school outcomes for all students.
Thus, as you develop your classroom management philosophy, you need to consider the
impact that inclusion will have on the realities of your situation. It will be important for you to
resolve these philosophical considerations prior to developing your classroom management plan. Ask
yourself the questions in Developing Your Personal Philosophy 13–4.
Developing a Personal Philosophy

We favor an eclectic approach to classroom management, in which educators pick and choose from
a number of management models and theories as they develop their personal philosophies upon
which to base their classroom management strategies. What makes this particularly difficult is that
only you can decide what you think works most effectively. No one is able to decide what works for
another teacher. Thus, you will need to consider each topic discussed in this chapter and identify
your own philosophical precepts (e.g., perspectives toward students, students’ and teachers’ roles,
whether discipline should be taught or imposed) to determine what you want to adopt from the
various models and theories. As teachers told us:
• To develop a plan, consider first what you and your students need to make the most effective
use of time. How can the plan be made positive but have consequences for those who do not
follow the rules?
• Use common sense and the advice of others. Be consistent, be firm, be fair. Respect is the key.
• All grade levels require a well-ordered classroom. My advice to new teachers about developing
a classroom management plan is to consult the other teachers on their grade level and to use
the other teachers’ systems as much as possible until there is time to develop their own plan.
• Here are my dos:
Be fair and consistent,
have a good sense of humor in the classroom,
call parents for support,
be calm (students want to see you blow up),
admit when you are wrong and laugh about it, and
remember you are the adult and a role model.
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TABLE 13–3 An Eclectic Approach: Selecting from Various Models
Theory/Model Concepts to Reflect in Our Personal Philosophy

Kounin: Instructional Management Classroom management must include instructional management.
(Kounin, 1970) Teacher’s behavior affects students’ behavior.
Coloroso: Inner Discipline (Coloroso, Students are worth the effort and should be treated with respect and dignity.
1983, 1994) Teachers should abide by the Golden Rule.
Canter and Canter: Assertive Both teachers and students have rights.
Discipline (Canter, 1974; Teachers should insist upon students demonstrating responsible behavior.
Canter & Canter, 1976)
Dreikurs: Democratic Teaching Teachers should use logical consequences instead of punishments.
(Dreikurs & Grey, 1968) Teachers should be democratic rather than autocratic.
Ginott: Congruent Communication Teachers accept and acknowledge students.

(Ginott, 1965, 1969) Teachers avoid you-messages.
Curwin and Mendler: Discipline With Classrooms should be student centered.

Dignity (Curwin & Mendler, 1980) Teachers avoid authoritarian stances.
Jones: Positive Classroom Management strategies should be simple, easy to use, and “cheap” (Jones,
Management (Jones, 1987a) 1987a, p. 25).
Teachers must have exemplary planning and instruction.
Freiberg: Consistency Management Students should be self-disciplined.

(Freiberg, 2000) Teachers should have student-centered classrooms.
Gathercoal: Judicious Discipline Teachers should demonstrate professional ethics, provide democratic classrooms,
(Gathercoal, 1997) and provide behavior guidelines.
Kohn: Beyond Discipline Teachers should not base their management decisions upon negative ideas about
(Kohn, 1996) students.
Educators need to develop a sense of community in the school.
Evertson and Harris: Managing Teachers should plan for the first of the year so that students know exactly what to do.
Learning-Centered Classrooms Teachers should categorize misbehaviors to identify those needing minor, moderate,
(Evertson, Emmer, & Worsham, 2000) and extensive interventions.
Marshall (Marshall, 2007) Students must accept ownership of their behaviors.

Change must come from within the person
Barrish, Saunders, and Wolf (Barrish, Peer influence can promote and reinforce self-control and a work ethic.
Saunders, & Wolf, 1969)
What do we like? What aspects of the models in this book reflect our own thinking? Because
space will not permit a detailed listing of each of the models and all of the aspects we think reflect
our philosophy, we have provided examples in Table 13–3. All the other theorists and models dis-
cussed in this book can also be of help in the development of a personal philosophy of classroom
management. Once you have examined your philosophical beliefs, review the models and identify
the concepts in each that reflect and support your ideas.
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SEEKING COLLABORATIVE ASSISTANCE AND ADVICE

All too often educators see classroom management as a singular or isolated effort in which teachers
are assigned a class but given little professional assistance in managing it. Some teachers might have
the help of subject-area and instructional specialists, but most schools expect teachers to have a well-
developed classroom management philosophy as well as workable management strategies. Often
teachers fend for themselves and hope their students are well behaved, and they hope their classroom
management strategies work. However, experienced teachers often recommend that new teachers
seek the advice of others in developing their management plan.
Unfortunately, there are teachers who considered a career change after only a year or two
because they felt the demands of classroom management were too great and because they thought
other professionals neither understood the problems they faced nor wanted to help. Rather than feel-
ing isolated or overwhelmed with behavior problems, teachers need to collaborate. In doing so, they
can see that other school professionals do understand the challenges of classroom management and
are willing to offer advice and expertise. While realizing that the practices that work for some teach-
ers might not work for others (hence the need for a personal philosophy of classroom management),
all teachers can learn new and innovative methods of managing students and can see that, especially
in middle schools or where teachers are teamed for instruction, classroom management can be a col-
laborative rather than an isolated effort. In working with others, teachers also can see that the various
constituencies have differing opinions on the challenges of managing students, such as views about
the responsibilities of students, the roles of teachers, the definitions of discipline, and the goals of
classroom management.
Summary
Educators need to develop a personal philosophy of class- sional expertise as they develop a personal philosophy that
room management regardless of the grade they teach or the they think will work for them. The suggested readings and
management problems they face. Their philosophy can websites listed in “Reaching Out with the Internet” have
include any number of aspects, such as definitions of disci- additional information and resources on developing a class-
pline, roles of teachers, behavior problems faced, and the room management philosophy. Once developed, the phi-
goals of classroom management. We lean toward an eclectic losophy should become the basis for classroom management
approach or selecting the best from each model but at the strategies, with practices that reflect their philosophical
same time encourage all educators to rely on their profes- positions.
Suggested Readings
Black, S. (2011). I want to believe. American School Board Journal, Oxtoby, K. (2011). Show them who’s in charge. Times Educational
198(1), 32–33. The personal beliefs of teachers can have a great Supplement, 4924, 31–32. Teachers and administrators offer
impact on their classroom management strategies. management suggestions for new teachers.
Groeling, C. (2011). Struggles of student teachers. Instrumentalist, Roache, J. E., & Lewis, R. (2011). The carrot, the stick, or the rela-
65(7), 25. Personality, teaching style, and rapport all play a role tionship: What are the effective disciplinary strategies? European
in classroom management. Journal of Teacher Education, 34(2), 233–248. The authors ex-
Hoerr, T. R. (2011). Who were you? Educational Leadership, 68(6), amine different discipline models and explain how a combina-
89–90. The way you were as a student can have a big impact on tion of them can be effective.
who you are as a teacher.

Visit the following websites for additional information on class- Classroom Management—adapted from Froyen and Iverson
room management. www.intime.uni.edu/model/teacher/teac3summary.html
The American Federation of Teachers—Discipline and School Safety Classroom Management by Gene Van Tassell
www.aft.org/issues/safeschools/schoolsafety www.brains.org/classroom_management.htm
202
Education World—Classroom Management 101 A Primer on Behavior Management—from Dr. Mac’s Behavior
www.educationworld.com/a_curr/archives/classmanagement. Management Advice Site
shtml maxweber.hunter.cuny.edu/eres/docs/eres/EDSPC715_
Focus on Classroom Management MCINTYRE/Primer.html
www.atozteacherstuff.com/pages/7663.shtml Prince George’s County Public Schools—Classroom Management
Management Ideas from Answers.com www.pgcps.org/~elc/gameplan.htm
www.answers.com/topic/classroom-management TeacherVision Management Ideas
The Metamorphosis of Classroom Management by Fran www.teachervision.fen.com/classroom-management/
Mayeski—this article examines changes in this field and provides resource/5776.html
concrete examples of new approaches Teachnet.com—this site has some excellent management ideas
www.mcrel.org/pdf/noteworthy/learners_learning_schooling/ www.teachnet.com/how-to/manage
franm.asp
203
204
Applying a Management
Philosophy in Your
Classroom
205
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading and reflecting on Chapter 14, you 4. explain how you will communicate with parents, teach
should be able to discipline and cooperation, treat individual students
and their differences, address off-task and disruptive
1. identify key terms to use in applying your classroom
behaviors, and deal with violence;
management system;
5. explain how you will put your management plan
2. begin to personalize your personal philosophy of
together; and
classroom management by identifying human relations
skills you will use and explaining the factors you 6. use other sources of information as you translate you
should consider as you build a positive classroom; philosophical beliefs into management practice.
3. discuss how you will select classroom rules, conduct
classroom meetings, and identify issues you will
emphasize, ignore, and address;
Scott Cunningham/Merrill
206
Applying a Management
Philosophy in Your
Classroom
VIGNETTE: Translating Philosophical Beliefs into Practice

Ms. Ocha, an elementary teacher, was experiencing difficulty translating her philosophical beliefs into work-
able practices. As she explained to another teacher, “I know what I want, but moving from philosophy to
practice is really difficult. I want a democratic classroom and freedom without rules, but the children just will
not cooperate. In fact, they seem to throw up obstacles to derail my plan by fighting, calling each other
names, and generally acting up. Two or three even bully others. How can I implement a caring environment
when my students don’t care for each other? Plus, I’m sorry to admit it, but I do get upset at times. I mean,
what else can I do when they try to hurt each other, walk around the room for no good reason, and call each
other names?”
That night, Ms. Ocha tried again to list on paper what she wanted her class to be like. She wrote, “I want
my children to
• work in a positive environment that is free from undue criticism and unfavorable judgment and that
promotes self-esteem;
• collaborate with other children in an atmosphere free of competition and some children winning at the
expense of others;
• feel they are safe from bullies, harassment, sarcasm, and ridicule;
• feel they are in a caring environment, or “community,” where the teacher cares for and respects children
and children care for and respect each other; and
• work in a classroom environment that is free from rewards, punishments, and bribes.
OVERVIEW
Now that you have considered your philosophy of classroom management, you
need to think about how you will implement your philosophical beliefs and turn them
into a management plan. As most educators such as Ms. Ocha in the opening
vignette will affirm, it is a big step from philosophy and theory to actual practice.
The process can be challenging, but the results of developing and implementing
your own classroom management plan will benefit you and your students. Just like
the management plan itself, the move from philosophy to practice varies from
teacher to teacher and depends on the use of human relations skills and the ability
to build a civil classroom community, communicate with parents, and teach
discipline and cooperation to all students.
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Applying a Management Philosophy in Your Classroom
KEY TERMS
Table 14–1 identifies the key terms related to applying a management philosophy in
your classroom.
TABLE 14–1 Key Terms Related to Applying a Management Philosophy in Your

Classroom
• Class meetings • Human relations skills

• Classroom community • Inclusion
• Classroom management plan
APPLYING YOUR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

After Part 1 provided a foundation, Part 2 in this book presented many classroom management
models and theories. Part 3 then explored special aspects of management. Finally, in this last section,
Chapter 13 asked you to develop your personal philosophy of classroom management. Now, based
on this information, you need to begin to make the transition from theory to practice.
Personalizing Your Classroom Management System

Although some teachers prefer the security of a school-adopted classroom management model, other
teachers like to implement classroom management strategies that work for them and that reflect
their philosophical beliefs. Still others are able to use their own ideas while working in a school with
a schoolwide or grade-level management plan.
As you move from philosophy to practice, you must examine ways to develop effective
human relations skills, build a sense of classroom community, teach self-discipline and coopera-
tion, and communicate and collaborate with parents. Likewise, you must understand and plan for
students’ many differences—developmental, cultural, gender, and social class. In doing so, you
have to keep in mind the realities of life and the fact that live students in a classroom are different
from cardboard students on the page of a textbook. The opening vignette looked at the difficulty
Ms. Ocha experienced when she tried to translate her philosophical beliefs into practice. After
rereading the vignette, look at the questions and the reactions of some educators in Responding to
the Vignette.
Developing Human Relations Skills

Like Ms. Ocha, all educators need to realize that classroom management involves working with
live human beings. Thus, effective human relations skills need to be used in every classroom.
Perhaps the best example of good human relations is a teacher who follows Coloroso’s idea (1983,
1994) and applies the Golden Rule, in which teachers treat students as they would like to be
treated. Good human relations skills also can include the ability to respond appropriately when
someone is having a bad day, to say something positive instead of offering a negative response, or
not to say anything at all and to convey emotions and concern in a nonverbal way. “The point of
classroom management [should be] to ensure a productive environment in which children are
challenged, respected, and able to grow” (Ullucci, 2005, p. 41). Developing Your Personal
Philosophy 14–1 asks you to identify the human relations skills you could use in a variety of
classroom situations.
Building the Right Climate

Just as teachers need human relations skills, schools and classrooms need to have strong, posi-
tive cultures in which educators share a sense of purpose; collegiality, improvement, and hard
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RESPONDING TO THE VIGNETTE: Helping Ms. Ocha

Although Ms. Ocha taught in an elementary school, the following questions could apply to students at any
level. As you respond to the questions, consider also the comments of some educators. Then, reflect on the
questions in light of the level of students you hope to teach.
1. Is it possible for Ms. Ocha to implement all of her philosophical ideals in her classroom?
• Poor Ms. Ocha! I commend her expectations, but she needs to get in touch with reality and modify
her fantastically unrealistic goals. They are certainly not achievable as long as teachers are dealing with
real live little human beings, who will never be capable of achieving the perfect harmony Ms. Ocha is
dreaming about.
• Develop a philosophy, but don’t be afraid to adjust it over time. Think everything through to the
most minor detail, and don’t assume your students will know or do certain things. Ask them or
tell them.
2. How realistic are her ideas?
• I object to her belief that children should work in an atmosphere free from competition. Life does
involve judgment and competition, and children need to understand that.
• This teacher has some good ideas about what she needs to do. She can’t forget that her job is to teach
students how to be what she wants them to be.
• I like Ms. Ocha’s strategies for improving the environment of her classroom and applaud her posi-
tive goals.
3. Why does such a gap exist between what she expects and the way her students act?
• Elementary students need to know that actions have consequences and part of life is accepting respon-
sibility for our own actions.
• She should learn to be happy with small successes and not frustrate herself by trying to change human
nature and achieve perfect harmony in a first-grade classroom.
• This teacher has not let her students know what she expects or when they are doing what she
wants. I have posted a behavior chart divided into three sections. The left section represents the
happy face, the center section has the worried face, and the right side has a sad face. Each student
in my class has a number. When students misbehave, I more their number progressively to the
right on the chart. When their number is under the sad face, they go to time-out in the room or
miss part of their recess time. I rarely take away all of recess because that leaves the child with
nothing to work for.
4. What suggestions can you give to help Ms. Ocha translate her philosophical ideals into practical
applications?
• This teacher needs rules! And she needs to teach them to her students.
• Ms. Ocha needs to teach behaviors by taking class time to teach the children how she expects them to
behave.
• She should use the resources of her school to help her, like the counselor and the school librarian.
There are great books on civility, sharing, and getting along with others.

Using Human Relations Skills
Give specific examples of ways in which you could use each of 5. Offer constructive criticism.
the following human relations skills in your own classroom: 6. Encourage success in behavior.
7. Avoid finding fault and blame unless absolutely
1. Convey warmth and positive feelings toward students.
necessary.
2. Demonstrate or model positive treatment of others.
8. Provide students with hope and optimism.
3. Accept students and their strengths and weaknesses.
9. Disagree without being argumentative or blaming others.
4. Convey appreciation of students’ various differences.
209
work are valued; and rituals and traditions are used to celebrate student accomplishments,
teacher innovations, and parent commitment. If feelings of success, joy, and humor are present,
there is usually a shared sense of what is important, a shared sense of caring and concern, and a
shared commitment to help students learn. When teachers develop a caring classroom culture,
students can be taught how to behave and to treat others with dignity. Students should know
that teachers want to help them and should realize the importance of more cooperation and
fewer punishments.
David Rollins, an experienced teacher, decided to work on creating a positive culture in his classroom. With
the help of an advisory committee consisting of students, parents, and the school’s administrators, Mr. Rollins
assessed current student behavior in his classroom and identified behaviors to be changed and those to be ig-
nored. After discussing student diversity and the safe schools movement, Mr. Rollins and the committee came
up with a set of lofty but attainable goals to improve student behavior. Without overwhelming Mr. Rollins and
his students, the committee also helped him identify an effective way to assess changes in student behavior
and to measure the progress that students made toward developing self-discipline.
Creating a Sense of Community

In addition to creating a positive classroom culture, effective classroom managers also create a sense
of classroom community. Belenardo (2001) explained that a sense of community consists of shared
values, a feeling of belonging and caring, interdependence, commitment, and regular contact with
others in the community. “Learning is assisted if students believe that they belong to the community
or group that makes up a class and if they contribute to, and benefit from, that classroom commu-
nity” (Wighting, 2006, p. 371).
In a genuine school community, people should feel an attachment to the community and
a sense of duty to work toward the welfare of the school community as well as the community at
large (Obenchain & Abernathy, 2003). While providing students with opportunities to learn
and interact in a humane, respectful, and psychologically safe learning environment, teachers
want a safe and supportive community that promotes harmony and interpersonal relations
among students and reflects positive verbal interactions. Such a school community provides
teachers and students with opportunities to express opinions, listen to others with empathy, and
support others in a nonthreatening situation. In addition, it helps to eliminate student cliques
and other sources of conflict (Batiuk, Boland, & Wilcox, 2004). Ideally, the existence of this
community should lessen conflicts between educators and students, reduce discipline referrals,
and reduce confrontations among students. Although rubrics exist (Rubin, 2004) to evaluate
school climate, the challenge is how to develop such a community. Developing Your Personal
Philosophy 14–2 offers several strategies for building sense of community in a classroom and
asks you to identify others.

Building a Community
To build a sense of community within a classroom, teachers • provide everyone with opportunities to participate, and
can: • avoid forcing a member to voice an opinion.
• identify things the class can do together, What other things might you do to create a sense of com-
• help each member identify his or her place within the munity within your classroom? What obstacles might you
class, face? Is creating a sense of community an unrealistic goal for
• ensure that discussions are inclusionary rather than some teachers? Are there some situations in which it might
exclusionary, be difficult to create a sense of community?
210
Selecting Classroom Rules

In creating a classroom management system for a classroom community, you need to decide whether
you want classroom rules for your students. Before you decide, remember that Kohn (1996) cau-
tioned against rules in his call for teachers to move beyond discipline. If you decide that you do not
want to make and enforce rules, you might depend, instead, on the ability of students to discipline
themselves for the overall welfare of the class.
We respect Kohn’s (1996) ideas and think students ultimately should accept responsibility for
their behavior, but our experiences tell us to think more realistically. We believe that some classroom
rules will be necessary from the first day of school until students learn the self-discipline necessary to
demonstrate appropriate behavior. In each classroom, students need to know what the rules (behav-
ior expectations) are and that the rules will be applied fairly. In addition, the presence of rules does
not mean that classrooms are not democratic. In classrooms where time was devoted early in the
school to organization and teacher-managed activities, more time was spent later in the year on
child-managed activities (Cameron, Connnor, & Morrison, 2005).
What rules should teachers select? Should they have rules posted the first day, prior to students
arriving? Should they delay and have students offer suggested rules? Should they wait to see how the
students behave prior to making and posting rules? These are good questions and deserve conscien-
tious attention. In fact, we asked a number of teachers about the use of rules in their classrooms.
Here are a few of their responses:
• I involve students in making rules. If students have “ownership” of the rules, if they made an
investment in creating the class rules, they are more likely to follow them.
• No, I don’t involve my students in establishing my management system. I already know what
works and what doesn’t, and I am not willing to go through what doesn’t just so they can see
for themselves. It is always easier to lighten up later than to get stricter.
• In addition to my own rules, I usually allow students to give me the three rules they think are
most important. I also send parents a questionnaire asking what they expect their child to
accomplish, how we can best meet that accomplishment, and what they are willing to do to
make sure it happens. I review this at all conferences with parents.
• I teach young students, so I have a set of rules and procedures that I’ve developed over a
number of years. I start the year with my basic rules, and they are usually well established by
the end of September.
• I establish my rules before school begins. A handout is given to every student and explained by
me the first few days of school. The student and the parent or guardian are required to sign the
classroom expectations indicating they have read and understand them. Some of my rules and
classroom procedures consist of the following:
Respect all others and their property.
Raise your hand and wait to be called upon if you wish to speak.
Speak courteously and politely to others.
Remain in your seat unless permission has been granted by your teacher.
We believe that teachers need to develop their own rules for the beginning of school, at least
until the students can be involved in making rules or until they learn self-discipline. It is to every-
one’s benefit for students to behave appropriately and avoid infringing on others’ rights and prop-
erty. Basic rules that are necessary for the welfare of all students should be posted and discussed the
first day of school and, if necessary, taught during the first several days of school. Within the first
weeks of school, teachers should give students an opportunity to suggest other rules that they con-
sider important for the general operation of the classroom and for students’ safety, well-being, and
academic achievement.
Before making rules for your class, you might want to review the ideas of Gathercoal (2001) found
in Chapter 8 of this book, especially his ideas about rules and compelling state interests. Setting a posi-
tive tone (listing the things students should do rather than the things they should not do), rules should,
211
whenever possible, be developed before the misbehavior occurs. However, making the rules is not
enough. An effective teacher also needs to develop a process for communicating the rules to students as
well as parents or guardians, teaching the rules, reviewing them periodically, and revising them as needed.
Along with rules, you must consider the consequences when the rules are broken. Review your
philosophical beliefs and the ideas of the classroom management theorists discussed in this book.
Will you use rewards when rules are followed or a check-mark system when rules are broken? Will
you have a hierarchy of responses? Will you examine the reason for the misbehavior before identify-
ing a consequence?
Conducting Class Meetings

An excellent time to discuss rules and expectations is at a class meeting. Several classroom management
models discussed in this book advocated the use of class meetings such as Glasser (1969); Albert
(1995); Johnson and Johnson (1987); Nelsen, Lott, and Glenn (1997); Community of Caring (Eunice
Kennedy Shriver National Center for Community of Caring, 2011), Jones and Stoodley (1999), and
Gathercoal (2001). You might recall that Gathercoal mentioned the key elements of democratic meet-
ings, and Nelsen, Lott, and Glenn suggested the eight building blocks of class meetings.
Emphasizing, Ignoring, and Addressing Issues

Even when you have rules in your classroom, you will be faced with a dilemma of whether to ignore
minor infractions or to address the behavior whenever a rule is broken. Some teachers place an
emphasis on positive behaviors rather than on negative behaviors. This approach reflects the ideas of
Skinner’s behavior modification and Redl’s and Wattenberg’s group dynamics. By ignoring minor
misbehaviors and praising positive behaviors, these teachers hope that negative behaviors will lessen
and positive behaviors will increase. When students see other students demonstrate positive behavior
and receive rewards or reinforcement, then they also will start to demonstrate positive behavior.
Ignoring negative behaviors does not mean ignoring serious misbehaviors, especially misbehaviors
that can result in physical and psychological damage to students. Teachers never should ignore threats,
acts of violence or potential violence, weapons, racial slurs, accusations about others’ sexual orientation,
or any misbehavior that could cause physical or psychological damage. In addition, teachers should not
ignore misbehaviors that disrupt the teaching and learning process and students’ learning. Nor should
they ignore misbehaviors that have the potential for becoming contagious. The hardest part is knowing
what to ignore and what might become contagious. This is a skill that takes time to develop. Teachers
have to know their classes so well that they know which behaviors might spread and which students
might be the instigators of trouble. Just remember that ignoring the negative should never mean ignoring
behaviors that could result in physical or psychological harm. Developing Your Personal Philosophy 14–3
presents some situations and asks you to determine how the teacher should react.
Communicating with Parents

“I hope you can do something with him; his mom and I can’t. But then discipline is your job, not
mine.” These words were said to a kindergarten teacher as a father dropped his son off at the class-
room door on the first day of school. Some parents and guardians think their responsibility stops
when the child leaves for school. They view classroom management and discipline as the teachers’
responsibility. Fortunately, all parents and guardians do not share that opinion.
When Mr. Owens brought Marcia to school, he said to the teacher, “This is my granddaughter. Please let me
know if Marcia does not behave or if she gets in any trouble. I’m behind you, you know.”
Well-informed parents or guardians can be significant assets to teachers and overall classroom
management efforts. Some parents or guardians even might want to have an active role in classroom
management programs and might be willing to serve on classroom management committees to
review management policies and to know consequences for misbehavior.
212

Reacting to Positive and Negative Behaviors
For each of the following actions, first identify whether the • Luis sees a knife in Burton’s backpack and tells you,
action is positive or negative. Then indicate how you would even though Burton has not taken the knife out.
respond if the action occurred in a classroom on the level • Duffy keeps drumming his pencil on the desk in an
you want to teach. Would you ignore any of these actions? attempt to annoy you.
Be sure that your response is developmentally appropriate. • Francisco and Earl have a few disgruntled words, but
nothing significant happens.
• Alma raises her hand to answer a question.
• Three students in a cooperative learning group are
• Lanita complains that you are unfair for giving home-
working collaboratively and are on-task.
work on Fridays.
• Sherita quietly helps Jorge find the right page number
• Lucious calls Martin a “sissy” and says Martin acts like
in the book as you explain an assignment.
a girl.
• Patti tries to trap you in a last-worder situation.
• Chad accidentally knocks Tabatha’s books to the floor
• Melinda hurries to get her assignment notebook out of
and then helps her pick them up.
her desk and her books accidentally crash to the floor.
• Rumor has it that Quentin, a boy in your class, bullies
• Toby calls Raul a “homo” and says he probably has AIDS.
other children on the school bus.
Communication with parents and guardians is important. Parents and guardians who know the
teachers’ expectations are more supportive. Particularly effective teachers send letters and classroom
management expectations to parents or guardians during the first few days of school. Figure 14–1 lists
some items that can be included. Parents and guardians then sign to show they have read and under-
stand the teacher’s behavior expectations. Although all parents and guardians probably will not read
the letter and expectations, it is still a good idea to provide the opportunity.
Teaching Discipline and Cooperation

Some teachers try to change from autocratic (control and demanding practices) to more democratic
practices. This does not mean, however, that they become what Dreikurs (1968) called permissive or
what Coloroso (1983, 1994) called jellyfish. When teachers try to provide a democratic classroom
environment, they teach and model self-discipline, cooperation, and collaboration. This is often not
an easy task to accomplish because teachers also have to maintain an orderly learning environment in
which students demonstrate proper behavior and feel safe. Because some students are accustomed to
autocratic teachers who demand strict obedience, convey the rules, and apply consequences for mis-
behavior, the change to a democratic classroom requires a change of mindset for teachers and stu-
dents. Case Study 14–1 explains the frustration Mr. Rahman experienced as he tried to apply his
management techniques.
FIGURE 14–1
Teachers should communicate the following types of management information to parents and guardians: Management
• the overall behavior goals of the school and class, Information for
• the specific behavior expectations for the particular class, Parents
• the consequences for behavior,

• the times when a student misbehaves that the teacher will contact an administrator,
• the times when a student misbehaves that the teacher will contact the parents and guardians,
• the best times and places for the parents and guardians to contact the teacher, and
• the ways in which the parents or guardians can help to promote safe schools and well-managed
classrooms.
213
Case Study 14–1

Sensing Frustration with Applying Management Techniques
During his student-teaching semester, Mr. Tucker Rah- Questions for Consideration
man, a middle school teacher, developed the philosophy of
After reading each question and the reaction by an educa-
classroom management that he planned to implement dur-
tor, provide your own answers.
ing his first year of teaching. He wanted to teach coopera-
tion, have weekly class meetings, create community in his 1. Evaluate Mr. Rahman’s actions during his first 4
classroom, and communicate with parents. However, by months.
December of his first year of teaching seventh grade in an • Mr. Rahman has good goals, but he made a mis-
urban middle school, he was finding a tremendous gap take in thinking that he could not accomplish them
between his philosophy and actual practice. In fact, he was in the kind of classroom that he called autocratic.
afraid that he might become an autocratic “ruler” rather • By implementing weekly class meetings and try-
than the “manager” he had planned to be. ing creating a sense of community within the
Although Mr. Rahman wanted to teach coopera- classroom, Mr. Rahman was asking these stu-
tion, he found that his seventh-grade students were any- dents to blindly leap into a democratic style of
thing but cooperative. In fact, he found that teaching classroom management, one that was probably
cooperation was difficult or impossible with some students completely foreign to the majority of them. He
who were accustomed to autocratic teachers who ruled needed to teach them what the expectations
sternly. “Some of them don’t know how to cooperate; they were.
seem to think that an adversarial relationship should exist
2. Why has he met with such limited success in imple-
between students and their teacher,” he said in dismay.
menting his ideas?
The weekly class meetings ended in failure. The stu-
• Students at the middle school level are experi-
dents refused to participate in meaningful discussions.
enced enough in the workings of a school that
They were rude to each other, offered accusatory remarks,
they know the academic expectations: Complete
wisecracked, and did not have a clue about how to act in a
all work to the best of one’s ability in order to suc-
civil manner. “I really wanted those class meetings to
ceed. Socially, however, they are just beginning to
work,” Mr. Rahman said, “but after the third week, I
grow up and need lots of help.
thought I should invest my energies in other areas. Maybe
• Mr. Rahman not only wanted these students to
someday I’ll try it again.”
commit to his style and prosper from it, but he
When Mr. Rahman tried to create a sense of commu-
also wanted them to be appreciative of his pro-
nity, he had equally dismal results. Instead of caring and
gressive thinking and willingness to share con-
respecting each other, students were hostile, clownish, and
trol. Students simply do not have the
discourteous, with many trying to one-up the others. “I made
background knowledge and experience required
a mistake by putting my full name on the door. I thought it
to perform as Mr. Rahman hoped at the middle
would make me seem more human. Now, some students
school level without a great deal of modeling
even call me F###er Rahman behind my back. I’m supposed
and preparation.
to teach a sense of community and caring to this bunch?”
The final straw was his lack of success in communicat- 3. Must he become an autocratic ruler to survive as a
ing with parents. He moaned: “Parents won’t respond, won’t teacher? If not, what must he do to turn his philo-
collaborate with me, and won’t help me teach their children. sophical beliefs into practical applications in his
Very few come to progress report meetings each 9 weeks, and middle school classroom?
even fewer attend monthly parent–teacher meetings.” • Structure is important even in middle school. And
Each day as he drove home, Mr. Rahman relived his structure does not make a dictatorship. Rules and
school day, questioned his philosophy, and second-guessed procedures are important. Otherwise, students
the decisions he had made that day. “Is it the students or is just run wild.
it me?” he asked himself. “Why can’t I get these students 4. How might this scenario have changed if Mr. Rah-
to act civilly? Why can’t I get the parents to cooperate? man had taught in an elementary school? A high
What else can I try that I have not already tried?” school? A suburban or rural school?
214
Considering Individual Students and Their Differences

No matter what classroom management plan you adopt, you must consider individual students’ dif-
ferences. This important step is often overlooked. Moreno and Abercrombie (2010) maintained that
understanding how to “accommodate instruction so that all children can perform to their full poten-
tial” (p. 112) is essential.
As a result, effective classroom managers often have to figure out how they can match instruc-
tional behaviors and management strategies most effectively with students’ motivation; self-esteem; and
gender, cultural, and developmental characteristics. Some students are motivated to excel in school and
behave accordingly, but other students are less motivated or are disinterested in schoolwork and see
misbehavior as an escape from the “chores” of school. Similarly, some (but not necessarily all) boys prefer
competitive activities that could lead to classroom management problems, and some (but not necessarily
all) girls prefer collaborative activities that can be less disruptive. Do keep in mind that although social-
ized gender differences exist, many girls like to compete and many boys like to collaborate.
Also remember that the same misbehavior can occur for different reasons. Students who mature
later might misbehave to gain attention or seek power, and those who mature earlier might misbehave
to prove their adulthood. Although students with lower self-esteem might misbehave to gain atten-
tion [remember Dreikurs’s (1968) goal of inadequacy], students with high self-esteem might be suf-
ficiently confident to misbehave to gain attention. Because of stereotypes, students in some cultures
could be labeled or perceived as loud or boisterous, and students in another group could be seen as
quieter and more reserved. However, it is important to remember that diversity exists within groups
as well as between them and that it is imperative to avoid stereotypes. For example, a teacher should
not expect all members of a cultural group or gender to act the same way. Only by recognizing their
own cultural predispositions toward management and understanding the cultural backgrounds of
students and the behavioral pressures of society, can teachers provide appropriate management strate-
gies for all cultural or gender groups (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004).
As you implement your management plan, you need to keep in mind student differences. To
help you identify the differences among your own students, you can ask the following questions:
MOTIVATION
• Is the student genuinely motivated or feigning motivation to stay out of trouble?
• Is the student intrinsically motivated or is extrinsic motivation necessary?
• Is there a relationship between the student’s motivation (or efforts) and achievement, or is the
student experiencing only frustration and therefore misbehaving?
• Do your classroom management strategies seem to motivate students to misbehave or only
make behavior worse?
SELF-ESTEEM
• Does the student have positive self-esteem?
• Does the self-esteem vary with educational activities or behavior situations?
• How does the student’s self-esteem affect his or her behavior?
• Do your classroom management strategies promote self-esteem or do they denigrate self-
esteem, thus making student behavior worse?
GENDER AND CULTURE

• Are girls and boys allowed to engage in competitive and collaborative activities, depending on
which they choose?
• Do classroom management strategies treat boys and girls equitably, without gender stere-
otypes?
• Are cultures treated equitably without perceived expectations that some students will be well
behaved and others, rowdy?
• Do your management strategies take into consideration cultural differences and preferences?
215
DEVELOPMENT
• Does the student’s rate of development affect his or her behavior?
• Is there evidence of significant developmental differences (e.g., psychosocial development lag-
ging physical development)?
• Does the student’s development affect his or her self-esteem, which in turn affects behavior?
Considering Inclusion and Learners with Special Needs

As inclusion brings more learners with special needs into the general classroom, you need to con-
sider the impact that this will have on your philosophical beliefs and classroom management prac-
tices. A common misconception is that teachers must rely on complex and intrusive procedures to
deal with special needs learners. In fact, the majority of these students will respond positively to
standard classroom management strategies (e.g., group contingencies, teacher proximity, clear expec-
tations, teacher praise) (Gable, Hendrickson, Tonelson, & Van Acker, 2000).
However, in addition to the standard strategies, several others are especially valuable when
teaching in an inclusion classroom. Peer-mediated instruction and interventions are a set of alterna-
tive teaching arrangements in which students serve as instructional assistants for classmates. This
peer teaching can be direct (e.g., tutoring) or indirect (e.g., modeling, encouraging) and can focus on
academic or interpersonal outcomes (Maheady, Harper, & Mallette, 2001).
Another classroom management method that works well with learners with special needs is the
Good Student Game (GSG) (Babyak, Luze, & Kamps, 2000), which is similar to the Good Behav-
ior Game, which was discussed in Chapter 4. In the GSG, students have opportunities to observe,
evaluate, and record their own behaviors. In addition, because teamwork is emphasized, students
learn to help each other monitor personal behavior.
According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, the development of an interven-
tion or management plan for a special needs learner is accomplished through a team problem-solving
process known as functional behavioral assessment. Most educators realize that various social and
environmental events influence appropriate and inappropriate student behavior. Functional behav-
ioral assessment identifies those antecedent events (e.g., the teacher asks Paige to answer a question)
that set the occasion (e.g., Paige makes a vulgar comment) for subsequent events (e.g., the teacher
gets upset and asks another student) that likely continue a misbehavior. In this example, the teacher
is less likely to call on Paige again; therefore, Paige has learned that she can get rid of something she
does not like to do by misbehaving. If the teacher realizes this, either the teacher or the team can
devise strategies that allow the student to achieve the desired consequences without resorting to dis-
ruptive acts (Gable et al., 2000).
Alexakos (2001) suggests that one way of promoting positive behavior in inclusive classrooms is to
create a learning environment that nurtures and supports all students. A sense of belonging, relevance of
tasks, hands-on experiences, and fun contribute to classroom interest. In classrooms where teachers show
interest in students’ needs, students are more likely to ask for help. In addition, the physical environment
(e.g., the physical space) can help eliminate or reduce stress, anxiety, and disorder.
Students with mild disabilities might be less accepted by peers and in danger of becoming
“invisible” (Alexakos, 2001, p. 43). To help all students feel included (and thus improve classroom
behavior), teachers can ask students at the beginning of the year to complete personal inventory
cards that identify their likes and dislikes. These interests can be incorporated into lessons, establish-
ing positive personal connections.
The instructional strategies that you use can have an impact on the classroom learning envi-
ronments. Students in inclusive classrooms (as well as all classrooms) need opportunities to interact
with each other and to engage in shared inquiry and discovery in their efforts to solve problems and
complete tasks. The use of cooperative learning groups helps all students see the benefits of bringing
together people with diverse backgrounds (e.g., disabilities and special needs) to solve problems as
they listen, talk, read, and write together to achieve common goals. In the process, everyone becomes
accountable because individual performance affects group outcomes (Montgomery, 2001).
216
Addressing Off-Task and Disruptive Behaviors

Most teachers deal daily with students who demonstrate off-task behaviors. As you might recall,
Fredric Jones in his book Positive Classroom Discipline (1987a, p. 27) found that most behavior
problems are of a lesser degree, or what he called small disruptions (emphasis Jones’s). You can review
his findings in Chapter 8 of this book, but in general he found that students are off-task between
45% and 55% of the time (Jones, 1973). Thus, any classroom management plan must provide ways
to address these common misbehaviors.
Off-task and minor disruptive behaviors can have a number of negative consequences, espe-
cially if the off-task students disturb other students who want to learn and stay on-task or if they
disturb the teacher who is trying to teach. Thus, off-task behaviors are significant problems for many
educators, and keeping students on-task can be time consuming and challenging. Something as sim-
ple as a change of classroom setting can have a significant impact on off-task behaviors (Rimm-
Kaufman, La Paro, & Downer, 2005). Case Study 14–2 talks about Ms. Bazemore, who must deal
with off-task behaviors.
Case Study 14–2

Dealing with Off-Task Behaviors
As a ninth-grade teacher, Ms. Celestine Bazemore thought tional level, efforts to motivate). Dr. Kwon suggested that
the biggest problem she faced was her students being off- teachers should:
task. “It’s not the fighters and bullies that give me problems.
• adapt lessons to learners’ interests and talents,
It’s the students who just sit and do nothing productive that
• do more direct teaching—standing in front of the
really bother me,” she repeatedly said. “Students look out
class and proving direct instruction,
the window, daydream, play around, goof off, and distract
• provide work at the learners’ levels—neither under-
each other from learning. They don’t actively misbehave;
challenging nor over-challenging, and
they just don’t do what they’re supposed to do. Some feign
• provide work at the appropriate instructional pace,
sickness to get out of work; others make only a halfhearted
so learners would not get bored.
effort to complete assignments. Sure,” she continued, “I’ve
tried commonly accepted techniques such as looking the Ms. Bazemore left the conference with several thoughts
students in the eye, standing close to them, and reminding in mind: “I’m still convinced they are unmotivated and per-
them to get back on task. I even spoke with them in small haps downright lazy, but I do need to look at what I do.
groups and individually about the need to keep working Maybe I have been trying the wrong approach. I mean, it
productively, to listen to me, and to take a more active inter- seems logical that my instructional techniques influence my
est in their schoolwork. I’ve explained that they’re in high students just as my behavior management strategies do.”
school now and they needed to think about their future.
However, nothing worked for long. Some of the students
Questions for Consideration
worked for a while, but others never made a serious effort.
I’ve tried small cooperative groups, hoping individuals in 1. What role does instruction play in a classroom man-
the group would have some success motivating others to agement plan?
take an active role in learning activities. But that didn’t work • A well-planned and delivered lesson can do much
for most of my students.” to end off-task behaviors.
Then, at a professional conference, Ms. Bazemore • Teacher attitude and enthusiasm for instruction
listened to a presentation by Dr. Shelia Kwon and learned are really important. If the teacher isn’t interested
that at least some of the problems with her students might in and enthusiastic about the lesson, management
begin with her. Dr. Kwon explained that classroom man- will suffer.
agement is more than behavior management. Effective • If you don’t plan or know what you’re supposed
management techniques also include teachers’ teaching to teach, the students will take advantage of the
techniques (e.g., lesson plans, instructional pace, instruc- situation.
(continued )
217
2. What other instructional techniques should Ms. of instructional time, and smiling is allowed
Bazemore consider? through (almost) all of them.
• Ms. Bazemore needs to consider other instruc- 1. Use 10 minutes of instructional time to teach
tional techniques, such as working with partners classroom procedures for the first several
before working in larger groups. weeks of school; establish a routine from the
• Try rubrics; students love to know exactly what is beginning.
expected of them and often “work up” to the 2. Define expectations and establish conse-
rubric. quences early—from the first day of school.
• Vary activities. Use two or three activities per bell Students need to know that for an ACTION
instead of one long lecture or one singular class- there will be a REACTION and that as they
work assignment. choose a BEHAVIOR, they also choose a
• Have students responsible for doing something CONSEQUENCE.
during instruction—have them manipulate mate- 3. Identify learning styles and achievement levels
rials, record ideas and notes, write answers. the first week of school.
• Put all of the students’ names on note cards and 4. Decide for yourself (from the beginning) what
draw these randomly; participation is then man- behaviors you will tolerate and what behaviors
datory, and the teacher can assign a weekly par- you will not.
ticipation grade. 5. Make many phone calls the first month of
• I can usually tell if students are doing something school.
other than what they are supposed to be doing by • Ms. Bazemore needs to give frequent feedback; in
the way they look down at their laps. They may the beginning of the year, it helps to give graded
be reading or writing a letter. I usually give them feedback every day. Students will know that they
my “evil eye,” and they get back on-task. Some- can succeed, yet they will also know that not
times I walk over to them and they get back on- doing work has repercussions.
task. If they have done it before, I just warn them • Occasionally, I offer a free homework pass or
that the next time I catch them, they will receive allow the students to have lunch in the classroom.
a detention. • The most common things I encounter are talking,
3. What else might Ms. Bazemore consider in addition not having supplies, and daydreaming. I gently
to her instructional techniques to motivate her stu- but firmly let the students know their behaviors
dents and keep them on task? are unacceptable and give them a chance to
• Ms. Bazemore is in a corner. Her instructional change them. For repeat offenders, I let the natu-
methods and her students’ behaviors have been ral consequences occur. For severe cases, I contact
long established. An overnight change cannot the parent or an administrator.
happen in her class, and it is too late for the old • The most common thing I see is students doing
adage “don’t smile until Christmas” to work. I tasks that do not apply to my instruction (writing
never bought into that idea, however. I recom- notes, doing homework, etc.). I have them clear
mend doing five things in the beginning of the their desks of everything—that is a great way to
school year to prepare students for the optimal use focus attention.
Dealing with Violence and Violent Behaviors

In Chapter 1 and more extensively in Chapter 2, we discussed the violence that is affecting our
schools and the safe schools movement. In the future, educators will continue to deal with bullying,
aggression, and violent behaviors. Do remember, though, as Jones (1987a, p. 27) explained, 95% of
classroom disruptions are “nickel and dime” misbehaviors of students goofing off and taking a break
from their work. For information on resolving conflicts, dealing with bullies, and coping with the
more serious but infinitely less common violent behaviors in some school, we refer you to Chapter 2
in this book.
218
PUTTING YOUR MANAGEMENT PLAN TOGETHER

Now that you have had an opportunity to review management theories and to reflect on your own
philosophy of classroom management, it is time for you to put everything together into your own
personal classroom management system. Developing Your Personal Philosophy 14–4 is designed to
help you begin that process. In addition to the questions listed, you also should consider personal
questions—ones that you consider relevant for the students and the grades you plan to teach. A good
management plan requires review, evaluation, and modification throughout the year and through-
out your career as a professional educator.

Your Classroom Management Plan
Following are some things you will want to include in your Hierarchy or Consequences for Rule Infractions
personal classroom management plan. We have identi- • What will I do when a student breaks a rule? Will I
fied a few of the questions that you might ask in each cate- have a hierarchy of consequences?
gory as you develop your plan. For other ideas, you can
review some of the Management Tips found throughout this
Motivational Strategies
book or the Internet sites listed in each chapter. In addition,
you should consider your responses to the activities and the • What strategies will I use to motivate my students
Developing Your Personal Philosophy sections of this book. (e.g., tickets or marbles in a jar)? Will I rely on intrinsic
When you are done, you should have an opening day plan or extrinsic motivation?
that can be modified as you go along.
Management Procedures and Routines
My Classroom Management Plan
• What procedures will I use in my classroom (i.e.,
Philosophy of Management beginning the class, ending the class, distributing
• In one or two sentences, what is my philosophy of materials, collecting materials and assignments,
classroom management? assigning student helpers or assistants)? How often
will I change the assignments?
Behavior Expectations
• What behavior do I expect from my students? How Instructional Planning
can I convey that to my students?
• What lesson planning format will I use? What instruc-
Pre-School Checklist tional strategies will I rely on? What, if any, of the
instructional techniques of Kounin will I use?
• What things will I need to do before school begins
• What strategies will I use to
each year?
develop a positive classroom management culture and
Classroom Slogan or Motto climate,
build a community in my classroom,
• What will it be (i.e., Respect, Cooperate, Participate)?
communicate with parents and guardians,
Will I develop this on my own or ask for student input?
teach self-discipline and cooperation,
Classroom Arrangement teach rules and procedures to my students,
deal with individual students and their differences,
• How can I arrange my classroom most effectively (i.e.,
prevent discipline problems,
placement of desks for students and teachers; location
support my discipline program (e.g., physical proximity,
of bulletin boards, chalkboard, whiteboard, Smart-
withitness),
board, other permanent fixtures)?
correct discipline problems (e.g., conflict resolution,
Class Rules zero tolerance),
work with inclusion students in my classroom, and
• What rules will I have to begin the school year? Will I
Provide a safe classroom for my students and me?
ask for student input for all, some, or none of the rules?
219
Summary
Applying effective classroom management strategies requires and the ability to establish rules and conduct class meetings.
more than acting on intuition or a whim. Educators with Sadly, effective classroom managers also must deal with dif-
successful and effective classroom management programs ficult challenges, namely, violent and aggressive behaviors,
usually have a personalized philosophy of classroom manage- that are often beyond the purview of classroom management
ment goals and strategies. They use these philosophical per- models and efforts. Lest you think classroom management is
spectives as the basis of their classroom management too great a challenge, we asked some experienced teachers
program. As successful educators can attest, an effective class- what advice they would give to beginning teachers. For more
room management program requires specifics, such as effec- information on classroom management, we encourage you to
tive human relations skills with students and parents, the consult the Internet sites listed in “Reaching Out with the
willingness and ability to build a positive class environment, Internet” and the sources listed in the suggested readings.
Suggested Readings
Balli, S. J. (2011). Pre-service teachers’ episodic memories of class- Guercio, R. D. (2011). Back to the basics of classroom manage-
room management. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(2), ment. Education Digest, 76(5), 39–43. A teacher explains his
245–251. The author explores the thoughts of preservice teach- methods of management.
ers about classroom management strategies and models. Holt, C., Hargrove, P., & Harris, S. (2011). An investigation into
Gillies, V. (2011). Social and emotional pedagogies: Critiquing the life experiences and beliefs of teachers exhibiting highly ef-
the new orthodoxy of emotion in classroom behaviour manage- fective classroom management behaviors. Teacher Education and
ment. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 32(2), 185–202. Practice, 24(1), 96–113. What are the beliefs, backgrounds, and
The author looks at the emphasis on social and emotional learn- experiences for highly successful teachers with effective class-
ing in behavior management. room management skills?
Groeling, C. (2011). Struggles of student teachers. Instrumentalist,
65(7), 25. A teacher provides management ideas to help novices.

Visit the following websites for additional information about Education World—Classroom Management
classroom management and commercial programs that are www.educationworld.com/a_curr/archives/classmanagement.
available. shtml
A to Z Teacher Tips Classroom Management Behavior Harry and Rosemary Wong—Classroom Management
atozteacherstuff.com/tips/cmanagement.shtml www.classroommanagement.com
Dave Wiggins at the University of Minnesota—high school class- Master Teacher—resources on classroom management
room management www.disciplinehelp.com
www.geom.umn.edu/~dwiggins/plan.html#1e Teachers Helping Teachers—classroom management suggestions
Discipline by Design from teachers
www.honorlevel.com www.pacificnet.net/~mandel/ClassroomManagement.html
220
APPENDIX
You can use the following two forms to help you develop your own philosophy of classroom man-
agement and your own classroom management plan.
DEVELOPING YOUR OWN PHILOSOPHY OF

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Use the following form to begin to develop your own philosophy of classroom management.
Remember, this is not a static document. It should grow and change as you learn and develop as a
professional educator.
MY PHILOSOPHY OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

I believe that the purpose of education is to:
To me, the following characteristics describe a good teacher:
To me, the following characteristic describe good instruction:
I believe that, in a classroom, a teacher should play the following management role:
The goals of my classroom management plan should be to:
I consider the following to be target misbehaviors that I will address in my management plan:
Although I might not specifically address each of these behaviors in my management plan, I
want students to avoid the following misbehaviors in my classroom:
I will use the following strategies in my management plan to address diversity:
• Cultural and Ethnic Diversity
• Academic Diversity
• Gender Diversity
• Linguistic Diversity
• Social Class Diversity
• Physical Diversity
• Developmental Diversity
• Socioeconomic Diversity
• Students with Special Needs
I believe that I bring the following personal strengths to the teaching profession and to the
development of my management plan:
In developing my management plan, I believe I must recognize the following personal weak-
nesses that may influence the implementation of my plan:
I prefer to use the following instructional strategies:
In considering whether it is more effective to impose discipline or to teach self-discipline, I
believe that:
DEVELOPING YOUR OWN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT PLAN

Use the following form to begin to develop your own classroom management plan. Like your phi-
losophy of classroom management, this is not a static document. It should grow and change as you
learn and develop as a professional educator. However, as you read Classroom Management, you
should add to this document. By the end of this text, you should have a beginning plan that you can
take into an internship or your own classroom.
From Classroom Management: Models, Applications, and Cases, Third Edition. M. Lee Manning, Katherine T. Bucher.
221
Appendix
MY CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT PLAN

Philosophy of Management
(In one or two sentences, what is my philosophy of classroom management?)
Behavior Expectations
(What behavior do I expect from my students? How can I convey that to my students?)
Pre-School Checklist
(What things will I need to do before school begins each year?)
Classroom Slogan or Motto
(What will it be? Will I develop this or ask for student input?)
Classroom Arrangement
(How can I arrange my classroom most effectively, including placement of desks for students and
teachers; location of bulletin boards, chalkboard, whiteboard, and other permanent fixtures):
• Instructional materials (centers, whiteboard, smart board, etc.)
• Furniture
• Classroom decor (decorations, posters, communication devices, etc.)
• Personal and professional items (diplomas, hobbies, etc.)
• Student recognition/class PR (news clippings, student awards, etc.)
• Other items (rocking chair, pillows/cushions, etc).
Class Rules
(What rules will I have to begin the school year? Will I ask for student input for all, some, or
none of the rules?)
Hierarchy or Consequences for Rule Infractions
(What will I do when a student breaks a rule? Will I have a hierarchy of consequences?)
Motivational Strategies
(What strategies will I use to motivate my students? Will I rely on intrinsic or extrinsic
motivation?)
Management Procedures and Routines
(What procedures will I use in my classroom? How often will I change the assignments?)
Instructional Planning
(What lesson-planning format will I use? What instructional strategies will I rely on? Which,
if any, of the instructional techniques of Kounin will I use?)
What Strategies Will I Use To:
• Develop a positive classroom management culture and climate?

• Build a community in my classroom?
• Communicate with parents and guardians?
• Teach self-discipline and cooperation?
• Teach rules and procedures to my students?
• Deal with individual students and their differences?
• Prevent discipline problems?
• Support my discipline program (e.g., physical proximity, withitness)?
• Correct discipline problems (e.g., conflict resolution, zero tolerance)?
• Work with students with special needs in my classroom?
• Provide a safe classroom for my students and me?
222
GLOSSARY
1-minute student managers Students assume classroom manage- Barriers These are disrespectful and discouraging behaviors.
ment positions, freeing the teacher for instructional activities by as- Baseline for misbehaviors The number of allowed misbehaviors
suming responsibility for routine classroom tasks. during the Good Behavior Game.
Academic Choice This is a “choice-based approach to activity- Behavior debriefing As part of Think TimeTM, students examine
based learning that increases children’s investment in learning their misbehavior, explain the reasons and results, describe what
and creates a forum for reflection with peers” (Rimm-Kaufman & they will do in the future, and estimate their chances of success.
Sawyer, 2004, p. 325).
Behavior modification (sometimes called operant conditioning or
Accountability The teacher holds all members of the class respon- stimulus-response theory) The belief that positive reinforcement or
sible for their learning and behavior. a reward should follow positive behavior.
Achievement The extent the student is progressing in a wealth of Behavior support plan A plan that is used to identify behavior
ways (e.g., academically, socially) and how this affects her or his problems and to teach appropriate behavior for an individual student.
behavior both individually and as a member of a group.
Being honest with yourself This unit in the Positive Action model
Active listening A belief fostered by Thomas Gordon, it says that includes telling the truth, doing what you say you’ll do, not blam-
teachers must genuinely hear and understand the comments, con- ing others, admitting mistakes, and knowing personal strengths and
cerns, and behaviors of students. weaknesses.
Advance preparation Organizing and managing classrooms for ef- Beliefs, attitudes, and values Three factors that affect students’
fective instruction is advance preparation and planning from the behavior.
first day of school.
Body language The way a teacher stands and acts that conveys skill
Anarchy The unacceptable, lowest level on Marshall’s Social Hierarchy and confidence in classroom management.
Application phase The final phase in the Social Decision Making Bossing/Bullying This unacceptable second level on Marshall’s
and Problem Solving model in which teachers use role-playing, Social Hierarchy occurs when individuals break rules, boss others,
guided practice, modeling, and mock situations to help students and behave irresponsibly.
learn to apply their skills.
Brickwall teacher A teacher who restricts and controls others; he
Appreciative praise Considered productive by Ginott, this type or she is all powerful; the student is the subordinate.
praise deals only with the students’ efforts and accomplishments.
Broken-record response According to the Canters, this is a re-
Assertive confrontation Teachers sometimes need to use assertive sponse to misbehavior in which the teacher repeats the same or a
confrontation, a method that offers seven rules for a fair fight and a similar request for compliance a maximum of three times before
productive confrontation invoking the consequence.
Assertive style This style is used by teachers who clearly and spe- Buddy teacher In the Responsive Classroom® model, these teachers
cifically place limits and rewards or consequences on students and work together in their discipline efforts.
make their expectations known.
Builders These are respectful and encouraging behaviors.
Attention getting One of Dreikurs’s four goals of misbehavior,
Bullying Physical or psychological intimidation that occurs repeat-
this is when students feel they are worthless and often misbehave to
edly over time and creates an ongoing pattern of harassment and abuse.
get the attention they want.
Capable Students feel confident and capable of achieving appro-
Autocratic teacher In contrast to permissive teachers and demo-
priate behavior and achieving academically.
cratic teachers, autocratic teachers rule with an “iron fist,” demand-
ing obedience at all times in a controlled environment and allowing Career exploration A focus in some management programs such
students little freedom. This hands-on teacher has rigid expecta- as Learning for Life which provides information on postsecond-
tions and demands immediate obedience. ary education, career readiness, becoming a productive citizen, and
transitioning from high school to the real world.
Autonomy One of three universal human needs according to Kohn.
Caring School Community A basic part of the Child Development
Backbone teacher By emphasizing democracy through learned ex-
Project.
periences, backbone teachers advocate creative, constructive, and re-
sponsible activity; have simply and clearly defined rules; use natural Cheap Instead of referring to financial costs, “cheap” refers to
or reasonable consequences; motivate students to be all they can be; management techniques that are simple and require the least plan-
and teach students how to think. ning time and paperwork.
Backup systems These plans (e.g., classroom policy, school rules, Checking for Understanding The teacher uses unobtrusive tech-
law enforcement, juvenile justice) are in place for correcting con- niques and asks questions to help a misbehaving student.
tinuing and more severe misbehaviors. Choice One of three positive practices identified by Marshall.
223
Glossary
Choice Theory A theory by William Glasser, it holds that students Competence One of the three universal human needs according
have specific human needs and motives and should accept responsi- to Kohn.
bility for their behavior. Conflict resolution A model of solving conflicts that focuses on
Citizens Active decision makers who feel they are an integral part productive ways to handle conflict, without aggression or passiv-
of the classroom are called citizens. ity; it may include a conference with the parents or guardian or the
Civic values The common goals and values that help define ap- development of an individual behavior contract with the student.
propriate behavior in a community are civic values. Congruent communication Haim Ginott’s model of classroom
Class meetings These are meetings in which classroom conflicts are management.
resolved peacefully in a democratic forum of students and the teacher. Connect Students feel connected or have workable relationships
Class rules According to the Canters, rules should be age and with other students as well as the teacher and administrator.
grade-level appropriate and specific and should clearly spell out the Consequences Punishments that result from misbehaviors are con-
behavior expectation. While some theorists believe the teacher es- sequences.
tablishes the rules, others involve students in their creation.
Consistency Not be confused with rigidity, consistency provides
Classroom community This is a school community in which peo- a sense of continuity of actions and expectations for students and
ple feel an attachment to the community and a sense of duty to teachers.
work toward the welfare of the community.
Constitution Sometimes referred to as a contract, this is the prod-
Classroom management This involves strategies that teachers use uct of the teacher and students working together to develop rules
to assure physical and psychological safety in the classroom; tech- that reflect both classroom rules and the standards identified by the
niques for changing student misbehaviors and for teaching self-dis- school as a whole.
cipline; methods to assure an orderly progression of events during
the school day; and instructional techniques that contribute to stu- Constitutional perspective A view used by teachers in Gathercoal’s
dents’ positive behaviors. model to examine rules in light of democratic principles.
Classroom management plan This is an organized plan that is Contribute Students feel capable of making a contribution to the
based on philosophical foundations of discipline and spells out the behavior and well-being of the class.
management activities and practices in a classroom. Control theory This is an earlier name for the Choice Theory of
Classroom organization Part of many classroom management William Glasser.
models, classroom organization refers to the physical arrangement Cooperating teacher In Think TimeTM, this is a partner teacher
of the classroom. Some theorists also use the term to refer to the who accepts misbehaving students from another classroom.
rules, policies, and procedures used in the classroom. Cooperation This is the need for students, teachers, administra-
Classroom structures Structures are the rules, procedures, and tors, and community members to work toward mutual goals.
physical arrangement of the classroom. Cooperation/Conformity This is the acceptable, external second
Code of conduct Students (and sometimes teachers) develop a level of Marshall’s social hierarchy in which students comply with
code that governs their behavior and attitudes in the classroom; dif- expected standards of behavior.
ferent than a list of rules in the sense that a code is broader and Cooperative learning This is the instructional use of small groups
guides students toward behaviors they adopted. so that students work together to maximize their own and each
Code of ethics Rules, guidelines, and expectations that consist of a other’s learning.
few principles that guide behavior comprise a code of ethics.
Coordinating committee A local committee helps in the implemen-
Cognitive-behavioral time-out A time, during Think TimeTM, tation of the Community of Caring classroom management model.
when students are placed with a cooperating teacher to reflect on
Core character traits These are the eight traits of respect, responsibil-
their misbehaviors.
ity, honesty/trust, caring/fairness, perseverance, self-discipline, courage,
Collaboration Cooperative efforts among professionals (and par- and citizenship that are the basis for the Learning for Life program.
ents and learners) in which all parties share expertise and work to-
Core skills A set of skills in the Resolving Conflict Creatively Program.
ward a common goal.
Communities A place in which students feel cared about and are Core values The Community of Caring program is built on five
encouraged to care about each other; they experience a sense of core values: care, respect, trust and moral consciousness, responsi-
being valued and respected; the children matter to one another and bility, and family (Jones & Stoodley, 1999).
to the teacher. They have come to think in the plural: They feel Corporal punishment This is physical punishment that, accord-
connected to one another; they are part of an “us.” And, as a result ing to most classroom management theorists, is ineffective and ac-
of all this, they feel safe in their classes, not only physically but emo- complishes “nothing that cannot be achieved better by some other
tionally (Kohn, 1996a, pp. 101–102). method” (Redl & Wattenberg, 1959, p. 375).
Compelling state interests These are the basis for classroom rules: Co-teaching Two or more people share responsibility for teaching
health and safety, property loss and damage, legitimate educational some or all of the students assigned to an educational setting. It
purpose, and serious disruption. includes the distribution of responsibility among professionals for
224
Glossary
planning, instruction, and evaluation for a classroom of students. It Early intervention Think TimeTM has an early intervention strategy
is often used as an inclusion practice in which a general and special that includes a time-out procedure which removes the student from the
education teacher provide instruction in the same classroom. disruptive situation and uses the misbehavior as a learning experience.
Cross-age buddy program Part of the Child Development Project, Effective communication According to Evertson and Harris,
it teams younger and older students so they have opportunities to teachers must not only be heard, they must be understood so that
work together and learn from each other. their instructions are followed and there are no misunderstandings.
Cultural disequilibrium The cultural mismatch between two Empathic understanding This is a technique favored by Thomas
groups or between students and teacher. Gordon in which a teacher learns about individual students, their
Culture People’s values, language, religion, ideals, artistic expres- specific needs, and their interests and abilities in order to tailor cur-
sion, patterns of social and interpersonal relationships, and ways of ricular and instructional decisions toward individual students.
perceiving, behaving, and thinking. Empowering perceptions These include three perceptions: per-
Cyberbullying This is a form of indirect bullying in which stu- ceptions of personal capabilities (teachers create a safe climate
dents use computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices to where students can experiment with learning and behavior with-
bully others. out judgments about success or failure); perceptions of significance
in primary relationships (teachers listen to the feelings, thoughts,
Dangles The teacher continues to find materials, reviews lesson
and ideas of students and take them seriously); and perceptions of
plans, and talks with individual students when the class as a whole
the personal power of influence in life (teachers give students the
is ready for instruction.
opportunity to contribute in useful ways, and help them to accept
Decision-making process This eight step model in the Social their power to create positive and negative environments).
Decision Making and Problem Solving model helps students apply
Encouragement In contrast to praise, teachers should use encour-
critical thinking and feeling.
agement to boost confidence and self-esteem and less praise, because
Deep modeling Kohn’s idea to encourage teachers to help children students can become dependent on the praise.
to see what is behind ethical decisions.
Environmental design This school design contributes to safe class-
Democracy This is the acceptable, internal, and highest level of rooms and schools.
Marshall’s social hierarchy in which students demonstrate self-disci-
Essential skills These consist of intrapersonal skills (students gain
pline and internal motivation.
understanding of their emotions and behaviors by hearing feedback
Democratic classrooms These are classrooms in which students from their classmates); interpersonal skills (students develop inter-
know that their human rights are secure. personal skills through dialogue and sharing, listening and empa-
Democratic teacher A hands-joined teacher encourages students thizing, cooperation, negotiation, and conflict resolution); systemic
to help devise classroom rules and their logical consequences, as well skills (students respond to the limits and consequences of everyday
as helps students to feel psychologically safe in the classroom envi- life with responsibility, adaptability, flexibility, and integrity because
ronment. they do not experience punishment or disapproval); and judgment
Desists The teacher engages in a effort to stop a misbehavior. skills (students develop judgment skills when they have opportuni-
ties and encouragement to practice making decisions in an environ-
Developmental discipline An approach to classroom management ment that emphasizes learning from mistakes rather punishment).
that emphasizes the development of students’ self-control and per-
sonal responsibility” (Battistich, Schaps, & Wilson, 2004, p. 244). Evaluative praise Considered destructive by Ginott, this type of
praise deals with the students’ character and personality.
Developmental levels Several meanings can be given to develop-
mental levels, for example students’ development during the Pre-K Extensive interventions According to Evertson and Harris, this is
level, elementary level, or secondary level, as well as one being an the highest level of intervention for the most severe behavior offense
early mature or late mature. and includes a five-step problem-solving procedure.
Direct bullying These are actions such as teasing, taunting, threat- Extrinsic bribes The opposite of internal motivation, it may con-
ening, hitting, and stealing. sist of things such as a homework pass, token, or sticker.
Discipline as self-control This is a belief by Thomas Gordon that Feelings of inadequacy One of Dreikurs’s four goals of misbe-
the ultimate responsibility for discipline lies within the individual havior, students who harbor feelings of hopelessness and inferiority
students who have to accept responsibility for changing their be- might misbehave to compensate for their inadequacy.
havior. Flip-flops The teacher is engaged in one activity and then returns
Discipline hierarchy This is a plan that informs students of conse- to a previous activity that the students thought they had finished.
quences and the order in which they will be imposed. Foundational theorists These are theorists in the study of student be-
Diversity Differences among students that teachers must con- havior and classroom management, including B. F. Skinner, Fritz Redl
sider as they identify appropriate classroom management strat- and William Wattenberg, William Glasser, and Thomas Gordon.
egies; these differences include (but are not limited to) gender, Fragmentation The teacher engages in a type of slowdown, for ex-
sexual orientation ethnicity, socioeconomic status, religion, and ample, the teacher breaks down an activity into subparts that could
development. be taught as a single unit.
225
Glossary
Front loading One of the first things that happens in a classroom Human relation skills These are interpersonal skills that a teacher
is that students develop a class set of expected behaviors. The stu- uses to work with and manage the students in a classroom.
dents focus on the Bill of Rights and the legal compelling interests I-messages Teachers use these statements to express how they feel
and then help define what these concepts mean in various teaching about a given behavior or how it affects them. For example, effective
and learning situations. teachers use statements such as “I’m frustrated by all the talking in
Functional behavioral assessments Using this process educators this room.”
examine the function and motivation for misbehavior. Imposed discipline Teachers assume responsibility for managing
Gender Basically, whether one is female or male. For years, educa- students’ behavior. Punishments are used.
tors considered education and classroom management practices in Improving yourself continually This unit in the Positive Action
terms of white males; however, we now realize that girls and boys program consists of setting and achieving goals, persisting, and be-
think and react differently as well as respond differently to class- lieving in your potential.
room management practices.
Inclusion A term which expresses commitment to educate each
General rules These describe teachers’ goals and objectives—their
child, to the maximum extent appropriate, in the school and class-
hopes and aspirations for classroom management during the com-
room he or she would otherwise attend. It involves bringing the
ing year. Rather than dictating behavior, they establish a tone in the
support services to the child (rather than moving the child to the
class, raise expectations, express the teacher’s values and typically
services) and requires only that the child will benefit from being
deal with good behavior and good work habits.
in the class (rather than having to keep up with the other students)
Grandma’s Rule According to this rule, students do not get their www.weac.org/Issues_Advocacy/Resource_Pages_On_Issues_one/
rewards until they demonstrate what the teacher wants (you don’t Special_Education/special_education_inclusion.aspx.
get dessert until you eat your vegetables).
Inclusive classrooms Classrooms that ensure that all students,
Group alerting The teacher obtains and holds the attention of the regardless of disabling conditions or special needs are accepted,
class, both at the beginning of a lesson and as the activities change considered to be valued learners, recognized for special needs and
within a lesson. talents, and provided an appropriate educational program and any
Group dynamics “Group life in the classroom” (Redl & necessary supports needed for them to be successful learners.
Wattenberg, 1959, p. 262): an understanding that individual be- Indirect bullying These actions cause a student to be socially iso-
havior affects group behavior and vice versa. lated through exclusion.
Group focus The teacher keeps the attention of all members of the Individualizing consequences Gathercoal believes that consist-
class at all times, which assists in maintaining an efficient classroom ency does not mean treating all students alike and that consequences
and reducing student misbehavior. must fit the individual.
Guided choices Part of Marshall’s Raise Responsibility System, it Ineffective things These behaviors, techniques, and decisions are
requires teachers to help students think about the choices they are those that teachers continue to demonstrate that do not work or
making. achieve the desired purpose.
Guided Discovery With Guided Discovery, teachers “introduce
Influence As opposed to control, teachers try to influence students
classroom materials in a systematic way that builds a common vo-
to demonstrate appropriate classroom behaviors.
cabulary, creates clear expectations for use, and establishes routines
for their care” (Rimm-Kaufman & Sawyer, 2004, p. 337). Instructional phase As part of the Social Decision Making and
Problem Solving model, students learn a social decision making
Healthy classrooms Classrooms in which students trust their abili-
strategy to help them in social problem situations.
ties and their environments, see benefits of improving behavior, and
make significant and meaningful decisions, and teachers and stu- Intelligence Sometimes called cognitive processes, intelligence re-
dents work collaboratively and cooperatively. fers to one’s ability to learn and to understand.
Hidden curriculum The beliefs, values, and norms that are trans- Internal motivation The opposite of external motivation; for ex-
mitted by the structure of education including management plans ample, taking self-satisfaction in having appropriate behavior is in-
and policies. ternal motivation.
Home groups In the Responsive Classroom® Model, these groups Interventions Either minor interventions, moderate interventions,
consist of teachers from across grade levels in a single school who or extensive interventions; instead of having the same punishments
meet to discuss school goals, issues and the implementation of RC for all misbehaviors, teachers must determine the severity of the be-
practices. havior offense and then determine the needed intervention.
Homeside activities Part of the Child Development Project that Intraculture Refers to the variations within a single cultural group.
takes activities from the classroom into the home and then back Jellyfish teachers These teachers are wishy-washy, are inconsistent
into the classroom. about classroom management, and allow anarchy and chaos. Without
Hostile style According to Canter and Canter, this is a teacher’s recognizable structure and rules, they are arbitrary and inconsistent with
style that uses an aversive approach, including shouting, threats, and rules and punishments, use mini lectures and putdowns, use threats and
sarcasm. bribes, and allow emotions to rule students and their behaviors.
226
Glossary
Jerkiness The teacher fails to develop a consistent flow of instruc- Movement management The teacher keeps lessons and groups en-
tion, thus causing students to feel lesson momentum jerks from gaged at an appropriate pace, with smooth transitions and varying
slow to fast (See also thrust). activities.
Judicious consequences Consequences must be commensurate Natural and reasonable consequences Real-world consequences
with the violation and must be compatible with the needs and inter- or interventions deal with the reality of the situation rather than the
ests of the student and the school community. power and control of the adult doing so.
Justice Concerned primarily with due process and deals with basic Natural reinforcers Rewards of reinforcers that occur naturally in
government fairness; students have the same right to fair and rea- the classroom such as free time, being the teacher’s helper, or work-
sonable rules as citizens in the nation have to be governed by fair ing on a special project.
and reasonable laws. Negative consequence According to Canter and Canter, this is an
Labeling The assigning of a description or characteristic to a stu- unpleasant consequence or penalty system having increasingly se-
dent that might follow her or him throughout the school years, for vere sanctions that follows negative behavior.
example, “trouble-maker,” “bad girl,” “disruptive boy,” or any other Negative reinforcement Something undesirable is removed to
number of labels that cause teachers to look for those characteristics. stimulate a desired behavior.
Learners with special needs Students who differ from other stu- New Disciplines These are the newer classroom management
dents in ways such as mental characteristics, sensory ability, physical models and theories that, although not behaviorist in nature, are
abilities, or multiple conditions and who require specialized services similar to behaviorist models.
from educators in teaching and learning situations as well as class-
Network meetings In the Responsive Classroom® model, these meet-
room management.
ing involve teachers from a number of different schools who use RC.
Least restrictive environments (LRE) The Individuals with
Nonassertive style This style is used by ineffective teachers who
Disabilities Education Act requires school districts to educate students
fail to establish clear standards of behavior or who fail to follow
with disabilities to the maximum extent appropriate with students
through on threats with appropriate actions.
without disabilities. It specifies that the removal of learners from the
general education environment may occur only when the nature or Obedience According to Mendler (1992, p. 36), this means “do
severity of the student’s disability precludes satisfactory instruction in not question and certainly do not be different.” Obedience also im-
general education classes, even with supplementary aids and services. plies a hierarchical structure in which one or several powerful indi-
viduals dictate the terms of behavior for everyone else.
Limit setting These are a set of physical moves performed by the
teacher that signal the student to stop specific behaviors. Operant conditioning (or behavior modification) This name
is used to refer to the theories of B. F. Skinner, which hold that
Literature-based reading and language arts A part of the Child
human behavior can be dramatically improved through the use of
Development Project.
scientific application of behavioral principles.
Logical consequences In contrast to rewards and punishments,
Overdwelling The teacher dwells on an issue and engages in a
Dreikurs suggests teachers use logical consequences that result from
stream of talk clearly longer than the time needed for students’ un-
the misbehaviors.
derstanding.
Long-term efforts These efforts hope to change students’ attitudes
Overlapping The teacher supervises and attends to more than one
and mindsets to a point where they will not want to repeat (nor see
group or activity at the same time.
a reason to do so) a misbehavior in the future.
Ownership Students learn that they are capable of taking ownership
Managing yourself responsibly This unit in the Positive Action
of their behaviors and full responsibility for the problems their behav-
program consists of managing time, energy, thoughts, actions,
iors create, not because of fear, but because it is the right thing to do.
money, feelings, and talents.
Peace in the Family A set of workshops in the Resolving Conflict
Mediation A dispute between two individuals is resolved through
Creatively Program what takes conflict resolution skills into the home.
the use of a third party or mediator who helps the two individuals
negotiate a settlement. Peer mediation This is a technique used to help students resolve
serious conflicts they cannot handle independently.
Minor interventions See Interventions.
Permissive teacher Hands-off teachers usually let the students do
Moderate interventions See Interventions.
what they want to do and depend upon their judgment to do what
Monitoring behavior The time in the Good Behavior Game dur- is best for them and other students without clear guidance from
ing which the teacher observes student behavior and awards marks the teacher.
for misbehaviors.
Pleasure–pain principle According to Redl and Wattenberg,
Morning Meeting This is both an independent ecological class- a teacher uses the pleasure–pain principle to deliberately provide
room management approach as well as a part of the Responsive experiences to produce pleasant to unpleasant feelings. The hope
Classroom® model. is that a pleasant experience will induce an individual to repeat a
Motivation Internal and external factors which contribute to a desirable behavior, and an unpleasant experience will make the indi-
person’s interests, commitment, and actions. vidual want to avoid repeating that unwanted behavior.
227
Glossary
Positive peer relationships A context in which students learn and prejudice. To guide students, educators should appeal to students’
practice social skills and receive social support. sense of fairness and also see the consequences of their behaviors.
Positive reinforcement A theory of B. F. Skinner which holds that Reconciliation This is the process of healing, with the offender
proper and immediate reinforcement (a favorite food, compliment, honoring the restitution plan and making a commitment to live up
or other reward) strengthens the likelihood that appropriate behav- to the resolution.
ior will reoccur; he also found that behavior can be shaped by pro- Reflection One of the three positive practices in Marshall’s
viding a reinforcing stimulus just after a desired behavior happens. Discipline without Stress®. Teachers should ask reflective questions
Positivity One of the three positive practices in Marshall’s of themselves and students.
Discipline without Stress®. Teachers should be positive in every- Relatedness One of the three basic needs according to Kohn.
thing they do and say.
Resolution Determining a way not to let the behavior happen
Power seeking One of Dreikurs’s four goals of misbehavior; again; in other words, how can students accept what they have done
power-seeking students attempt to prove their power by defying the and see its implications for a new beginning?
teacher and doing whatever they want.
Responsibility According to Mendler (1992, p. 37), this means
Praise In contrast to encouragement, when praise is used, if stu- “make the best decision you possibly can with the information you
dents do not or cannot continue the behavior or record of achieve- have available.” Within a responsibility model of discipline, stu-
ment, they begin to think they are of less worth. dents accumulate information, see the options available to them,
Precision request This is a short verbal cue or direct request used by a learn to anticipate consequences, and then choose the path they feel
teacher in Think TimeTM to encourage a student to change a behavior. is in the best interest of themselves and others.
Preferred activity time (PAT) This involves allocation (both giving Restitution This involves fixing what the student did and repair-
and taking away) of time for appropriate and inappropriate behaviors. ing the physical damage (if any) and the personal damage.
Primary level of intervention Basic or universal level of behavior Revenge One of Dreikurs’s four goals of misbehavior; students
support and intervention in Positive Behavior Support that is used who are seeking revenge want to hurt someone else and believe that
throughout the school. revenge is important for their own self-esteem.
Problem ownership A theory of Thomas Gordon; it holds that Ripple effect The teacher corrects one student or calls attention
educators must get the message to students that the behavior prob- to one student for his or her misbehavior (called a desist) and it
lem rests with the individual students and they will have to accept “ripples” to other students, causing them to behave better.
responsibility for changing their own behavior. RSVP approach These consequences are reasonable, simple, valu-
Professional ethics One of the foundations of Gathercoal’s model able (as a learning tool), and practical.
in which educators model acceptable standards of moral and proper Rules A statement of expected behavior, performance, or conduct.
conduct. Also a statement that establishes a standard.
Profiling Checklists of behaviors and personal characteristics asso- Safe school This is a place where the business of education can be
ciated with youths who have perpetuated violence are used to predict conducted in a welcoming environment free of intimidation, vio-
an individual student’s potential for acting out in a violent manner. lence, and fear.
Proximity This is the distance a teacher stands from a student, in Safe schools movement This movement is supported by indi-
an effort to let the misbehaving student know his or her inappropri- viduals, professional associations, and governmental agencies and
ate behavior is recognized by the teacher. places a priority on making schools safe for students and educa-
Psychological needs According to Glasser, these are the need for tors by focusing on the problem of violence and proposing pos-
survival, the need to belong, the need for power, the need for free- sible remedies.
dom, and the need for fun. Sane messages These messages address the students’ behavior
Quality schools This term used by William Glasser refers to rather than the students’ character.
schools that have positive academic and behavior results. Satiation The students have focused on one learning aspect too
Raise Responsibility System This is the core part of the Discipline long and begin to lose interest, make more mistakes, and misbehave.
without Stress® model of Marvin Marshall. It offers a hierarchy of School-based risk factors These are items such as poor design of
social development. school space, overcrowding, lack of caring, insensitivity toward mul-
Readiness phase In this part of the Social Decision Making and ticultural factors, student alienation, rejection of at-risk students by
Problem Solving model, students learn self control, as well as social teachers and peers, and anger and resentment at school routines and
awareness and group participation skills in lessons on topics such as demands for conformity.
following directions, listening, resisting and avoiding provocation, Schoolwide positive behavior supports These provide an opera-
monitoring emotions, and working with others. tional decision making framework that guides selection, integration,
Reality appraisal A theory by Fritz Redl and William Wattenberg, and implementation of the best evidence-based academic and be-
it holds that teachers must help students understand whether their havioral practices for improving important academic and behavior
actions are guided by intelligence and conscience or by fear or outcomes for all students.
228
Glossary
Secondary level of intervention Group interventions for behavior Social skills Project ACHIEVE identifies four categories of social
support in Positive Behavior Support. Provided for students who skills, including survival skills, interpersonal skills, problem-solving
are at risk of social and/or academic failure. skills, and conflict resolution skills.
Security technologies These are items such as smart cards, Socioeconomic status The social and economic position, which is
metal detectors and wands, alarm systems, and closed-circuit often based on income, education, and occupation.
television. Special needs learners See Learners with special needs.
Self-concept An individual’s perception of herself or himself, in- Specific rules These rules train a class to do what you want them
cluding such things as social competence, academic skills, gender to do and when you want them to do it.
roles, and cultural identity.
Stimulus bound The teacher has the students engaged in a les-
Self-discipline According to Gordon, discipline problems reside son and then something attracts her or his attention; she or he
within the students and they will have to accept responsibility for loses the instructional focus and momentum while dealing with
changing their behavior. the other issue.
Self-management A process during Think TimeTM when a stu- Stop and Think This part of Project ACHIEVE is a process
dent reflects and tries to regain self-control. to help students decrease impulsive behavior and provide self-
Sense of community This is a feeling of togetherness, where all reinforcement.
students (both elementary and secondary), teachers, and adminis- Subculture This is a racial, ethnic, regional, economic, or social
trators know each other and create a climate for intellectual devel- community that exhibits characteristic patterns of behavior sufficient
opment and shared educational purpose. to distinguish it from others in the dominant society or culture.
Service-learning The curriculum integrated academic instruction Supporting self-control Because individuals control their own
with meaningful community service both to strengthen academics conduct, misbehavior results from a temporary lapse of an individ-
and promote civic responsibility. ual’s control system. Teachers must help students learn to use their
Severe clause This part of the Canters’ discipline hierarchy pro- control system.
vides a way to remove students from the classroom if they pose a Target behaviors Educators decide to address these behaviors be-
threat to others. cause they violate class or school policy or interfere with teachers
Short-term efforts Efforts to provide a quick fix for behavior prob- teaching or students learning. Addressing all misbehaviors is not an
lems; the goal is to stop the behavior at that particular time, but it efficient use of instructional time.
does little to prevent the student or another student from repeating Taught discipline Teachers work to teach students to discipline
the same behavior again. themselves.
Significant Seven These are the essential skills and empowering Teacher Effectiveness Training The model of Thomas Gordon in
perceptions. which teachers learn the skills they need manage their classrooms.
Site facilitator An individual in a given school who is responsible Teaching the Concepts The part of Marshall’s Raise Responsibility
for the implementation of a program. System in which teachers teach a hierarchy of four developmental
Situational assistance This theory by Redl and Wattenberg levels of social interaction.
holds that if a student has lost his or her self-control, a teacher Team membership Students work with their peers in social rela-
steps in with situational assistance to help the student regain tionships.
control.
Tertiary or individual level of interventions The tertiary level of
Six-step problem solving This process for resolving conflicts is behavior support and intervention in Positive Behavior Support is
part of Gordon’s model and is outlined in Chapter 3. used to help specific students with emotional and behavioral chal-
Slowdowns The teacher, when teaching, moves too slowly and lenges and to assist their families.
stops instruction too often. Thus, the students lose interest or learn- Think TimeTM desk This time-out desk in a cooperating teacher’s
ing momentum. classroom is a place where students may sit and reflect on their mis-
Skills for Action This is the high school portion of the Lions behavior.
Quest program. Thoughts-Action-Feelings circle A student has a thought, acts on
Skills for Adolescents This is the middle school portion of the it, and feels something because of that action.
Lions Quest program. Thrust The teacher teaches too slowly or too fast or switches back
Skills for Growing This is the kindergarten and elementary por- and forth, thus failing to acquire and hold an appropriate momen-
tion of the Lions Quest program. tum for students to learn.
Social contracts In this arrangement, teachers and students work Tourists Passive onlookers lack feelings of genuine participation in
together to define acceptable and unacceptable behavior and conse- classroom activities.
quences for breaking the agreed-upon rule. Treating others the way you like to be treated A unit in the
Social hierarchy Part of Marshall’s Raise Responsibility System, it Positive Action model that encourages students to treat others the
consists of four developmental levels of social interaction. way they like to be treated.
229
Glossary
Truncation The teacher engages in a dangle, yet fails to resume the Written intervention plans This document describes the effective
original, dropped activity. prevention practices that will be taken to help troubled children,
Violence These behaviors range from threats of physical violence to educates students and parents, and includes steps to be taken when
physical assaults and homicide and contribute to an unsafe school. early warning signs are observed or when a tragedy has occurred.
Warning signs These are indicators that could be used to prevent You-messages These messages attack a students’ personality and
violent behaviors. character, as contrasted with I-messages.
Withitness The teacher perceives everything in all areas of the Zero-tolerance policies These rules provide strict consequences, with-
classroom at all times. out regard for individual circumstances and individual consideration.
230
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Index
Page references followed by "f" indicate illustrated 93, 95, 98, 100-101, 137, 141, 144, 148, reinforcement, 21, 158
figures or photographs; followed by "t" indicates a 177-179, 184, 215, 217-219 Appreciation, 10, 97, 103, 115, 209
table. learning, 3-5, 41, 44-45, 47, 51-52, 55-57, 85-87, Approaches, 5-6, 17, 19-37, 39-59, 83-105, 107-131,
93, 95, 98, 100-102, 112, 115, 119, 121, 133-151, 153-169, 176, 182-183, 203, 231,
130, 136-137, 141, 144-149, 156, 165, 233, 235, 237, 239, 242
A 177-179, 184, 197, 199, 217-218 brief, 130
Abilities, 57, 115, 122, 174-176, 179, 181 planning, 4, 45, 51, 98, 100, 118, 141, 144, 177, Appropriate education, 183
defined, 175 181, 197, 219 Appropriate language, 163
Ableism, 186 purposes of, 57 Area, 7, 25, 59, 120, 202, 237
cultural, 186 varying, 57 Arizona, 232
individual, 186 Activity guides, 145 teachers, 232
Absences, 50 Activity reinforcers, 29 Art, 32, 54, 58, 92-93, 141, 183, 193, 236
Absenteeism, 41 Adaptability, 117 materials for, 54, 141
Abstract thinking, 175 Addiction, 231, 236, 241 music, 54, 93, 141, 183
Abuse, 15, 24, 52, 54, 148 Addition, 4, 7-9, 11-12, 15-16, 23, 26, 28-30, 33, questions about, 193
alcohol, 15 51-52, 56-58, 88, 90, 94-95, 97, 103, 109, responding to, 193
drug, 52, 54 113, 115, 119, 121-122, 124, 127-128, Articles, 15, 114
emotional, 24, 52 141-142, 148-149, 156, 165, 167, 176-183, Arts, 137, 145, 147
substance, 52, 54, 148 187, 198, 210-212, 216, 218-219 standards, 147
Academic achievement, 6, 41, 53, 97, 103, 140, Adjustment, 28, 42 Asian Americans, 9, 35
149-150, 165, 167, 175-177, 181, 183, 186, Adjustments, 57 Assertive discipline, 13, 20, 22-23, 25-27, 33-36, 137,
209, 211, 216, 237 Adler, Alfred, 130 192, 201, 232, 234, 239, 241
Academic curriculum, 233 biography of, 130 Assertiveness, 103, 165-166, 168
Academic difficulties, 141 Administration, 16, 52, 109, 159, 167, 240 Assessing, 158, 168, 177, 236, 239
Academic goals, 180 Administrators, 10, 15, 24-25, 93-95, 100, 130, 141, Assessment, 4, 17, 22, 144, 165, 179, 182, 186, 216,
Academic performance, 42, 57, 98, 100, 116, 158, 145, 148, 159, 166-167, 176, 182, 192, 195, 233-234, 240
162, 177, 181, 232, 238 202, 210, 237 Assessment:, 234
Academic skills, 51 educational, 10, 15, 176, 182, 202, 237 alternative, 179, 182, 216
Academics, 51, 53, 55, 101, 116, 146, 159, 176, 231, of schools, 148 behavioral, 22, 179, 182, 186, 216, 234, 240
234 adolescence, 105, 150, 231, 234, 236, 239 cognitive-behavioral, 22
skills, 51, 53, 55, 101, 116, 176, 234 social problem solving, 231, 234-235, 234, 238 community, 4, 144, 179, 234, 240
acceptance, 55, 92, 118, 130, 138, 176, 178, 180, 239 Adolescents, 10, 15, 43, 50, 52-53, 58, 91, 123, 191, concerns about, 165
ACCESS, 11, 176 200 crisis intervention, 234
Accessibility, 232, 237-238 development in, 234, 240 decision making, 234
Accommodation, 175 Adulthood, 157, 166, 215 direct, 216
Accommodations, 9, 96, 179, 182 Adults, 53-54, 113, 118, 120, 124, 136, 144, 147, 159, ecological, 233
accommodations, 9, 96, 179, 182 162-163, 192 family, 165, 182, 234, 240
effectiveness, 96, 182 Advanced placement, 120 formal, 165
Accountability, 43, 50, 56, 58, 92, 95, 98, 103, 116, advice, 16, 27, 88, 146, 190, 200, 202-203, 220 functional, 182, 186, 216, 234, 240
162, 182, 187 Advisory committee, 210 functional behavioral, 182, 186, 216
inclusion and, 182, 187 Affect, 6, 12, 35, 56-58, 86, 102, 124, 172, 175, 180, group, 182, 186, 216
of teachers, 162, 187 187, 196, 198, 215-216 group work, 182
Accuracy, 32 Affirmation, 138 health, 233
Achieve, 10-11, 31, 44, 85, 95, 123, 129, 142, 154, African Americans, 8, 235, 238 HELPING, 233
157-158, 162-164, 166-167, 169, 180, 192, Age, 7, 11, 26, 30, 51-54, 103, 112, 137, 146, 165, history, 182, 186, 234
198 175-176, 185 IDEA 2004, 17
Achievement, 6, 11, 41, 53, 85, 97, 103, 105, 112, mental, 52 in grades, 144
140-141, 148-150, 160, 165, 167, 175-178, Aggression, 15-16, 30, 122, 158, 165, 168, 175, 177, integrated, 233
180-181, 183, 186, 211, 215, 218, 234-235, 183, 218, 233, 236-237, 239 methods, 4, 233
237-238 forms of, 15, 175 methods of, 4
academic, 6, 11, 41, 53, 85, 97, 103, 105, 140-141, aggressive behavior, 37, 126, 183, 236-237, 237 monitoring, 22
148-150, 160, 165, 167, 175-178, Agreement, 97 need for, 17
180-181, 183, 186, 211, 234, 237-238 AIDS, 213 plan for, 216
grouping, 180 Alcohol, 15, 30 planning and, 144
tests, 41, 103, 140-141, 140, 143, 148 Alert, 50 problem, 144, 182, 216, 233-234
Achievement gap, 235 ALLIANCE, 17 procedures, 17, 216
Acquired knowledge, 175 Alternatives, 51, 137, 232, 242 reasons for, 182
ACT, 6-7, 9, 11, 13, 25, 32, 87, 99, 111, 113, 118-120, American Educational Research Association, 121, 235 risk, 165, 179, 182, 234
128, 161, 163, 178-180, 182, 187, 200, 209, American Federation of Teachers, 202 self-assessment, 144
214-216, 231, 232, 239, 241 American Guidance Service, 231 special education, 179
provisions, 11, 32 American School Board Journal, 202, 231, 237, stress, 216
actions, 6, 12, 22-26, 36, 42-43, 45-46, 50, 53-54, 56, 241-242 supportive, 165
58, 85, 92, 97, 103-104, 112, 114, 116-118, Analysis, 21, 158, 162, 231-232, 234-235, 238 Assessments, 174
120, 124, 127, 182, 184, 186, 192, 198, 209, Anger, 8, 52, 91, 138, 164-166, 168, 179 classroom, 174
213-214 management, 8, 52, 91, 138, 164-166, 168, 179 comprehensive, 174
overview of, 23, 36, 50, 53, 97, 116, 118, 140 anger management, 52 of students, 174
Active learners, 141 animals, 22 Assets, 113, 212
Active learning, 135-137, 141, 144-150, 148 Antisocial behavior, 156, 241 Assignments, 49, 95, 112, 120, 149, 217, 219, 222
Active listening, 165 anxiety, 195, 216 Assimilation, 175
Activities, 3-5, 41, 44-45, 47, 49, 51-52, 54-57, 85-87, Apologies, 157 Assistance, 10, 26, 33, 45, 55, 58, 99, 141, 145,
93, 95, 98, 100-102, 112, 115, 118-119, 121, Application, 5, 21, 23, 28, 43, 55, 98, 111, 113, 116, 165-166, 174, 182, 187, 190, 202, 241
130, 156, 165, 176-179, 181, 184, 197, 199, 139, 158, 164-165, 191, 231, 237 Association, 15, 50, 121, 131, 162, 168, 187, 232-233,
211, 215, 217-219 Applications, 1, 19, 23, 31, 36, 39, 44, 51-52, 54-55, 235-236, 239
developmental, 5, 51, 56, 87, 100, 136-137, 145, 83-84, 88, 94, 100, 107-108, 111, 118, 123, Association for Supervision and Curriculum
147, 150, 199, 215 133-134, 140, 142, 144-145, 153, 159, 162, Development, 233, 236
follow-up, 41, 150 165, 171, 189, 205, 209, 214, 221, 231, 239 assumptions, 10, 139, 200
instructional, 3-5, 41, 44-45, 47, 49, 55-57, 85, 87, Applied behavior analysis, 21, 158 atmosphere, 14-15, 92, 109-110, 118, 136, 207, 209,
243
233 violent, 7-8, 96, 115, 126, 138, 148-149, 156, 168, Burns, 150, 231, 236
At-risk behaviors, 157 192, 218, 220, 231 Bus drivers, 162
Attachment, 145, 210 Behavior change, 158, 231 Businesses, 5
Attachment theory, 145 Behavior changes, 8, 122-123, 166
Attending, 123, 144, 173 Behavior management, 17, 25, 36-37, 41, 97, 100, C
Attention, 7-9, 13, 27, 30-32, 35, 44, 47-48, 50, 56, 86, 180, 187, 203, 217, 220, 231-233, 235, 237, California, 145, 157
90-91, 109-111, 113-114, 127, 129, 144, 149, 242 Capacities, 55
164, 174, 196-197, 211, 215, 218, 231, 236 bullying prevention, 233 Capacity, 129
and learning, 56, 144, 174, 196 dropout prevention, 187 Cards, 50, 96, 161, 216, 218
from teachers, 109 Behavior modification, 21-22, 27-28, 34, 36, 101, 137, Career, 12, 16, 43, 52, 202, 219
negative, 9, 13, 27, 31, 44, 47-48, 50, 129, 174 182, 192, 212, 237, 239, 241 education, 12, 43, 52, 202
positive, 9, 13, 27, 30-31, 35, 44, 50, 56, 86, Behavior problems, 6, 12, 24-25, 35, 44-45, 53, 56-58, information, 16, 52, 202
109-111, 113, 127, 129, 144, 149, 174, 85, 87, 94, 102, 113, 123, 129, 135, 148, Career exploration, 43, 52
211, 215, 231, 236 159-160, 163, 174, 177, 185, 187, 191, 195, Caregivers, 181, 186
student, 7-8, 27, 31-32, 35, 44, 47, 50, 56, 86, 197, 202, 217, 232, 238 Caring, 36, 40, 42-43, 50-51, 54-55, 57-59, 87, 95, 97,
90-91, 109-111, 113-114, 127, 129, 144, Behavior support plan, 174 103, 110, 114, 116, 124, 128, 134, 136-138,
149, 164, 174, 196-197, 211, 215, 231, Behavior support plans, 182 140, 142, 145-151, 163-165, 178, 184, 200,
236 Behavioral approach, 22, 135 207, 210, 212, 214, 232-234, 236, 240, 242
theories, 44, 56, 113, 127, 129 Behavioral assessment, 182, 186, 216 Caring classroom, 42, 210
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 30 Behavioral challenges, 160 Case studies, 51
Attention getting, 7, 110-111, 127 Behavioral principles, 21 Case study, 16, 191, 196-199, 213-214, 217
Attitudes, 4, 42, 50, 57, 85, 95, 116, 121, 123-124, Behavioral problems, 162, 179, 238, 240 CASEL, 59
138, 148, 150, 166, 173, 176-177, 231, 240 Behavioral support, 158, 162, 236 CAST, 168, 236
behaviors and, 42, 85, 123, 138, 150 Behavioral theory, 135 Categories, 163, 175, 179, 195
teacher, 4, 42, 50, 57, 85, 121, 123-124, 138, 148, Behaviorism, 95, 140-141, 234, 236, 242 Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 169
150, 166, 173, 176-177, 231, 240 Behaviors, 3-9, 11-13, 16-17, 21-22, 26-31, 35-36, Centers, 93, 148, 199, 222, 236
Audience, 126, 135 41-42, 44-46, 48, 52-58, 85, 87-88, 90-91, art, 93, 236
Audio, 49, 144 93, 97-100, 103-104, 113, 116-117, 119, computer, 93
AUTHOR, 17, 130, 150, 220, 239-241 121-123, 126, 130, 137-138, 144-145, 148, interest centers, 93
Author talks, 240 150, 155-161, 163-164, 166, 168, 173, organization of, 93
Authority, 35, 121 175-176, 178, 181-185, 191-192, 194-196, Chains, 161
legal, 121 201, 206, 209-210, 212-213, 215-218, 220, Challenging behaviors, 176
Authors, 16-17, 36, 50, 58-59, 105, 150, 168, 181, 221, 231, 234-235, 237-239 Change, 6, 8, 14, 16, 21, 31, 36, 42, 45, 47, 53-54, 90,
187, 202 at-risk, 36, 148, 157, 234-235, 237 98, 104, 114, 123, 129, 135, 138, 140,
Autonomy, 136-138, 145-147, 149-150, 167 bad, 3, 7, 85, 117, 150, 163, 237-238 143-144, 147, 150, 155-156, 158, 161, 173,
Average, 25, 46, 162 beliefs and, 4-5, 12, 150, 212, 216, 231 175, 178, 181-182, 184, 191, 198, 201-202,
Avoiding, 10, 45-47, 49, 55, 115, 164, 181 classroom management and, 4-5, 11, 16, 36, 88, 209, 213, 217-219, 221-222, 231, 233, 235,
Awards, 27, 92, 138, 222 99, 176, 184, 212, 220, 221, 231, 238, 241
Awareness, 42, 46, 54-55, 58, 238, 240, 242 234-235 attitude, 155, 178, 217
self, 42, 54-55, 58, 238, 240 coping, 168, 218, 239 continuing, 45, 114
describing, 29 essential, 129
B desirable, 99, 184 in schools, 6, 42, 53, 138, 140, 156, 158, 233, 238
Back, 21, 24, 34, 45-46, 50, 88, 90-92, 94, 102, 104, nonverbal, 99, 144 motivation for, 53, 182
112-113, 140, 146, 159, 166, 178, 192, 195, on-task, 28, 144, 213, 217-218, 234 personality and, 14
199, 214, 217-218, 220, 233, 236 self-management, 22, 30, 58 planned, 47, 90, 98, 143, 173, 217
Back talk, 88 SHARE, 97, 148, 181, 212 problems with, 155, 161, 217
Backbone, 192, 194 verbal, 26-27, 163, 210 rate of, 175
Background, 45, 147, 176, 180, 214 Belief system, 177 theory of, 14, 241
Background knowledge, 214 Beliefs, 4-5, 12, 14, 25, 35, 57-58, 89, 102, 104, 120, Change agent, 147
Backup system, 93-94, 103 129, 135, 137, 139, 146-147, 150, 172, Changes, 8, 36, 42, 50, 52, 96, 122-123, 130,
Balance, 120, 199 186-187, 190-194, 198-202, 206-208, 212, 165-166, 178, 194, 203, 210
Baltimore, 28, 30, 33 214, 216, 220, 231, 238, 240 Chaos, 32, 50, 139, 141, 148, 183, 233
Baseline data, 162, 165 ability, 35, 89, 186, 192, 207-208, 214, 220 counseling and, 233
AS, 162, 165 control, 25, 57, 102, 104, 135, 139, 147, 192, 194, order and, 233
BASIC, 10, 21, 25, 55, 58, 95, 103, 117, 122-124, 127, 201, 214 Character, 40, 43, 50-52, 54, 58-59, 86, 113, 127, 135,
129, 140-142, 163, 175, 184, 211 self-efficacy, 240 147, 155-156, 164, 231, 234-237, 239, 241
Beginning teachers, 4, 14, 220 Belonging, 138, 147, 150, 156, 176, 178, 210, 216 Character development, 51-52, 147, 156, 231, 234
Behavior, 2-3, 5-15, 17, 20-37, 41-42, 44-46, 48-53, Benefits, 57, 95-97, 118, 123, 147-148, 167, 180, 216 Character education, 43, 50, 52, 58, 155, 164,
55-59, 85-87, 89-94, 96-105, 111-115, Best practice, 33, 234 235-237, 239, 241
117-119, 121-130, 135-140, 142-143, 145, Best practices, 241-242 Characters, 53, 145
148-149, 154, 156-163, 166-168, 173-175, Bias, 23, 166, 186 Charts, 140
177-185, 187, 191-197, 199-203, 209-213, disciplinary, 186 Chats, 105
215-220, 222, 231-242 system, 23 Cheating, 50
aggressive, 3, 7-8, 11, 37, 117, 126, 138, 156, 183, Bill of Rights, 119-120 Checklist, 5, 56, 219, 222
192, 195-196, 220, 237 Biography, 37, 59, 105, 130-131, 151, 168 Checklists, 50
awareness of, 238 Blame, 3, 140, 157, 209 Chicago, 17, 149
challenging, 13, 179, 217, 232, 237, 239 Blaming, 54, 209 Child development, 134, 136-137, 145, 150-151, 184,
communication and, 101 Blindness, 174 231, 234, 239-241
desired, 5, 14, 21-22, 46, 93, 99, 158, 184-185, 216 Blocks, 116, 118, 212 curriculum, 136, 145, 231, 234
disruptive, 28, 30-32, 36-37, 91-92, 168, 179, 182, Blueprints, 192 Children, 3, 8, 10-11, 15-16, 21, 28, 33, 37, 42, 53, 55,
194-196, 215-217, 237-239 Body language, 86-88, 90, 103-104, 124 57-59, 86-87, 91, 99-101, 103, 105, 110-111,
environment and, 44, 184, 232 Bonding, 181 113, 120, 123, 130, 137-139, 145, 149-150,
hurtful, 115, 128 Bonuses, 92 158, 160, 162, 165-168, 173, 175-176, 178,
modification, 21-22, 27-28, 34, 36, 101, 137, 182, Bookmark, 29 180-181, 183, 187, 191, 199-200, 207-209,
192, 212, 219, 237, 239, 241 Books, 7, 15, 34, 48, 101, 104, 161, 164, 209, 213, 213-215, 231-240
off-task, 6, 140, 197, 217 231, 235, 239 art of, 236
replacement, 114, 163 assignment, 7, 213 behaviorist approach, 149
routines and, 52, 87 multicultural, 231, 235 compassionate, 8, 138, 149
self-esteem and, 52, 112-113 talking, 104 constructivist approach, 145
simple, 26, 28, 33, 42, 87, 89, 112, 127, 180, 183, Bowlby, 145, 231 focus on, 15, 28, 42, 57-58, 91, 100, 103, 110,
201, 217 Boys, 3, 25, 149, 215, 231, 238 138-139, 183, 237
social, 2, 8, 10-11, 22-23, 28-29, 31, 33-34, 36, Brainstorming, 118 rights of, 120, 176
41-42, 46, 50-53, 55-59, 85-86, 92-94, Buffer, 94 Children with disabilities, 11, 178
99-104, 111, 113, 123-125, 127, 129-130, Bulletin boards, 98, 156, 219, 222 Children with special needs, 176, 187
136-137, 145, 148-149, 154, 156-158, Bullies, 7, 15-16, 207, 213, 217-218, 239-241 gifted children, 187
160-163, 166-168, 178, 180-182, Bullying, 6, 16-17, 50, 155, 159, 166-167, 218, Chip, 96
184-185, 216, 220, 231-232, 234, 232-233, 235-239 Choice, 34, 49, 86, 99-101, 113-114, 163, 191, 233,
236-237, 239-241 preventing, 6, 232, 235, 239 238, 241-242
target, 12-13, 29, 156 research-based programs, 232, 235 Choice theory, 233, 238, 241-242
244
Circles, 51, 59, 178, 180 129-130, 135, 138, 140-142, 149, 151, 156, 137, 140, 147, 149, 154, 173, 184, 192, 201
Citizenship, 51-52, 118-120, 128 161-166, 173, 177, 182, 208, 210, 219, 222, guides, 102
Clarity, 46 231, 236-237, 240-242 introducing, 11
Class discussions, 119 Cliques, 210 Conclusions, 9, 135, 193
Class jobs, 49 Clothing, 120, 125 Concrete examples, 203
Class meetings, 16, 28, 51, 97, 110, 115-116, 118-119, religious, 120 Conferences, 101, 211
121-122, 127-129, 146-147, 178, 184, 208, Coaching, 159 families, 101
212, 214, 220, 231, 235, 237 Code of ethics, 110, 119 parent, 101, 211
Class rules, 22, 26, 52, 102-103, 112, 120, 127-129, Coercion, 31, 87, 104, 137, 235 Confidence, 91, 112, 114-115, 127-128
136, 141, 147, 156, 178-179, 185, 197, 211, Cognition, 57, 175 Conflict, 16, 51, 53-54, 86, 94, 96-97, 99, 103-105,
219, 222 Cognitive development, 175 117, 121, 126-127, 154, 157, 161-162,
Classroom, 1-17, 19-37, 39-59, 83-105, 107-131, abilities, 175 164-169, 210, 219, 222, 232-233, 235-236,
133-151, 153-169, 171-187, 189-203, COIN, 235 240-241
205-220, 221-222, 231-242 Collaboration, 13, 16, 53, 58, 100-102, 104, 113, 147, freedom and, 241
arrangements, 87, 102, 142, 178, 216 166, 168-169, 174, 176-177, 179, 194, 213, resolution, 16, 51, 54, 86, 94, 96-97, 99, 103-105,
conference, 99, 217 235, 240 117, 121, 126-127, 157, 161-162,
displays, 28, 148 coteaching, 177 164-165, 167, 219, 222, 232-233,
environment in, 97, 115, 142, 148, 183, 196, 200, in the schools, 168, 240 235-236, 241
208, 213 school administrators, 166 Conflict resolution, 51, 54, 86, 94, 96, 99, 103-105,
first day of school, 12, 89, 98, 211-212, 218 skills in, 58 117, 121, 127, 157, 161-162, 164-165, 167,
learning styles and, 178, 218 small groups, 102, 179 219, 222, 232-233, 235-236, 241
organizing, 6, 98 special educators, 177 conflicts, 94-97, 118-119, 121, 136, 165-166, 168, 210,
secondary classrooms, 88 students, 13, 16, 53, 58, 100-102, 104, 113, 147, 218
talk in, 88 166, 168, 174, 176-177, 179, 194, 213, Confrontation, 91, 114, 126
Classroom arrangement, 14, 101-102, 185, 219, 222 235, 240 Confusion, 45, 48, 176
Classroom behavior, 23, 28, 42, 85, 89, 102, 162, 175, time for, 100, 194 Connections, 25, 123, 216, 235
181, 187, 216, 235, 237, 242 understanding, 13, 194 Consciousness, 51
management system, 85, 162 with families, 113 Consequence, 22, 24, 27, 31, 34, 112, 125-127,
Classroom climate, 42, 100, 161, 165, 173, 177 Collaborative learning, 111, 146-147 138-139, 183, 212, 218, 239
Classroom conflicts, 119 Collecting, 114, 219 Consequences, 11, 13, 22-27, 31-36, 42, 51, 55, 86,
Classroom control, 50, 127 Collegiality, 208 92, 94, 98, 100-101, 103, 110-113, 117-121,
Classroom discipline, 84, 86-88, 93, 141, 217, color, 241 123-130, 135-137, 158-162, 164, 167, 179,
235-236, 242 Colors, 121 183, 186, 194, 197, 200-201, 209, 212-213,
classroom rules, 88 Com, 2, 6, 17, 36-37, 59, 87-88, 90-92, 105, 108, 216-219, 222, 232-233
rewards, 93 130-131, 151, 169, 187, 203, 220, 234-235, reinforcement and, 22, 36
Classroom environment, 11, 13, 25, 30, 42, 44, 85, 241-242 Consideration, 10, 34, 123, 140, 161, 173, 176,
102, 138, 142, 182-183, 207, 213, 232 Commitment, 47, 97, 140, 184, 210 191-192, 195, 197, 199, 214-215, 217
democratic, 207, 213 Committees, 212 Consistency, 13, 24, 33, 35, 56, 121, 123, 134,
room arrangement, 102 rules, 212 136-137, 140-142, 149-151, 155, 162, 167,
student learning and, 102 common goals, 97, 111, 147, 216 191, 193, 201, 231, 234-235
time, 13, 25, 30, 44, 85, 142, 182-183 Communication, 52-53, 57, 86, 97-99, 101, 104, 116, Constitution, 120, 137, 142-144, 193
Classroom management, 1-17, 19-37, 39-59, 83-105, 118, 121, 127, 165, 201, 213, 222 Constructive criticism, 209
107-131, 133-151, 153-169, 171-187, active listening, 165 Constructivist approach, 145
189-203, 205-208, 211-217, 219-220, behavior and, 98, 104, 121, 213 Consultants, 159, 162, 165, 167
221-222, 231-242 boards, 98, 222 consultation, 177, 235, 241
and student behavior, 11, 135 good, 53, 97-98, 127, 213 roles, 177
classroom arrangement, 14, 101-102, 185, 219, parents, 53, 98-99, 101, 116, 127, 165, 213, 222 Contact, 9-10, 24, 26, 31, 35, 46, 91, 98, 103, 114,
222 power and, 121 116, 124, 144, 210, 213, 218
for social studies, 92 skills for, 52-53, 165 Content, 5, 37, 45, 52, 59, 100, 232
positive behavioral support, 236 Communication skills, 52, 97, 116, 118 beliefs about, 5
schedules, 100, 178 Community, 4, 7, 10-11, 14-16, 33, 40, 42-43, 50-52, expectations, 5, 100
student conduct and, 119 54, 57-59, 90, 94-95, 97, 100, 105, 110-111, Context, 28, 105, 136, 167, 182, 231, 240
vignette, 3, 16, 21, 23, 36, 41, 50, 58, 85, 89, 104, 113-114, 119-121, 126-130, 133-151, 155, Continuity, 140-141
109, 112, 127, 130, 135, 150, 155, 168, 159, 162, 164, 176, 178-179, 184-185, Contracts, 110, 124, 127, 130
173-175, 182, 184, 186-187, 191-193, 200-201, 207-208, 210-212, 214, 219, 222, Control, 3, 7, 13, 24-25, 28, 31-32, 46, 50, 55-57, 59,
207-208 231-232, 234, 236-237, 239-242 87, 91-92, 100, 102, 104, 109, 113-115, 121,
withitness, 43-46, 56-58, 97, 219, 222 agencies, 10, 15, 33, 94 125-128, 135-136, 138-140, 144, 147, 149,
working independently, 160 groups, 10, 51, 54, 95, 100, 126, 138, 141-142, 165-166, 183, 192, 194-195, 201, 213-214,
Classroom organization, 84, 86, 97, 101, 104, 142-143 179, 185 234-235, 242
Classroom questions, 214 resources of, 52 self-control, 28, 31, 55, 91-92, 100, 113, 136, 144,
Classrooms, 3-4, 6, 11-12, 14-16, 21-22, 25-26, 30, schools and, 7, 51, 94, 208, 236, 239-240 147, 201
33, 35-36, 41-42, 52-53, 59, 88, 96-98, Community groups, 54, 100 Control group, 55, 166
102-103, 109-111, 114, 116, 118, 121-124, Community in the classroom, 10, 90, 178, 241 Control theory, 235
129-130, 138-142, 148, 155, 159, 162, 166, building, 10, 241 Conventions, 110
171-187, 193, 199-201, 208, 211, 213, 216, Community involvement, 57, 145-146 Conversations, 116, 146
231-234, 236-241 Community of learners, 136, 184 cooperation, 9, 16, 28, 31, 42-43, 54, 86-88, 94-95,
behavior, 3, 6, 11-12, 14-15, 21-22, 25-26, 30, 33, Comparison, 241 100-101, 103-104, 110-111, 113, 116-117,
35-36, 41-42, 52-53, 59, 96-98, 102-103, Comparisons, 234 130, 140-142, 148, 165-166, 176, 178,
111, 114, 118, 121-124, 129-130, Compassion, 97, 233 206-208, 210, 213-214, 219, 222, 235-236
138-140, 142, 148, 159, 162, 166, Competence, 54, 58, 85-86, 102-103, 110, 137-138, Cooperative groups, 96, 217
173-175, 177-185, 187, 193, 199-201, 147, 149, 166, 234, 236, 240 Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition, 180
211, 213, 216, 231-234, 236-241 clinical, 234 cooperative intentions, 97
behavior in, 22, 33, 36, 59, 98, 124, 174, 180, 184, maintaining, 102-103 Cooperative learning, 24, 48, 51, 86, 92, 94-96, 103,
193, 216, 233, 238, 240-241 Competencies, 42, 55, 57 105, 115, 134, 137, 145-148, 156, 180, 213,
caring classroom, 42 Competency, 239, 241 216, 236, 239
competition in, 138 Competing, 9, 177 approaches, 24, 48, 51, 86, 92, 94-96, 103, 105,
first week of school, 199 Competition, 9-10, 13, 30, 116, 134, 138, 150, 176, 115, 134, 137, 145-148, 156, 239
for grades, 30, 42, 138 178, 207, 209, 236-237 components, 51, 147
inclusive, 11, 171-187, 216, 231, 234, 236, 238, Complaints, 115, 143 group processing, 95
240-241 Complexity, 85, 235 learning circles, 51
regular, 11, 30, 33, 96, 141, 162, 178, 200, 237 Compliance, 24, 138, 149, 198, 200, 234, 237, 242 Coordination, 166
special, 11, 30, 33, 52-53, 98, 129, 141, 162, 166, Compliments, 29, 118, 164 Coping, 168, 218, 239
172-187, 200, 208, 216, 238-239, 241 Components, 15, 23, 51, 54, 141, 147, 154, 158, 162 behaviors, 168, 218, 239
Clauses, 46 Composition, 96, 180 Coping Power Program, 168, 239
Cleaning, 199 Comprehension, 45, 166 Copyright, 1, 19, 39, 83, 107, 133, 153, 171, 189, 205,
CLEAR, 13, 23, 33, 35, 45, 52, 56, 89, 93, 100-101, Concept, 1, 3-17, 36, 43, 54, 57, 103, 112, 123, 127, 221, 231
111, 123, 125-126, 144, 146, 164, 182-183, 197 Core academic classes, 54
196-197, 216, 218 Concepts, 11, 20, 23, 25, 36, 40, 43-44, 53, 84, 87, Core Curriculum, 51
Climate, 10, 42, 54, 59, 100, 109-110, 113, 117-118, 102-103, 108, 111, 118-119, 122, 129, 134, Core values, 43, 51, 58, 97
245
Correlation, 59 Democracy, 36, 108, 129 Drug dependence, 30
Coteaching, 177 Democratic teachers, 112, 192 Drugs, 15, 53
Co-teaching, 172-174, 177, 185-187, 235, 240 Department of Health and Human Services, 52, 162 abuse, 15
Coteaching Dependence, 30, 237 Due process, 94, 119-120
successful, 177 Dependency, 117 Due process hearing, 120
Co-teaching Depersonalization, 15 Dynamics, 42, 44, 85, 212
survey, 240 Depression, 42
Council for Exceptional Children, 187 Depth, 175 E
Counseling, 127, 232-233, 236, 239-242 Description, 141 Early childhood, 36, 139, 168, 232
chaos and, 233 Design, 17, 41, 51, 101, 150, 177, 182, 193, 220, 234, Early childhood programs, 36
grief, 233 240 Early intervention, 22, 31, 36, 198, 241
psychology, 232-233, 236, 239-242 Development, 4, 10, 14, 16, 51-52, 57-59, 99-100, Eclectic approach, 193, 200-202
techniques, 127, 232-233 109-112, 118, 120, 125, 130, 134-137, 140, Ecological model, 41, 58
Counselors, 54, 128, 160, 162, 232, 241 142-151, 155-157, 159, 162, 165-166, 168, Ecology, 56, 242
crisis, 162 175, 177, 181, 184, 190, 199, 201, 216, 221, Education, 1, 5, 10-12, 14-15, 17, 19, 30, 33, 36, 39,
for parents, 54 231-234, 236-237, 239-241 42-43, 50, 52-55, 58, 83, 86, 95, 105, 107,
professional school, 232, 241 of preschool children, 237 118-120, 130, 133, 140-141, 144, 146, 150,
Courses, 52, 183 social and emotional, 52, 58-59, 100, 110, 165-166, 153, 155, 157, 159-160, 162, 164-165, 168,
Courtesy, 28 232, 234, 240-241 171-179, 181, 183, 187, 189, 197-198, 200,
Courts, 121 Development of children, 100, 145 202-203, 205, 216, 220, 221, 231-242
Creating, 4, 10, 15, 23-24, 50, 100, 102, 128, 143, Developmental disabilities, 174 at home, 53, 181
145, 148-150, 176, 210-211, 214, 231-234, Developmental perspective, 232 civic, 54, 86, 130, 146
237-241 Developmental studies, 136-137, 145, 147, 150, 233 evidence-based practices, 240
Creativity, 89 Devices, 50, 222 for teachers, 11, 36, 118, 146, 165, 178
Credit, 93, 104, 184 Diagnosis, 179 global, 55, 240
Crises, 93 Diagrams, 197 problem-solving skills, 162, 164
Crisis, 162, 168, 187, 233-234, 237 Dialogue, 117 right to, 11-12, 120
Crisis intervention, 168, 234 Dictionaries, 101 supports, 159-160, 168, 176-178, 187, 200, 216,
appropriate, 168 Diet, 140 232, 239-240
study of, 234 Differences, 2, 8-11, 35, 56-57, 103, 118, 121, 149, Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 11
Crisis management, 162 179, 183, 185, 206, 208-209, 215-216, 219, Education programs, 42
Critical thinking, 51, 55, 124 222, 232, 238-241 Education Week, 168, 237, 241-242
modeling, 55 socioeconomic, 10-11 Educational Change, 235, 241
steps, 124 Differentiated instruction, 7, 178 Educational research, 21, 33, 55, 59, 121, 234-235,
Criticism, 124, 137, 207, 209 learning styles and preferences, 178 241-242
Critiquing, 220 Diffuse, 96, 179, 197 applied, 21, 33
Cue, 31 Diffusion, 231 basic, 21, 55
Cues, 30, 90-91 Dignity, 87-88, 91, 108, 110, 113, 122-124, 127-130, Educators, 2-6, 9-12, 15-16, 25, 30, 33-35, 51-52,
visual, 90 136-137, 182, 201, 210, 233, 238, 241 55-57, 87, 94-95, 100-101, 110, 113,
Cultural, 2, 8-10, 24, 35, 56, 91, 100, 103, 124, 129, Dimensions, 235 117-120, 124, 127-130, 136-140, 146, 148,
147, 156, 176, 180, 183, 186, 198, 208, 215, Direct instruction, 199, 217 156-162, 164, 167-168, 173-178, 180-187,
221, 232, 236, 238-239, 241 Directions, 26, 28-29, 55, 144, 163-164, 182 190-193, 196, 198, 200-202, 207-210,
ableism, 186 Directors, 41 216-218, 220, 232, 234-235, 242
Cultural conflict, 232 Disabilities, 11, 122, 158, 173-174, 178, 180, 186-187, mentoring, 234
Cultural differences, 9-10, 35, 183, 215 198, 200, 216, 238-239 Educators for Social Responsibility, 157, 164, 168
Cultural diversity, 8 ADHD, 187 Effective instruction, 6, 24, 98, 111
Culturally and linguistically diverse students, 187 Disabled students, 95-96 Effective managers, 98, 196
Culturally responsive teaching, 232, 235 Disaster, 21, 139, 196 Effective teacher, 184-185, 212
Culture, 9, 27, 51, 100, 135, 147, 158, 165, 177, 210, Disciplinary actions, 50, 186, 239 Effective teaching, 103, 162, 185, 235
215, 219, 222, 231, 237, 241 Disciplinary strategies, 17, 202 Effectiveness, 13, 33, 46, 87, 95-96, 105, 123-124,
Culture:, 231 Discipline, 4-5, 7, 11, 13-14, 17, 20, 22-23, 25-27, 140, 149, 168, 177, 182, 186-187, 232,
and behavior, 135 33-36, 41, 44, 51-53, 55, 57, 59, 84-89, 235-236, 240
high, 135, 165, 177, 215, 237, 241 91-94, 99-103, 108, 110, 112-113, 116, Effort, 6, 9, 15, 30, 87-88, 92, 127, 140, 142, 144, 161,
Curiosity, 138 118-131, 134-138, 140-144, 147-151, 175, 201-202, 217
Curran, 141, 215, 233, 242 155-156, 158-162, 166, 168, 175-176, 178, Ego, 186
Curriculum, 51-52, 54-58, 89, 135-136, 138, 140, 145, 184, 190-194, 196, 199-202, 206-208, Eighth grade, 30
147, 154, 158, 165, 231-234, 236-237 210-213, 217, 219-220, 221-222, 231-242 Elementary grades, 175, 184
accessing the general curriculum, 236 and planning, 141 Elementary school, 8, 28, 53-54, 56, 98, 105, 142,
core academic classes, 54 cooperative, 51, 86, 92, 94, 103, 108, 110, 113, 148, 150, 155, 166, 209, 214, 231, 234-235,
goals and objectives, 51, 89, 165 123, 127, 130, 134, 136-137, 140, 237, 239-241
hidden, 135, 237 142-143, 147-148, 150-151, 155-156, Elementary schools, 42, 51, 53, 100, 103, 145, 148,
implementing, 51, 56, 58, 236 213, 217, 231, 234, 236, 239 157, 162, 166-168, 232, 235-236
preschool, 51, 58, 232, 237 historically, 176 Elementary students, 16, 104, 118, 175, 198, 209, 233
relationships and, 52 isolation, 110 E-mail, 7, 116, 193
small group, 51 Discipline issues, 11 Embarrassment, 93-94, 115
social skills, 52, 55, 58, 154, 158, 236 Discipline problems, 89, 94, 112, 135, 142, 147-148, Emotion, 57, 220
structured, 135 155-156, 158, 175, 219, 222, 232, 235, 238, Emotional and behavioral disorders, 179, 239
Curriculum development, 233, 236 242 Emotional development, 52, 165
Cyberbullying, 236 discrimination, 23, 166 academic achievement and, 165
Discussion, 41, 45, 55, 114, 117, 121, 126, 139, 145, programs for, 165
D 147, 157, 178, 192 Emotional support, 100
Daily living, 52 guided, 55 Emotions, 55, 87, 117, 128, 208
Daily living skills, 52 Discussions, 41, 51-52, 119, 121, 164, 176, 184, 210, self-destructive, 55
Daily routines, 87, 141 214 Empathizing, 117
Data, 158-160, 162, 165-166, 187 conceptual, 176 empathy, 52, 54, 100, 116, 136, 165, 210, 231
Databases, 180 conflict, 51, 121, 164, 210 caring and, 136, 165, 210
Daydreaming, 218 Disequilibrium, 231 training for, 165
Deafness, 174 Disproportionate representation, 239 Encouragement, 27, 36, 54, 101, 109-117, 119, 127,
Deafness and hearing loss, 174 Disruptions, 8, 45, 88, 93, 120, 217-218 129-130
Decision making, 40, 43, 51-52, 54-55, 58-59, 94, 113, Distress, 42 Energy, 54, 197
129, 136, 141, 146, 197, 234, 241 Diversity, 2, 4, 8-12, 14, 16, 24, 87, 97, 103, 127, 149, Engagement, 42, 98, 101, 105, 145, 156, 169
by teachers, 94 166, 168, 176, 178, 192, 198, 210, 215, 221, in learning, 101
ethical, 51, 146 231-233, 237-238 English, 9-10
school-based, 234 books about, 231 Middle, 10
shared, 136, 141 celebrating, 166 English language, 10
Decision-making, 40, 43, 53-55, 57-58, 158, 184-185 children with special needs, 176 Enthusiasm, 46, 86, 217
defensiveness, 115 Division, 41, 57, 185 Environment, 4, 11, 13, 15, 23-25, 30, 33, 41-42, 44,
Definition, 4, 190 Doubt, 164 50-51, 56, 85, 87, 97, 102, 113-118, 120,
Definitions, 191, 202 Drawing, 46, 96, 122, 130, 138, 161, 237 129, 136-138, 142-143, 145, 147-149, 156,
246
158, 165, 173-176, 178-179, 182-184, 187, Fighting, 27, 125, 128, 207, 232, 241 Guidance, 52, 136, 140-141, 162, 182, 231
196-198, 200, 207-210, 213, 216, 220, 232, Files, 239 respect, 52, 136, 141, 182
236 Film, 146 Guidance counselors, 162
arranging, 102 Findings, 21, 36, 134, 217, 239-240 Guided discovery, 86, 101, 231
home, 42, 51, 142, 145, 147, 149, 165, 187, 200 fire, 51 guided practice, 52, 55
least restrictive, 173-174, 176, 178, 187 Fire safety, 51 Guidelines, 89, 92-93, 100, 119, 123, 201
outdoor, 51 First grade, 21, 93, 163, 237 Guides, 102, 145, 165
Equal opportunity, 142 Fish, 47, 162, 237 Guilt, 94
Equality, 113, 118, 120, 194 Flexibility, 33, 104, 117, 191, 193
ESCAPE, 93, 179, 215 Flip-flops, 43, 48, 56, 58 H
Ethics, 110, 118-119, 201 Flow, 24, 44, 101 Handicap, 175
Ethnic, 221, 241 Fluency, 10 Handicapped children, 11
Ethnicity, 167, 241 FOCUS, 15, 22, 28, 36, 41-45, 47-48, 50-52, 56-58, Harassment, 13, 15, 28, 207
Evaluation, 50-51, 55, 156-159, 199, 219, 231-232, 91, 94, 97, 100, 103-104, 109-110, 116, Hawaii, 166, 231
234, 236, 241 118-119, 122, 127, 129, 135-136, 138-142, Hazelden, 37
intervention strategies, 232 145, 147-148, 155-156, 164, 166, 183, 185, Head injury, 174
Evaluations, 199 187, 203, 216, 218, 234, 237 Head Start, 7
Events, 4, 44, 53, 85, 113, 121, 146, 216 Food, 147, 176 Health, 50, 52, 119-120, 147, 157-158, 160, 162, 174,
stimulus, 44 Forms, 14-15, 126-127, 143, 149, 175, 221, 232 231, 233, 235-237
subsequent, 216 Forum, 101, 119, 187, 232-233, 238 Health impairments, 174
Evidence, 16, 28, 52, 59, 159, 162, 184, 216, 231, Forward, 93, 102 Health needs, 162
233, 240-241 Foundations, 87, 108 Hearing loss, 174
Evidence based, 159 Free time, 29, 92, 112 Helping, 33, 45, 50, 57, 95, 110, 115, 121, 125, 127,
Evidence-based practices, 240 Freedom, 10, 32, 113, 118, 120, 129, 136, 139, 129, 135, 143, 147, 149, 157, 159-160, 178,
Exceptional, 180, 187, 233-234, 237-238, 240 141-142, 192, 194, 196, 199, 207, 241 181, 193, 209, 220, 233
Exclusion, 26, 182 Frequency, 6 helping others, 50
Expectations, 5, 7-8, 12-14, 23-27, 30-31, 33, 56, Friendships, 11, 176, 178-180 Helplessness, 111
89-90, 97-98, 100-101, 103, 119, 121, 125, Frustration, 8, 195, 213-215, 237 learned, 111
129, 139-141, 145, 155-156, 158-161, 175, Fun, 46, 96, 109, 145, 216 hidden curriculum, 135, 237
177, 179, 181, 183, 185, 187, 192, 197, 209, Functional assessment, 234, 240 Hierarchy, 22-23, 27, 31, 94, 212, 219, 222
211-216, 218-219, 222, 239 Functional behavioral assessment (FBA), 182 High schools, 142, 235, 237
classroom behavior, 23, 89, 175, 181, 187, 216 Functioning, 175, 199, 232 Hispanics, 9
realistic, 209 Functions, 99, 175 History, 147, 182, 186, 232, 234, 241
Experience, 6, 8, 28, 30-31, 95, 99, 117, 123, 125, Furniture, 98, 101, 222 concepts of time, 147
128, 138, 141, 146, 181, 196, 199, 214, 242 Home, 8, 29, 42, 51-53, 86, 101, 142, 144-147, 149,
experiences, 3, 10, 44, 51, 113, 117, 136, 141-142, G 165, 180-181, 187, 200, 214
146, 148, 150, 175, 183, 186, 191, 211, 216, Games, 13, 93, 180, 239 Homework, 24, 26, 29, 49, 98, 120, 123-125, 143,
220, 237 Gender, 2, 8-9, 27, 56, 159, 167, 176, 186, 198, 208, 180, 213, 218
in school, 113, 150 215, 221, 231-232, 237, 239-241 Homework assignments, 120
Experiments, 148 childhood and, 232 Honesty, 51-52
Expert, 173 stereotypes, 8, 215 Hope, 9, 33, 52, 93, 112, 122, 127, 130, 185, 196, 202,
Experts, 4 Gender differences, 8-9, 56, 215, 232, 241 209, 212
Explanation, 123, 136, 162, 185 Gender stereotypes, 215 Human relations, 194, 206-209, 220
Expulsion, 11, 183 General curriculum, 236 Human services, 52, 162
Expulsions, 156 General education, 11, 172-173, 176-178, 198 Humiliation, 146, 179
Extensions, 29 general education classroom, 11, 176, 178 Humor, 86, 200, 210, 238
Externalizing, 30, 242 General education teachers, 11, 172-173 Hygiene skills, 30
Extracurricular activities, 5 Gifted and talented, 174, 185, 187 oral hygiene, 30
Eye contact, 9-10, 24, 31, 35, 46, 91, 98, 103, 114, Gifted and talented students, 174 Hyperactivity, 30, 236
124, 144 Gifted students, 95-96, 122, 236
eyes, 26, 45 leadership, 236 I
Girls, 3, 25, 45, 90, 149, 215, 231-232 I PLAN, 186
F personality, 231 I Search, 120
FACES, 3, 109 Glasser, William, 233 Id, 37, 59, 168, 187, 232-233
facial expression, 91 Goals, 7, 9, 14, 44, 51, 54, 56-57, 87, 89, 94, 97, IDEA 2004, 17
Facilitating, 11, 177 100-101, 111, 113, 116, 118, 121, 126-127, IDEAL, 29, 96, 123
Factors, 56, 59, 128, 145, 160, 175, 180, 193, 195, 134, 145, 147, 162, 165, 176-177, 179-180, Ideas, 7-8, 10, 12-14, 16, 24-25, 30, 32, 34, 41-42, 49,
198, 206, 242 183-184, 186, 191, 193, 202, 209-210, 56, 58, 87-88, 96, 98-99, 102-104, 114-118,
Facts, 140 213-214, 216, 220, 221 122, 127-128, 134-137, 139, 143-145,
Failure, 59, 101, 113-114, 117, 123, 156, 160, chart, 209 149-150, 155, 163-164, 173, 178, 184-186,
164-165, 177, 182, 187, 214, 232, 235 harmful, 116 191-193, 195, 201, 203, 208-209, 211-212,
Fairness, 51, 54, 149, 194 lesson, 44, 51, 57 214, 218-220
Falls, 156 Goals and objectives, 51, 89, 165 from research, 184
Families, 7, 35, 42, 50-51, 100-101, 113, 116, 144, Golden Rule, 201, 208 sequence of, 144
160, 181, 186, 239 Good Behavior Game, 20, 22, 27-30, 33-34, 36-37, identity, 177
foster, 101, 113 179, 193, 216, 233-234, 237-238, 241 Identity development, 177
involving, 181 Governance, 127, 149 Illinois, 36, 149
needs, 42, 50, 100-101, 144, 160, 181, 186, 239 Government, 10, 173 Illustration, 96, 235
Family, 8, 15-16, 36, 50-52, 54, 56, 59, 94, 112, 116, Grades, 6, 27-30, 35, 42, 51-52, 54, 103, 123, 138, Immediacy, 182
121, 145-147, 157-158, 160, 165, 168, 140, 142, 144, 163, 165-166, 173, 175, 184, Immorality, 121
180-182, 232, 234, 240 219, 234, 237 Implementation, 5, 30-31, 33, 41, 51, 55, 57, 101, 103,
Family involvement, 147 Grading, 96, 120, 237 123, 144-145, 148, 154, 158-159, 162,
Family members, 16, 181-182 level, 96, 120, 237 165-166, 221, 231, 238, 241
Family structure, 15 Grief, 233 Importance, 16, 87, 100, 102, 110-111, 124, 129, 141,
Family support, 160 counseling, 233 144, 156, 163, 175-176, 210
Fathers, 15 Group alerting, 43, 45, 50, 56, 58 Incentives, 93, 98
fear, 87, 113, 115-116, 127, 141, 155, 164 Group dynamics, 212 Inclusion, 2, 4, 11, 14, 166, 172-174, 176, 178,
Federal legislation, 173 Group instruction, 105 180-182, 184-187, 192, 198, 200, 208, 216,
Federation for Children with Special Needs, 187 Group processing, 95 219, 236
Feedback, 31, 41, 86, 98, 117, 123-124, 128, 163, Group theory, 236 Inclusive classrooms, 171-187, 216, 231, 238, 240
179-180, 218 Group work, 50, 52, 182, 236 Independent learning, 47
general, 86 Grouping, 180 independent practice, 149
mediated, 180 Grouping students, 180 Indications, 13
feelings, 8, 32, 43, 46, 53-55, 87, 97, 110-112, Groups, 9-10, 21, 24, 36, 47-49, 51, 54-55, 86-88, 92, Individual differences, 9-10, 56, 121
116-117, 121, 123, 127-129, 135, 138, 141, 95-96, 98, 100-103, 115, 125-126, 138, Individual needs, 127, 148, 177
155, 164-166, 178, 209-210 141-142, 156, 160-161, 179-180, 182-183, Individual psychology, 130
control of, 128 185, 215-218 encouragement, 130
Females, 30 Groups:, 88, 126 Individualization, 102
Fifth grade, 3, 36, 54 Growth, 100, 104, 118, 175, 240
247
Individualized Education Program, 181 116, 145, 149, 175, 178, 210, 213, 216
Individualized education program (IEP), 181 J Learning environments, 4, 16, 128, 216
Individualized learning, 158 Joint, 97 creating, 4, 128
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 11, Journal of Negro Education, 235 Learning experiences, 3, 141
178, 187 Journal of Teacher Education, 17, 202, 233, 242 Learning groups, 48, 92, 96, 115, 156, 180, 216
least restrictive environment, 178, 187 Journal writing, 93, 122 Learning objectives, 115
Inferiority, 112 Journals, 157 Learning outcomes, 2, 20, 40, 59, 84, 108, 134, 154,
Influence, 28, 56, 97, 99, 110, 113-115, 117, 125, 127, Judgment, 117, 207, 209 172, 190, 206
129, 145, 147, 150, 180, 184-185, 201, judgments, 10, 117 Learning process, 6, 13, 16, 30, 85, 195, 212
216-217, 221 avoiding, 10 Learning Strategies, 9, 86, 180, 236
Information, 2, 14, 16-17, 29, 36, 42, 49, 51-54, 58-59, Justice, 59, 94, 110, 118, 120, 157, 232-233, 238, Learning styles, 14, 178, 218
90, 96, 98, 101, 104-105, 124, 130, 144, 240-241 Least restrictive environment, 173-174, 178, 187
150-151, 156-157, 160, 162, 168, 174-175, Least restrictive environment (LRE), 174
177-178, 180, 182, 187, 195, 202, 206, 208, Lecture, 13, 218
213, 218, 220 K Legislation, 173
policies, 2, 17, 130, 156, 178 Key terms, 4, 22, 43, 86, 110, 137, 157, 174, 179, 192, Lesson planning, 219
Initiative, 117, 162, 164, 176, 231, 235-236 206, 208 Lesson plans, 59, 88, 141, 159, 217
Inquiry, 52, 216, 234 Kicking, 112 Lessons, 36, 40-41, 43, 45, 49, 51-55, 87-89, 102,
Inquiry learning, 52 Kim, 58, 237-238 148, 150, 163, 165, 167-168, 216-217,
Inservice teachers, 58 Kindergarten, 29, 36, 46, 51-54, 93, 97, 126, 198-199, 231-232, 234, 241
Instruction, 4-7, 13, 16, 24-25, 29-30, 32, 34, 42, 212, 240-241 ending, 53
44-45, 47-50, 56-57, 85, 87-88, 93, 98-100, Kindergarten students, 36, 241 scripted, 55
102-105, 111, 114, 141, 144, 150, 155-156, Knowledge, 4, 10-11, 25, 44, 50, 57, 110, 112, 125, Letters, 213
161-163, 165, 167-168, 174, 177-178, 180, 175, 177, 182, 214, 241 to parents, 213
185-186, 194, 198-202, 215-218, 221, 236, of community, 4, 10, 50, 214 Level, 5-7, 10, 15, 23, 26-28, 30, 43, 47-48, 51-52, 54,
238, 240 prior, 10 93-94, 96, 104, 120, 122, 141-143, 145,
accountable, 50, 56, 216 teaching behaviors, 44 157-163, 166-167, 175-176, 180, 182, 185,
activity-based, 177 Knowledge construction, 110 187, 193, 197, 200, 208-209, 213-214, 217,
adequate, 144, 174 Kohlberg, Lawrence, 239 237
and gender, 215 Kohler, K., 235 Library, 7, 17, 49, 90, 93, 96, 101, 141, 148, 155-156,
indirect, 216 Kohn, Alfie, 136-137, 139, 150-151, 232 161, 180, 241
learning strategies, 180, 236 life experiences, 220
sequencing, 98 L life skills, 51-52, 58
strategy, 32, 34, 45, 100, 180, 186 Language, 9-10, 86-88, 90, 103-104, 115, 124, 137, Limit setting, 86, 88, 90, 92-93, 103
tiered, 167 145, 147, 163, 176, 236, 238 Limitations, 124
unit, 49, 93 body, 86-88, 90, 103-104, 124 Limits, 6-7, 23-24, 27, 32-33, 35, 87, 100, 104, 111,
Instructional activities, 3-4, 44-45, 85, 93, 144 difference, 10, 115 117, 177, 186, 196, 199
Instructional assistants, 216 informative, 145 Lions Club, 40, 43, 52, 58
Instructional design, 177 Language arts, 137, 145, 147 Listening, 8, 29, 49, 55, 93, 97, 115, 117, 124, 126,
Instructional management, 41, 43-44, 56-58, 97, 137, relationships among, 145, 147 128, 164-166, 176, 199
184, 192, 201 Language learning, 9, 236 to understand, 8, 93
group alerting, 43, 56, 58 Languages, 9-10 Literacy, 175, 231, 239
ripple effect, 43, 56 Large group, 163 Literature, 97, 136-137, 145, 147, 176, 178, 180, 184,
satiation, 43-44, 56 Law, 17, 94 236
Instructional strategies, 4-5, 14, 44, 47, 57, 104, 113, Leaders, 142, 149, 160, 162, 165 Literature circles, 180
144, 180, 216, 219, 221-222 Leadership, 140-142, 150, 159-160, 177, 194, 200, Logical consequences, 86, 101, 103, 110-113,
Integration, 162, 233, 242 202, 231-242 127-129, 137, 201, 233
Integrity, 97, 117 and management, 160, 177 Longitudinal study, 231, 234
Intellectual development, 10, 100, 145 management and, 140, 142, 150, 202, 231, Loss, 24, 48, 119-120, 174, 176, 233
Intellectual skills, 184 234-235, 242 Louisiana, 157
intelligence, 175 relationship, 202, 237 Love, 218
Intensity, 6 Leadership style, 142
Interaction, 95, 101, 105, 147, 160, 180, 236 Leads, 31, 103, 142, 149, 176, 181 M
Interactions, 14, 24-26, 31, 42, 57, 85, 87, 95, 100, Learners, 4-5, 9, 11, 17, 44-45, 50, 56-58, 92, 96, 103, maintenance, 44, 110
105, 109, 111, 119, 165, 192, 210 110, 123, 136, 138, 141, 149, 173-187, 200, Management, 1-17, 19-37, 39-59, 83-105, 107-131,
Interest centers, 93 203, 216-217 133-151, 153-169, 171-187, 189-203,
Internalization, 103 active, 141, 175, 179, 217 205-220, 221-222, 231-242
Internalizing problems, 42 Learning, 2-9, 11-14, 16-17, 20, 23-25, 27-28, 30-31, Mandates, 13
International Journal of Reality Therapy, 238, 242 33, 40-45, 47-48, 50-52, 55-59, 84-87, 90, Massachusetts, 100, 157
International perspective, 17 92-105, 108-117, 119, 121-122, 124, 128, Mastery, 47, 95
Internet, 16-17, 36, 49, 51, 58-59, 104-105, 130, 130, 134, 136-149, 154-156, 158, 164-166, Matching, 96
150-151, 157, 159, 168, 174, 183, 187, 202, 169, 172, 174-175, 177-180, 182, 184-185, Materials, 5, 43, 45-46, 53-54, 57, 98-99, 101, 114,
219-220 187, 190, 195-197, 199, 201, 203, 206, 210, 141, 145, 167-168, 179, 185, 218-219, 222
conduct, 168, 220 212-213, 216-218, 220, 231-234, 236-242 Math instruction, 29
Internet resources, 16 Learning:, 59, 166, 232, 234, 237-238, 240-242 Mathematics, 48, 59, 166, 238, 241
Interpersonal relations, 210 and problem solving, 40, 43, 55, 58-59 center, 166, 241
interpersonal skills, 51, 88, 117, 164 connected, 4, 138 lessons, 241
Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support contexts for, 236 matter, 4, 26, 87, 89, 92-94, 102-103, 113, 138, 146,
Consortium (INTASC), 4 discovery, 86, 101, 216, 231 173, 179, 187, 215, 233
Intervention, 22, 28, 31, 36-37, 97-98, 113, 142, 144, events, 4, 44, 85, 113, 121, 146, 216 Mean, 5, 33, 41, 96, 110, 119-120, 125, 135, 138, 146,
158, 160, 162-164, 166-168, 182, 184-185, from mistakes, 117 161, 167, 174, 176, 181, 194, 207, 211-213,
187, 198, 216, 231-232, 234, 236-237, guided discovery, 86, 101, 231 217, 232, 237
239-242 in small groups, 179-180, 217 Meaning, 4, 91, 95, 130, 143, 147, 178, 181, 239
Interventions, 11, 42, 56, 86, 97, 99-100, 103-104, Learning: Measurement, 16, 236
127, 144, 154, 156-160, 162, 166-168, instruction and, 238 Measures, 98, 103-104, 150, 238
178-179, 181-182, 184, 187, 201, 216, mastery, 47, 95 Media, 17, 90, 141, 148
231-234, 236-240 observable, 50, 137, 179 agenda, 90
culturally appropriate, 158 readiness, 43, 47, 52, 55, 175 Mediated instruction, 180, 216, 236, 238
reaching out, 104, 157, 168, 187 social aspects of, 8 Mediation, 86, 99, 103-104, 127, 157, 165-166, 180
schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and strengths and weaknesses, 14 Mediators, 154, 165-168, 180
supports, 168, 232 to learn, 6-7, 25, 33, 45, 56-58, 87, 97, 102, Meetings, 16, 28, 51, 86, 97-98, 101, 110, 115-116,
Interviews, 144, 146 115-117, 121, 136, 138, 143, 146, 175, 118-119, 121-122, 127-129, 146-147, 173,
intrinsic motivation, 53, 147 179-180, 184, 196, 210, 217, 233 178, 184, 206, 208, 212, 214, 220, 231, 235,
Introduction, 143 Learning activities, 87, 146, 177, 184, 217 237
Intuition, 220 Learning areas, 5 class, 16, 28, 51, 97-98, 101, 110, 115-116,
Issues, 9, 11, 15, 17, 46, 51, 101, 105, 117, 120, Learning center, 105, 130 118-119, 121-122, 127-129, 146-147,
127-128, 139, 146-147, 202, 206, 212, Learning communities, 165, 241 178, 184, 208, 212, 214, 220, 231, 235,
232-239, 241-242 Learning disabilities, 122, 174, 187, 239 237
Items, 10, 88, 193, 213, 222 Learning environment, 4, 23-25, 33, 44, 50, 56, 97, telephone, 116
248
Memories, 112, 220 Net, 36-37, 54, 59, 131, 151, 220 158, 162, 166, 177, 181, 216, 232, 238
Mental health, 52, 160, 162, 233 New Orleans, 235 Period, 27-29, 91, 96, 135, 161, 163-164, 185
Mentoring, 234 New York, 42, 157, 164, 166, 231-242 Permissive teachers, 111
Mentors, 178 New York City, 164, 237 Perseverance, 51-52
Messages, 53, 91, 140-141, 149, 201 New York State, 42, 240 Personal characteristics, 180
Michigan, 36, 128 News, 37, 101, 168, 222, 234 Personal space, 9, 53, 91
Middle school, 8, 25, 30, 41, 46, 52-54, 58, 98, 109, Newsletters, 163-164 Personality, 14, 193, 202, 231, 233
143, 145, 148, 150, 163, 168-169, 182, 187, Noise, 21, 48, 85, 160 Personality development, 231
198, 214, 231, 234-235, 237-238, 241 Norm, 8 Personalization, 193
Milk, 48 Norms, 28, 147 Personnel, 114, 145, 162, 183, 187
Minnesota, 105, 128, 220 Notes, 27, 183, 218 Perspective taking, 165
Minority groups, 183 Notification, 27 Persuasion, 136
Misbehavior, 4, 7-8, 12-13, 23-24, 27, 31-34, 41, Novice, 59, 231, 235 Peterson, 183, 241
44-47, 50, 56, 91-92, 98-100, 102-103, Novices, 220 Pets, 194
111-116, 118, 121, 123, 126, 129, 147-148, Numbered Heads Together, 180 Phi Delta Kappan, 17, 105, 150, 232-235, 237-239,
156, 160, 178, 182-183, 196-198, 212-213, Numbers, 10-11, 49, 102, 173 242
215-216, 238-239 Philosophy, 2, 4-5, 12-14, 16, 20, 24, 35, 40, 56-58,
Misconceptions, 89 O 84, 104, 108, 129, 134, 145, 149-150, 154,
Mobility, 102, 174 Object, 12, 16, 209 157, 162, 167, 178, 181, 185-186, 189-203,
Mode, 157 Objective, 8, 56, 90, 95, 103, 115 205-220, 221-222
Modeling, 55, 95, 98, 101, 119, 137, 214, 216 Objectives, 17, 51, 89, 115, 143-144, 165 contemporary, 4-5, 12, 14, 24, 56, 178
live, 119 Observation, 88, 166 Physical development, 216
Models, 1, 5, 11-12, 14, 16, 19, 21-22, 31, 33-36, 39, Observations, 36 Physical education, 30, 54, 120, 141, 231, 239
41-43, 45-48, 50, 52, 54-59, 83, 85-87, 94, occupations, 10 Physical environment, 216
97, 103-104, 107, 109-110, 118-119, 122, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Physical force, 113
124, 127-130, 133, 135-137, 139, 142, 144, Services, 187 Physical proximity, 10, 31, 91, 98, 103, 219, 222
148-150, 153, 155-157, 163, 165-167, Ongoing process, 196 Physical safety, 120
171-174, 178-179, 183-187, 189-192, Onset, 30, 33, 236 Physical space, 216
194-197, 199-202, 205, 208, 212, 220, 221, On-task behavior, 34, 234 Place value, 12
231, 233-234, 238, 242 Open Circle Program, 236 Placement, 102, 120, 176, 219, 222
Modification, 21-22, 27-28, 34, 36, 101, 137, 182, 192, Opinions, 95, 121, 128, 139, 202, 210 Plagiarism, 120
212, 219, 237, 239, 241 Oral hygiene, 30 Planned response, 99
Momentum, 15, 44, 46-48, 56, 58, 97-98, 196 Oregon, 128, 168, 238, 240 Planning, 4, 6, 9-10, 45-46, 51, 88, 97-98, 100, 104,
Money, 51, 54, 159-160, 177 Org, 17, 37, 52, 59, 105, 130-131, 151, 159, 163-164, 118, 122, 141, 144, 159, 162, 177, 181, 197,
Monitoring, 22, 28, 34, 46, 55, 86, 98, 160, 166, 184, 168-169, 187, 202-203, 231, 233-234, 201, 219, 222, 231, 237
236 236-241 learning activities, 177
progress, 86 Organization, 14-15, 57, 84, 86, 93, 97, 101, 104, of questions, 88, 144
Monitors, 45, 49 140-145, 164, 184-185, 211, 232 Planning instruction, 177
Moral development, 137, 145 Organizational development, 237 Play, 3, 10, 14-15, 30, 56, 89, 94, 100, 104, 114, 126,
Morning meeting, 86, 100-101, 105 Organizing, 6, 98 128, 163, 197, 199, 202, 217, 221
Motivating students, 242 Orientation, 198, 212 absence of, 15, 104
Motivation, 35, 53, 57, 101, 113, 119, 130, 136, 145, Outcomes, 2, 20, 40, 46, 59, 84-105, 108, 134, 145, Plays, 8, 28, 163
147, 180, 182, 184, 186, 215, 219, 222, 233, 154, 159, 166-168, 172, 176, 182, 184, 190, Pluralism, 103
236, 240 200, 206, 216, 232, 234-235, 237, 242 Pockets, 91, 120
achievement, 53, 180, 186, 215 Outdoor experiences, 51 Poetry, 115
and development, 233 Outlines, 158, 182 Policies, 2-3, 6-7, 11-13, 17, 94, 110, 113, 126-127,
extrinsic, 35, 136, 147, 215, 219, 222 Overlap, 46 130, 140, 156, 158, 176, 178, 181, 183, 212,
intrinsic, 35, 53, 136, 147, 219, 222 231, 238-239, 241
Motivational Strategies, 86, 219, 222 Policy, 11-12, 28, 50, 93-94, 126, 231-234, 237
Motivations, 10, 95 P Population, 3, 20, 96, 160, 166, 236
Movement, 2, 4, 7, 15-16, 41, 43-44, 48, 56-58, 102, Pacing, 44, 48, 98, 105 Populations, 103, 140, 198
176, 179, 191, 199, 210, 218 Painting, 130 Positive behavior, 13, 25, 28, 30, 36, 51, 53, 87, 154,
Multicultural education, 235, 238, 241 Paradigm, 21, 95, 140, 234, 236, 242 157-158, 161, 167-168, 178, 181, 187, 212,
Multitasking, 46 Parent participation, 101 216, 231-232, 236-240
Music, 29, 45, 54, 90, 93, 141, 183, 240 Parental Involvement, 145 Positive behavioral support, 236
listening to, 29 Parents, 3, 5, 7-8, 16, 21, 24-27, 29, 32, 36, 53-55, 88, Positive goals, 209
mutual goals, 94 95, 98-99, 101, 113-116, 127, 144-146, 148, Positive learning environment, 50
Mutual respect, 110, 116, 127-128, 137, 141 150, 156, 162, 165, 168, 176, 180-181, 186, Positive psychology, 130
Myths, 89 192, 194-195, 200, 206-208, 210-214, Positive reinforcement, 13, 22, 29, 31, 36, 54, 123,
219-220, 222, 231, 238, 240 139, 166, 238
as teachers, 200, 208 secondary, 29
N collaboration with, 16
name calling, 15 Positive reinforcers, 35
communication with, 213 positive relationships, 43, 52, 104, 113, 115, 117
National Association for Gifted Children, 187 expectations of, 192
National Association for the Education of Young Posters, 102, 140, 150, 222
involvement, 98, 101, 145-146, 148, 165, 176, 181 Potential, 16, 24, 36, 46, 54, 56, 91, 95-96, 111, 118,
Children, 239 involvement of, 101, 165
National Association of School Psychologists, 162, 129, 148-149, 156-157, 162, 165, 173, 186,
Parking lot, 120 212, 215
239 Participants, 42, 55, 94, 146, 166, 178, 181
National Association of Secondary School Principals, Poverty, 10, 166-167, 231
Participation, 55, 101, 111, 141-142, 146, 218 power, 7, 13, 91-92, 110-114, 117, 121, 126, 129-130,
50 Partnerships, 50, 101, 181, 232
National Center for Children in Poverty, 166-167, 231 136, 168, 215, 239
Passivity, 165 coercive, 136
National Center for Education Statistics, 233, 239-240 Path, 58, 124
National Education Association, 15, 239 to influence, 113
Patience, 91-92 Power struggles, 13, 121, 126, 130
National School Safety Center, 239 Patterns, 105, 156, 158, 175, 184
National Staff Development Council, 239 PowerPoint, 49
Paying attention, 91 PowerPoint presentations, 49
Natural consequences, 179, 218 Peck, 240
Nature, 56, 104, 137-138, 209 Practice, 3, 9, 12, 28, 33, 52-53, 55, 90-91, 100-101,
Peer mediation, 99, 103-104, 127, 157, 165-166, 180 112, 117-119, 123-124, 148-149, 159,
NCES, 240 Peer pressure, 28, 52, 56, 164, 198
NCREL, 17 163-165, 169, 172, 177, 179, 187, 192, 199,
peer relationships, 22, 28 206-208, 214, 220, 232-242
needs, 5, 10-12, 14-15, 28, 33-34, 42, 47, 50, 52, 56, Peer teaching, 216
92, 95, 99-101, 103, 120-121, 123, 127, 129, acts, 33, 149
Peer tutoring, 115, 156, 180 Practicum, 47-48, 50
135, 137-138, 144-145, 147-149, 156, 160, classwide, 180
162, 165, 172-187, 190-191, 193, 196, Praise, 24, 26, 29, 101, 110-112, 129, 138, 163, 216,
Peer-mediated instruction, 180, 216, 238 234, 237
198-200, 209, 212, 216, 218, 221-222, 234, Pencils, 35, 115, 125
239 Predicting, 239
Perceiving, 95, 234 Preferred activity time (PAT), 86, 92-93
during transitions, 92, 99 Perception, 177
Needs assessment, 165 prejudice, 24-25, 239
Perceptions, 9, 11-12, 41, 108, 110, 117, 129, 135, Preschool, 36, 51, 58, 168, 198, 232, 237
Negation, 92 175, 177, 181, 183, 232-233, 242
Negative reinforcement, 21 Preschool children, 58, 237
Performance, 42, 50, 57, 85-86, 98, 100, 116, 140, Preschoolers, 28
Negativism, 110
249
Presence, 15, 211 poor, 180, 209 Response, 22-24, 30-31, 34, 36, 47, 55, 93, 99, 104,
Presentation, 44, 121, 135, 150, 217 what if, 48, 150, 197, 199 156, 165, 173-174, 181, 196-197, 208, 213,
Prevalence, 240 232-233, 236-237
prevention, 52, 96, 126-127, 140, 142, 147, 158, 162, R Response styles, 23
165-166, 169, 184, 187, 231, 233-234, Race, 167, 176, 231, 241 Responses, 8-9, 14, 16, 27, 93, 173, 191, 193, 198,
236-237, 240-241 Race/ethnicity, 167 211-212, 219
dropout, 187 Range, 23, 57, 93, 122, 126, 192 Responsive Classroom, 84, 86, 99-100, 103-105, 155,
evidence-based, 52, 162, 233, 240 Rates, 165-166, 183 231-232, 239-240, 242
tertiary, 184, 234, 240 Reaching, 16-17, 36, 58-59, 104-105, 130, 135, Responsive practices, 187
Prevention programs, 96, 165, 236, 241 150-151, 157, 168, 174, 183, 187, 193, 202, Responsive teaching, 232, 235
Prevention science, 231, 234, 240 220, 232 Restructuring, 158, 235
Pride, 42, 95, 143, 156 Readiness, 43, 47, 52, 55, 175-176 Reward systems, 44
Principals, 7, 50, 54, 238 Reading, 2, 20, 24, 40, 47-49, 51, 84, 93, 103, 105, Rewards, 22-24, 26-30, 33-35, 92-93, 113, 119, 123,
Principles of Behavior Modification, 28 108, 115, 134, 137, 139, 145, 148, 154, 166, 134, 136-139, 142, 147, 149, 161, 167,
Print, 105, 241 172, 174, 180, 190, 195, 199, 206, 214, 218, 184-185, 192, 194-195, 207, 212, 232,
Privacy, 124, 146 236, 238 237-238
Problem behavior, 156, 158, 167, 182, 233 aloud, 199 Rigidity, 141
Problem solving, 28, 40, 43, 53-55, 58-59, 118, 142, assisted, 180 Ripple effect, 43, 46, 56, 237
147, 162, 234, 241 effective instruction, 24 Risk factors, 59, 160
Problem-solving, 55, 99, 118, 127, 162, 164, 216 pointed, 166 Rituals, 176, 210
Problem-solving skills, 162, 164 summer, 148 Rogers, Carl, 234
Procedures, 5, 7, 9, 17, 41, 44-46, 56, 87, 90, 93, to students, 2, 24, 115, 145, 166 Role playing, 55
97-98, 104, 110-113, 128, 143, 159, 161, wide, 93, 145, 236, 238 Role-play, 126, 163
178, 184, 199, 211, 214, 216, 218-219, 222 Reading comprehension, 166 Role-playing, 55, 116, 118
Processing, 95 Reading programs, 47 Roles, 24, 28, 56, 87, 89, 108, 113, 123, 150, 177,
Product, 16, 85 Readings, 16, 36, 58, 104-105, 120, 130, 150, 168, 194, 200, 202
Productivity, 101 187, 202, 220 Room arrangement, 102-103
Products, 37, 168 Reality therapy, 157, 233, 235, 238, 242 Roots, 157-158
Professional associations, 15 Reasonable consequences, 24 Routines, 30-31, 36, 41-42, 52-53, 87-90, 101,
Professional behavior, 119 Reasoning, 148 103-104, 141, 143, 219, 222
Professional development, 100, 165, 168, 234 Recall, 192, 212, 217 Rubric, 218
needs assessment, 165 Receiving, 9, 11, 29, 35, 124, 183 Rubrics, 210, 218
Professional ethics, 110, 118-119, 201 Recess, 8, 29, 126, 166, 209 Rules, 6-7, 12, 17, 22-24, 26-33, 36, 41, 52, 56, 86-90,
Professional skills, 128 Reciprocal teaching, 180 97-98, 101-104, 109, 111-112, 118-130,
Professionals, 156, 159, 181, 194, 202 Recognition, 9, 25-26, 30, 54, 157, 222 135-137, 139-145, 147, 149, 156, 159-161,
Profiles, 59 Recommendations, 102, 165, 238 165, 167, 176, 178-179, 184-185, 191,
Programming, 231 Record keeping, 88, 96 193-194, 197, 200, 206-207, 209, 211-214,
Programs, 5, 7, 15, 36-37, 42-43, 47, 52, 54, 57-59, Record-keeping, 103 219-220, 222
93, 96, 99, 105, 113, 122, 126-127, 136, 141, Recordkeeping, 50 Rural schools, 149
144-146, 149, 151, 156, 158, 160, 165, 167, Records, 127
212, 220, 231-233, 235-236, 240-242 Redistricting, 155 S
community and, 59, 141, 145-146 Referral, 26, 94, 159 Safety, 4-5, 17, 51, 119-120, 126, 155, 162, 182-183,
Project, 29, 92, 101, 117, 134, 136-137, 145, 150-151, Referrals, 41, 88, 148, 166, 210 202, 211, 231-233, 235, 237, 239-241
154, 157, 162-164, 166-169, 184, 195, 231, Reflecting, 2, 20, 40, 45, 84, 104, 108, 134, 140, 150, plans, 162, 182, 237
237, 239-241 154, 172, 190, 206 SAT, 34, 149
Projects, 47, 50-53, 59, 93, 146, 148, 195 break, 45 Satiation, 43-47, 56
incorporating, 51 Regulations, 109 Scale, 59, 156, 162
Prompts, 31, 102 Rehabilitation, 94 Schedules, 100, 178
topics, 102 Reinforcement, 13, 21-22, 26, 29-31, 36, 53-54, 101, School, 2-17, 20-21, 23-26, 28-30, 32-34, 36-37,
Property, 15, 26, 119-120, 211 123, 139, 158, 163, 166, 179, 212, 238 41-43, 46, 48, 50-59, 84, 86, 88-90, 93-95,
Prosocial behavior, 103, 145, 231 Reinforcers, 22, 29, 35, 163 97-101, 103, 105, 109, 113-115, 118-121,
Prosocial behaviors, 42, 163-164, 237 RELATE, 47-48, 52, 101, 125-126 123-130, 135, 137-151, 153-169, 173,
Protecting, 120 Relatedness, 137-138, 149 175-176, 179, 181-185, 187, 191-194,
Psychological safety, 4-5 Relationship, 4, 14, 16-17, 85, 87, 105, 114, 146-147, 197-202, 208-215, 217-220, 222, 231-242
Psychologists, 54, 160, 162, 239 175, 181-182, 186-187, 202, 214-215, 237 School activities, 95, 144-145
Psychology, 16, 36, 130, 157-158, 162-164, 168, benefit, 14, 182 School board, 202, 231, 237, 241-242
232-242 Relationships, 22, 28, 43-44, 50, 52, 54, 85, 92, 95, School counseling, 232, 236, 239-241
social psychology, 237, 239, 241 97, 104, 110, 113, 115, 117, 121, 123, 136, School counselor, 236
Psychopathology, 237 138, 145, 147, 160, 172, 176, 180-181, 184, School counselors, 54, 128
Psychosocial, 175, 216 187, 198, 238 School culture, 135, 231, 237
Psychosocial development, 216 healthy, 43, 54, 110, 123 School day, 4, 42, 94-95, 99, 147, 214
Psychotherapy, 233 relaxation, 91-92 School district, 36-37, 43, 142, 167, 237
Publications, 87, 181 Reporting, 42 School policies, 7
Publishing, 125, 233, 238 Reports, 15, 37, 157 School professionals, 202
Punishment, 5, 11, 23, 99-100, 111-112, 115-117, 121, Representation, 239 School psychologists, 160, 162, 239
125-126, 129, 137-141, 149, 179, 182, 185, Rereading, 193, 208 School reform, 231, 235, 237
234, 238, 241 Research, 4-5, 7, 11-12, 16, 21-22, 33, 36, 41-42, 51, School safety, 162, 183, 202, 231-232, 239, 241
Purchasing, 167 55, 59, 102, 105, 121, 140, 145, 150, 156, School success, 164, 176, 235
Puzzles, 49 158, 166, 168, 180, 183-184, 187, 231-242 School violence, 2, 15, 126, 236, 239, 241
contemporary issues, 232-239, 242 zero-tolerance policies, 126
Q findings, 21, 36, 239-240 Schooling, 17, 203, 242
Qualitative research, 240 theory and, 12, 231, 236, 242 Schools:, 168, 231-233, 235, 239
Quality, 11, 34, 46, 56, 105, 145, 158, 160, 167, 176, Research center, 187 governance of, 149
198, 235, 240 Resilience, 231 urban, 3, 6, 17, 30, 41, 58, 105, 128, 130, 142,
Question mark, 128 Resistance, 112 148-149, 166, 231-232, 234, 237-241
Questioning, 199 Resolution, 16, 51, 54, 86, 94-97, 99, 103-105, 117, Science, 11, 51, 101, 105, 120, 164, 231, 234, 240
Questions, 6-7, 10, 13-14, 16, 24-25, 30, 32, 35-36, 121, 126-127, 157, 161-162, 164-165, 167, in the curriculum, 51
41, 45, 47-50, 54, 57-58, 88, 96, 99, 219, 222, 232-233, 235-236, 241 new, 11, 51, 164, 231, 234, 240
101-102, 104, 115, 120-121, 129-130, 135, achieving, 54, 95, 157 Sciences, 157
138-139, 143-144, 146, 149-150, 164, Resources, 16-17, 37, 52, 57, 87, 100, 104, 128, scientific literacy, 231
167-168, 173, 180, 185-187, 193-195, 157-158, 165, 167, 169, 174-175, 182, 202, Scope, 120, 231
197-200, 208-209, 211, 214-215, 217, 219 209, 220, 239 Scores, 28, 41, 138, 166-167
condemning, 24 Respect, 8, 24, 26, 35, 50-52, 54, 56-57, 87-88, 92, Screening, 238
easy, 16, 45, 193 97, 109-110, 114, 116-118, 120, 124, Search, 34, 120
encouraging, 49, 54, 57, 115, 129 127-130, 136-137, 141, 143, 149-150, 168, Seating, 5, 141, 178
ideas for, 104, 144, 186 176, 178, 182, 184, 197-198, 200-201, 207, Seating arrangements, 178
leading, 24, 138 211, 219 Seattle, 157, 235
leads, 149 Responding, 7, 36-37, 164, 193, 200, 208-209, Seatwork, 49
literal, 197 233-234, 241 Secondary school, 28, 33, 50, 52-53, 234
250
Secondary students, 11, 56 Social sciences, 157 in regular classrooms, 11, 162, 200
Section, 15, 25, 119, 174-175, 178, 181, 187, 208-209 Social services, 94 reluctant, 91, 98, 146, 187
Security, 199, 208, 234, 240, 242 Social skills, 11, 28, 42, 52, 55, 58-59, 95, 100, Students at risk, 179
Segregation, 178 102-103, 123, 154-158, 160-164, 167, Students with disabilities, 11, 187, 198
Self, 4, 11, 14, 16, 22, 25, 28, 30-31, 33-35, 42-44, 184-185, 236, 239, 241 Students with special needs, 11, 28, 52, 173-174,
51-55, 57-58, 87, 91-92, 97, 100, 102-103, Social skills instruction, 162, 167 176-177, 179-181, 183-184, 186-187,
112-114, 116, 118-120, 123, 135-136, 138, Social skills training, 158, 162 221-222
140-145, 147-150, 155, 157, 160, 162-163, Social studies, 23, 46, 51, 88, 92, 94, 232 Student-teacher relationships, 160, 198
165, 176-177, 180-181, 184, 190, 192, 194, beginning of, 88, 94 Studies, 23, 28, 30, 33, 36, 42, 46, 50-51, 53, 88, 92,
196, 198-199, 201, 207-208, 210-211, 213, Social values, 147 94, 102, 136-137, 145, 147-148, 150,
215-216, 219, 221-222, 233, 235-236, 238, Socialization, 11 165-166, 232-234
240 Socioeconomic status, 11, 27 D, 36, 145, 147, 150, 232-234
Self-assessment, 144 student achievement and, 11 G, 46, 50, 53, 145, 148, 150, 232-234
Self-concept, 43, 54, 57 Sociology, 220 Style, 10, 14, 22-24, 113, 142, 149, 197, 199, 202, 214
Self-control, 28, 31, 55, 91-92, 100, 113, 136, 144, Solutions, 16, 51, 55, 116, 118, 121, 147, 149, 165 Subordinate clauses, 46
147, 201 Songs, 42 Subordinates, 194
Self-determination, 138 Sound, 5, 51, 113, 180, 199 Substance abuse, 52, 54, 148
Self-discipline, 4, 14, 34, 44, 51-53, 57, 102-103, 123, Sounds, 103, 127, 193 Substance use, 231
140-144, 147-150, 176, 184, 190, 192, 194, speech, 103 Substitute teachers, 141
196, 199, 208, 210-211, 213, 219, 221-222, Space, 9, 53, 91, 98, 102, 116, 147, 201, 216 Success for All, 158, 161
235 Speaking, 3, 9-10, 21, 26, 45, 49, 100, 103, 124, 126, Suggestions, 5, 36, 46, 49, 57, 101, 104, 115, 118,
Self-efficacy, 16, 240 139, 176, 193, 196 120, 122, 135, 149, 155, 168, 202, 209, 220
self-esteem, 25, 33, 43, 52, 87, 112-113, 116, 119, Special education, 160, 172-177, 179, 181, 187, 235, Supervision, 233, 236
135, 160, 177, 180-181, 198, 207, 215-216 238-239, 241 Support, 4-5, 11, 13, 25, 28, 36, 51, 55, 57, 85, 97,
self-evaluation, 157 Special education teacher, 175, 177, 179, 239 100-102, 109, 115-116, 127, 130, 136,
Self-management, 22, 30, 58, 165 Special education teachers, 160, 172, 181, 187 139-141, 145-146, 154, 157-162, 165-168,
self-monitoring, 184, 236 Special educators, 11, 173, 177 174, 176-182, 200-201, 210, 219, 222,
tools for, 236 Special needs, 11, 28, 50, 52, 129, 172-187, 198, 200, 231-232, 236-238, 240
Self-regulated learning, 238, 240 216, 221-222 Support system, 36, 168
Self-reinforcement, 163 Special needs children, 175 Supporting, 109, 166, 173, 238
Self-responsibility, 54 Special programs, 141 Suspension, 11, 127, 166, 235, 241
self-worth, 53, 112 Speech, 103, 176 Suspensions, 148, 156, 166
Semantics, 238 Spelling, 48, 101 Switch, 47, 93
Sense of self, 28 Stability, 42 Symbols, 121, 155
senses, 87 Staff, 5, 37, 51, 57, 127, 140-142, 144-145, 148-149, Synthesis, 192, 241
Sensitivity, 124 158-159, 162, 165, 167-168, 239 System, 21, 23, 25, 27, 35-36, 41, 58, 85, 87-88,
Sentences, 46, 219, 222 Staff development, 140, 142, 144-145, 149, 159, 162, 92-94, 98, 103-105, 141, 144, 160, 162-164,
Sequence, 49-50, 112, 142, 144 239 168, 173, 177-178, 191, 206, 208, 211-212,
Serious infractions, 57 Staff training, 159 219, 237-238, 240, 242
Service learning, 146 Stakeholders, 142, 158, 190 Systems, 9, 44, 51, 86-88, 93, 97, 99, 158, 162,
Service learning projects, 146 ownership, 142 167-168, 200, 231, 233-234, 236-237, 240
Setting, 5, 11, 27, 29-31, 33, 41, 54, 86, 88, 90, 92-93, Standardized test scores, 167 belief, 240
98, 103, 120, 142, 164, 184, 211, 217, 235, Standardized tests, 166 human, 158, 162
240 Standards, 4, 23, 51-52, 88, 90, 104, 119, 127, 142, Systems approach, 158, 167, 237
Severe disabilities, 158 147, 236-237
Sex, 240 State standards, 51 T
Sexual orientation, 198, 212 States, 8-10, 25, 27, 51, 123, 128, 157, 168, 176, 234 Tactics, 194
Shame, 157, 179 Statistics, 25, 233, 239-240 Talented students, 174
Shared inquiry, 216 Stereotypes, 8, 10, 25, 215 Talking, 6, 12, 21, 23-24, 26, 28-30, 33, 85, 88, 90,
Shared responsibility, 141 poverty, 10 104, 112, 114-115, 126, 146, 177, 179,
Sharing, 42, 51, 59, 100, 115, 117, 121, 164, 209, 240 Stigma, 129 196-197, 199, 218
Signals, 91 Stimulus, 22, 43-44, 47, 58 Tangible reinforcers, 29, 163
Significance, 117, 121 Stop, 23, 29, 33-34, 45-46, 49, 57, 90-91, 98-99, Tannock, R., 187
Signs, 45-47, 55, 141, 150, 163, 237, 240 122-123, 126, 154, 156-157, 163-164, Target behaviors, 4, 12
Silence, 90, 92, 125 166-167, 184, 197 Tasks, 44, 50, 88, 92, 98, 142, 144, 147, 175, 177,
Silent reading, 93, 195 Storage, 120 179, 181, 216, 218
Sixth grade, 34, 51 Stories, 148 Teacher, 3-8, 10, 12-15, 17, 21-24, 26-35, 41-42,
Size, 89, 104 Strategic planning, 162, 237 44-51, 53-58, 85-93, 96, 98-105, 109-113,
Skills, 4-6, 11, 16, 27-28, 30-31, 42-43, 45, 51-53, 55, Strategies, 2-17, 25, 30-32, 44, 47, 51, 57, 86-87, 115, 121-130, 135-136, 138-144, 146-150,
57-59, 87-88, 90, 92, 95, 97, 100-103, 108, 96-98, 104-105, 113, 115-116, 122, 137, 140, 155, 159-161, 163-164, 166-167, 173,
110, 116-118, 121, 123, 128-129, 138, 140, 142, 144, 159-161, 165, 167-168, 174, 175-182, 184-187, 191, 193-194, 196-202,
144, 147-148, 150, 154-158, 160-168, 176, 176-182, 184, 187, 191, 194, 198, 200-202, 207-218, 220, 221, 231-235, 237-242
184-185, 206-209, 220, 234, 236, 239, 241 208-210, 215-217, 219-220, 221-222, Teacher control, 109
attending, 123, 144 231-232, 234, 236, 241 Teacher education, 17, 202, 220, 233-234, 238,
practicing, 6, 27, 92, 116 deliberate, 174 241-242
prosocial, 42, 58, 103, 147, 162-164, 185 Stress, 42, 55, 196, 216, 238 Teacher quality, 105
receiving, 11 Structure, 15, 34-35, 57, 92, 100, 124, 147, 159, 166, Teacher tips, 220
sending, 123 179, 214, 238 Teacher training, 105
speaking, 45, 100, 103, 176 Structured activities, 135 Teachers, 2-17, 21, 23-29, 31, 33-37, 41-47, 49-53,
Slips, 161 Student achievement, 11, 105, 148, 235 55-59, 85-105, 108-113, 115-130, 135-150,
Slowdowns, 43-44, 48-49 Student behavior, 3, 6-7, 11, 44-45, 52, 58, 87, 98, 155, 157-168, 172-182, 184-187, 191-194,
Small group, 46, 51, 161, 163, 182, 184-185 100, 135-136, 138, 140, 149, 160, 163, 196-197, 199-202, 208-217, 219-220, 222,
Small groups, 21, 49, 95, 102, 125, 179-180, 217 167-168, 173-174, 184, 194, 210, 215-216 231-235, 237-242
Small-group instruction, 105 Student engagement, 101, 105 Teachers:, 109, 238
SMART, 222 Student input, 219, 222 as facilitators, 55
Smoothness, 47-48, 97 Student involvement, 42, 98 autonomous, 138
Social and emotional development, 52, 165 Student outcomes, 104, 168, 232 beliefs and attitudes, 231
Social competence, 54, 85-86, 102, 166, 234, 236 Student performance, 85 career education and, 52
Social environment, 156 Student progress, 86, 177 caring, 36, 42-43, 50-51, 55, 57-59, 87, 95, 97,
Social goals, 180 Student success, 168 103, 110, 116, 124, 128, 136-138, 140,
Social interaction, 101, 180 Student teachers, 202, 220 142, 145-150, 163-165, 178, 184, 200,
Social interest, 127, 129 Students, 2-16, 21, 23-36, 42-58, 85-105, 109-113, 210, 212, 214, 232-234, 240, 242
Social knowledge, 110 115-130, 135-150, 155-168, 173-187, decision makers, 138, 141
Social learning, 100, 155 190-202, 206-220, 221-222, 231-242 educators, 2-6, 9-12, 15-16, 25, 33-35, 51-52,
Social problem solving, 28, 54, 234 antisocial, 8, 30, 55, 156, 184, 241 55-57, 87, 94-95, 100-101, 110, 113,
Social psychology, 237, 239, 241 calling on, 50 117-120, 124, 127-130, 136-140, 146,
Social reinforcers, 29 conferences with, 211 148, 157-162, 164, 167-168, 173-178,
Social relationships, 54, 136, 176 embarrassing, 198 180-182, 184-187, 191-193, 196,
Social responsibility, 28, 157, 164, 168 exceptional, 180, 187, 233-234, 237-238, 240 200-202, 208-210, 216-217, 220, 232,
251
234-235, 242 Tools for Teaching, 236 196-198, 200-202, 207-210, 214, 217-219,
ESL, 239 Topics, 40, 47, 54-55, 101-102, 105, 125, 151 222, 232, 236-237, 240
general education, 11, 172-173, 176-178 touch, 129, 209 Workbooks, 49
head, 7, 34, 174 Training, 10, 36, 51, 55, 57, 89, 92-94, 96-97, 105, Working through, 45
influence on, 56, 110, 129, 184 119, 158-160, 162, 165, 167-168, 177, 187, Worksheets, 49, 102, 140
leadership roles, 177 193, 234-235, 240 World knowledge, 10
misconduct, 11, 105 Traits, 40, 43, 51-52 Worldviews, 11
participation of, 55 Transfer, 191, 193 Writers, 187
research of, 41, 145 Transitions, 45, 86, 92, 99, 199 Writing, 16, 49, 93, 102, 105, 122, 218
substitute, 85, 141, 143 Treatment, 56, 110, 168, 194, 209, 240 to solve, 49
Teaching, 3-7, 12-14, 16-17, 21, 23, 25, 30-32, 34, Truth, 54, 126, 241
36-37, 44-46, 49, 56-59, 85, 87-89, 94, 97, Turns, 48, 96, 178 Y
100-105, 108, 110-111, 113-114, 118-119, Turn-taking, 176 Young adult literature, 176
123, 128-130, 137, 139, 142-145, 154, 156, Tutors, 114 Young children, 16, 59, 105, 110-111, 130, 150, 168,
159-160, 162-163, 165, 167, 172-174, 239
177-178, 180, 182, 184-187, 194-199, U
201-202, 212-214, 216-217, 220, 221, Understanding, 4, 9-11, 13, 15, 17, 22, 33, 49, 54-55,
232-241 Z
59, 85, 87, 96-97, 111, 116-117, 127, Zero, 6, 13, 109-110, 113, 126-127, 130, 140,
Teaching:, 187, 232, 235-236 137-138, 145, 151, 164-165, 180, 182, 194,
time spent, 194 155-156, 183, 219, 222, 232-234, 238, 241
199, 215, 236 Zero tolerance policy, 232
Teaching practice, 240 United States, 8-10, 27, 51, 168, 176, 234
Teaching practices, 100, 240 Zero-tolerance policies, 6, 13, 110, 113, 126-127, 130,
Units, 54 140, 156, 183, 238
Teaching skills, 88 Urban education, 231-232, 234, 238
Teaching strategies, 14, 160, 182, 234 Urban schools, 17, 105, 149, 239
Teaching style, 14, 202 U.S. Department of Education, 53, 55, 187, 233,
Teaching team, 25 239-241
Teaching Tolerance, 101, 105, 241 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 52,
Team leaders, 160 162
Teams, 12, 28-29, 36, 127, 142, 162, 180
crisis management, 162
Teamwork, 216 V
Teasing, 164 Values, 15, 43, 50-51, 58, 86-87, 94, 97, 120, 130,
Techniques, 4-5, 9, 12-13, 16, 21, 41, 45, 47, 50, 135, 138, 140, 145, 147-148, 210, 236-238
56-58, 87-88, 98, 103-104, 113, 115, 122, philosophy, 58, 145, 210
127, 137, 140, 162, 178, 182, 184, 186, 195, Variables, 86, 102
199, 213-214, 217-219, 222, 232-233 Vegetables, 93
Technology, 120, 232, 236, 238 Verbal behavior, 240
Television, 7 Verbal praise, 26, 163
Tennessee, 169 Victim, 125, 127, 138
Terminology, 140 Victimization, 232-233, 242
Test, 6, 26, 117, 138, 167 Video, 105
Test scores, 138, 167 Videotape, 144
testing, 44, 94, 242 violence, 2, 6-7, 15-16, 33, 50, 52, 57, 88, 96, 109,
Tests, 41, 103, 140, 148, 166 116, 122, 126-127, 140, 149, 155-156, 158,
standardized reading, 103, 166 165, 167, 191, 206, 212, 218, 232-233,
Texas, 149 236-241
Text, 149, 178, 180, 183, 191, 221 Vision, 40, 99, 129, 134, 138, 174
Textbooks, 140 Visual cues, 90
The Parent, 26, 116, 146, 211, 218 Visual prompts, 102
Theme, 142-144 Vocabulary, 101
theories, 4-5, 12, 14, 16, 36, 44, 56-58, 94, 113, 121, Voice, 9, 26, 90, 103, 121, 124, 136, 146, 193, 210
127, 129-130, 139, 155, 173, 178, 183-186, Volunteers, 146
191, 194-195, 200, 208, 219
Theory, 5, 12, 14, 22, 31, 87, 108, 135, 145, 184, 201, W
207-208, 231, 233-236, 238, 240-242 Walden Two, 241
Theory of Practice, 241 Walkways, 102
Therapy, 25, 94, 157, 232-233, 235, 238, 242 Walls, 7, 97, 140, 155-156
Think, 5, 9-11, 13-15, 20, 22, 30-33, 36-37, 48-49, wants, 93, 97, 121, 199, 209
52-53, 55, 88, 97, 109, 111-112, 115, Warmth, 209
117-118, 120-121, 123, 128, 130, 135, Warning signs, 240
138-139, 146, 150, 154-155, 157, 159, Washington, 168, 233, 239-241
163-164, 166-167, 173, 181, 184, 186, 192, Watson, 128, 135-136, 145-147, 179, 231, 233,
194, 196, 199-202, 207, 209, 211-212, 214, 241-242
217, 220, 232, 239 Wattenberg, 44, 47, 196, 212, 239, 242
Think time, 20, 22, 30-33, 36-37, 192, 239 Wealth, 10
Thinking, 46, 51, 55, 124, 175, 178, 192, 199, 201, Websites, 17, 36, 58-59, 105, 130, 150-151, 162, 168,
214, 236 174, 180, 187, 202, 220
Thomas, 54, 184, 238 district, 36
Threats, 13, 23, 31, 56, 99, 124, 136-140, 146, 149, Welfare, 10, 56, 95, 115, 120, 129, 149, 210-211
194-195, 212 Welfare agencies, 10
Thrust, 43-44, 47-48, 58 Well-being, 16, 103, 129-130, 142, 182, 211
Time, 5-7, 12-13, 20-23, 25-34, 36-37, 44-46, 49, What Works Clearinghouse, 53
53-54, 56-57, 85-96, 98-100, 103, 109, 112, Whole, 12, 49, 87, 127, 139, 145-146, 148-149,
114-115, 119, 121, 123, 125-126, 128, 153-169, 175-176, 181-182, 238
142-144, 146-149, 159, 161, 163, 167, 173, Whole child, 139, 176
176-177, 179-183, 192-197, 199-200, 202, Wholeness, 130
209, 211-212, 217-219, 235, 239 Windows, 93
dead time, 99 Wisdom, 233
engaged, 56, 87, 95, 146, 182, 192, 199 Withdrawal, 31
on task, 5, 7, 37, 49, 56, 90, 112, 217-218 Withitness, 43-46, 56-58, 97, 219, 222
to think, 31-32, 53, 109, 112, 199, 211, 217 word problems, 48
units, 54 Words, 48, 93, 112, 115, 123-124, 129, 143, 196-197,
Time out, 36 212-213
Time-outs, 36 Work, 2-4, 7-9, 11-14, 16-17, 21-25, 28, 30-31, 35,
Token, 161 41-42, 44, 46-48, 50-52, 55-58, 86, 88-90,
Tone, 45, 89, 91, 124, 174, 211 93-96, 98-101, 103-105, 109-113, 115-116,
Tone of voice, 124 120-123, 125, 127, 129, 135-136, 138-139,
Tools, 151, 236 141-144, 146-148, 151, 156-158, 161, 163,
for teaching, 236 165-166, 173-177, 179-182, 185-186, 193,
252

Manning, M Lee - Bucher, Katherine T - Classroom Management - Models, Applications, and Cases-Pearson (2013 - 2014)

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Classroom Management: Models, Applications and Cases Manning et al.

Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk

© Pearson Education Limited 2014

ISBN 10: 1-292-04179-X

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Printed in the United States of America

1. Introducing the Concept of Classroom Management

Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com

VIGNETTE: Ms. Lacomba’s Classroom Management Challenges

TABLE 1–1 Key Terms Related to Classroom Management

• Classroom management • Safe schools movement

Defining Classroom Management

Connecting Classroom Management to Philosophy and Instruction

MANAGEMENT TIP 1–1

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE

Types of Student Misbehaviors

Extent and Effects of the Problem

Effects on Teachers and Students

MANAGEMENT TIP 1–2

Causes of Classroom Management Problems

APPLYING CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT IDEAS 1–1

STUDENT DIVERSITY AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Cultural, Intracultural, and Gender Differences

TABLE 1–2 Selected Cultural and Gender Differences

Students might have differing perceptions about:

APPLYING CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT IDEAS 1–2

Inclusion and the Management of All Students

DEVELOPING A PERSONAL CLASSROOM

Identifying Target Behaviors to Address

Teachers’ Contributions to Behavior Problems

APPLYING CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT IDEAS 1–3

Developing Your Own Philosophy and Model

APPLYING CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT IDEAS 1–4

DEVELOPING YOUR PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY

AGGRESSION, VIOLENCE, AND THE SAFE SCHOOLS MOVEMENT

The Problem of Aggression and Violence

The Safe Schools Movement

The Role of Effective Classroom Management

MANAGEMENT TIP 1–3

Reaching Out with the Internet

VIGNETTE: Confronting Management Problems in the First Grade

with strict reliance on the frequent, repeated assessment of observable and

INDIVIDUAL MODELS FOR BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES

TABLE 4–1 Key Terms Related to Behavioral Approaches to Classroom Management

LEE CANTER AND MARLENE CANTER: ASSERTIVE DISCIPLINE

Overview of the Canters’ Model

Practical Applications of the Canters’ Model

• “Sit down and shut up!”

APPLYING BEHAVIORAL IDEAS 4–1

MANAGEMENT TIP 4–1

General rules might include the following: Secondary

MANAGEMENT TIP 4–2

HARRIET BARRISH, MURIEL SAUNDERS, AND MONTROSE WOLF:

Overview of Barrish’s, Saunders’s, and Wolf’s Model

Practical Application of Barrish’s, Saunders’s, and Wolf’s Model

MANAGEMENT TIP 4–3

There are many different types of rewards: Secondary

APPLYING BEHAVIORAL IDEAS 4–2

J. RON NELSON: THINK TIME™

Overview of Nelson’s Model

Practical Applications of Nelson’s Model

SPECIAL PROVISIONS Extreme or repeated misbehaviors can bring additional consequences. If

APPLYING BEHAVIORAL IDEAS 4–3