Information Technology For CSEC - Howard Campbell

2nd Edition Howard Campbell 2nd Edition
Information Technology for CSEC© Examinations

Information Information
Technology
for CSEC® Examinations
Technology
for CSEC® Examinations
Also available for CSEC®
This textbook offers comprehensive coverage of the latest CSEC® Information
Business subjects:
Technology syllabus and provides up-to-date examples of modern technology
and developments in ICT.
Key features:
• Advance organisers including concept maps and learning objectives at
the beginning of each chapter
• Over 300 exercises including in-text questions, group work, portfolio
work and practical activities
• Easy to understand flowcharts and Pascal programs
• 20 exam-style questions to test and check progress
• A fully worked School-Based Assessment sample
• Online student resources including interactive questions, audio-based
activities, game-based vocabulary builders and a mark book to
track progress
• Online ExamView® test banks for teachers
Howard Campbell
To access all online resources visit www.macmillan-caribbean.com
Howard Campbell is a trained teacher, software developer and author

with over twenty years’ experience in the fields of information systems and For more innovative content, log on to find
FREE Online Teacher’s Resources
education. He has written books for Computer Science, EDPM and Information
www.macmillan-caribbean.com/resources
Technology. He holds a Masters in Digital Education from The University of
Edinburgh as well as a Post-Graduate Diploma in Teaching from the MICO
University College, Jamaica.
book
2nd Edition
CSEC® is a registered trade mark of the
Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC®).
Information Technology for CSEC® Examinations
is an independent publication and has not been
authorized, sponsored, or otherwise approved
by CXC®.
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Online student resources
Log on to the Macmillan Caribbean website (www.macmillan-caribbean.com/mee)
to access additional online student resources that support this Information Technology
for CSEC® Examinations textbook. Resources include interactive questions, audio-based
activities, game-based vocabulary builders and a mark book to track your progress.
Access code:
CSIT2172858534973
Teacher resources
Teachers can log on to www.macmillan-caribbean.com/resources to find and utilise
ExamView® test banks, a valuable database of questions to create electronic and paper-
based tests for use online and in the classroom to help build students’ confidence in
preparation for the exams.
CSEC IT IFC.indd 1 11/08/2014 15:25

Information
Technology
for CSEC® Examinations 2nd Edition
Howard Campbell
CSEC® is a registered trade mark of the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC).

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY for CSEC® EXAMINATIONS SECOND EDITION is an
independent publication and has not been authorized, sponsored, or otherwise approved
by CXC.
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Contents
Page Finder v
About this book vi
Part 1: Theory 8 Data security 107

Introduction to data security 107
1 The computer system 2
Common vulnerabilities and threats 109
What is a computer? 3
Data misuse 111
Categories of computer systems 4
Protecting your computer system 114
Components of a typical computer system 6
Operational procedures 118
Interpreting computer specifications 8
2 Primary and secondary storage 13 9 The impact of ICT on jobs, skills and careers 124
How do primary and secondary storage differ? 14 The impact of Information Technology on jobs 124
How is storage capacity measured? 14 Computer-related professions 125
Types of primary storage devices 16 Career opportunities for hardware support
Secondary storage media 18 professionals 125
Comparing secondary storage media 23 Career opportunities related to the Internet 127
Career opportunities in IT-related industries 127
3 Input and output devices 28
Computer applications in business and industry 127
Data collection basics 29
Computer-aided design 128
Input, input devices and input media 29
Computers in science and technology 129
Input devices in the home 31
Computers in education 130
Input devices in the retail trade 32
Computer applications in recreation and
Output devices 37
entertainment 131
4 The Internet and communications technology 47
Telework – telecommuting and telemarketing 131
Data communication and networks 48
The World Wide Web (WWW) 55
Part 2: Problem-solving and
Communicating globally using network-based tools 57
programming
5 Data storage and manipulation 62
Number systems 63 10 Problem-solving and program design 135
Binary addition 67 Introduction to problem-solving 136
Binary subtraction 69 BVI Boat Hire 137
Representing integers 69 Problem partitioning (Creating an I-P-O chart) 137
Storing text data 73 Constants and variables 138

Data types 140
6 System programs and application programs 77
The concept of an algorithm 140
The difference between system programs and
applications programs 78 Ways of representing algorithms 141
System software 78 Developing algorithms to solve simple problems 145
Functions of an operating system 79 11 Program implementation 168
Processing modes 83 Generations of programming languages 169
Application programs 84 Levels of programming languages 170
7 Information processing 91 Implementing a program: The five steps 171
Data, information and information processing 92 Writing programs in Pascal 173
Data: Sources, verification and validation 95 Testing and debugging techniques 183
File organisation and access 100 Arrays 185
iii
Part 3: Productivity tools 16 Mastering database management 292
Introduction to databases 293
12 Mastering word processing 195
Creating and populating a database 295
Introduction to word processing 196
17 Information integration 336
Creating a document 199
Using data from Microsoft Access in Microsoft Excel 336
Columns and tables 203
Using data from Microsoft Excel in Microsoft
Working with graphics 206
PowerPoint 338
Document editing 208
Perform a mail merge using an external data source 338
Formatting 216
13 Mastering presentations 231 The School-Based Assessment
Presentations 232
18 Mastering the School-Based Assessment 345
Creating a presentation 235
Requirements of the School-Based Assessment 345
14 Mastering web page design 243
Mark allocation 346
Introduction to web page design 244
Some tips to help you master the SBA 346
Creating simple web pages 244
Practice your way to a high SBA score 346
Creating and hosting your own website 248
Key skills and mark allocation 353
15 Mastering spreadsheets 250
Introduction to spreadsheets 251 Answers to multiple-choice questions 356
Features of spreadsheets 252
Creating and setting up your workbook 254
Glossary 357
Data extraction 279 Index 363
iv
Page finder
This page finder gives you Syllabus sections
the page number for all
Section 6: Word processing,

Section 1: Fundamentals of
Section 4: Applications and
presentation and web page

Section 2: Problem-solving
the objectives from each
Section 7: Spreadsheets
section in the new CSEC®
hardware and software
Section 5: Information
Information Technology
and program design
Section 8: Database
Section 3: Program
implications of ICT
syllabus at your fingertips.
implementation
management
processing
design
Objective 1 3 137 170 48 92 196 251 293
Objective 2 6 138 169 53 93 208 252 293
Objective 3 16 139 171 53 95 216 267 293
Objective 4 15 140 184 107 97 221 270 295
Objective 5 23 140 173 109 99 201 261 295
Objective 6 18 141 174 127 100 210 262 298
Objective 7 29 145 175 128 100 203 266 319
Objective 8 37 157 180 126 216 267 302
Objective 9 63 159 185 125 215 259 313
Objective 10 8 183 338 262 313
(within the syllabus sections)
Objective 11 78 172 213 274 321

Objective 12 80 201 279
Specific objectives
Objective 13 83 232 276

Objective 14 84 233 282
Objective 15 80 235 282
Objective 16 236
Objective 17 236
Objective 18 236
Objective 19 239
Objective 20 237
Objective 21 237
Objective 22 239
Objective 23 239
Objective 24 244
Objective 25 244
Objective 26 246
Objective 27 247
Objective 28 247
v
About this book
This book isn’t just words on a page.
This book contains a range of different features to introduce, teach and highlight key
information throughout the course. These pages explain how to use them. The larger column
contains the main text and diagrams; you can read straight down it without interruption.
The smaller column contains other useful facts, so make sure you use it to check your
understanding. You should remember to spend time studying the figures and diagrams as well as
the text.
A list of objectives at the beginning of

each chapter tells you what topics you will By the end of define what a computer is
this chapter
be covering. They will help you to plan describe a general-purpose computer system
you should
and measure your learning. be able to:
identify the major components that make up a typical computer system
explain the function of the central processing unit
explain the function of memory
explain the function of storage
explain the function of input and output devices
interpret the hardware specifications of a computer system.
The concept maps represent knowledge Concept map

organisation visually to help you learn General-purpose
more meaningfully and enhance your Computer Systems
knowledge integration. You can use them

perform major functions include major components
as tools to help connect prior knowledge
examples
with new information.
processing input storage output CPU: secondary storage: input/output
control unit CD-ROM devices
ALU DVD
hard disk
flash drives such as
general-purpose: memory cards
desktops
laptops primary memory: output devices: input devices:
notebooks ROM printers keyboard
netbooks RAM monitors mouse
smartphones PROM speakers microphone
multimedia projectors scanner
bar code readers
The expanded IT Portfolio now provides

more opportunities for you to extend IT portfolio
and reinforce the knowledge and skills 1 This activity will explore the concepts related to data communications and networking.
introduced throughout the chapter. Most a Check out the computer lab at school (make sure to get permission from your teacher before you do so); ask the
following questions:
of the activities involve field or web-based i Are the computers networked?
investigations. ii What types of cabling are used?
iii Is there a server?
iv Is the central connecting device a hub, switch or router?
v Is there Internet access?
b Record your findings in your portfolio.
2 In this activity you will explore concepts related to Wi Fi and the Internet Conduct research (read books use search
A wide assortment of game-based and

real-world problems is presented for Group activities
small groups to complete. You and 1 This is a small-group activity for 3–4 people.
your classmates can improve on ideas a Each group member should collect at least TWO source documents generated in each of the following scenarios:
as you share in finding solutions in an • a classroom environment
• a home
environment where the group evaluates its • a micro or small business (ask the Principles of Business teacher at your school what this is)
own success. • a meeting of a sports team or co-curricular activity (Cadet, Key Club, etc.)
b Compare the documents collected from each area. Note their similarities and differences.
c Classify all the documents as either human-readable or machine- readable.
d Suggest which device(s) are ideal for reading the documents categorised as machine-readable.
e Paste the documents in your portfolio and record your findings next to each of them.
This is the style of question you may Examination-style questions TEST BANK
come across in your exam. Your teacher
will suggest how you can use them, but Multiple-choice questions 7 The component that stores the program and data
Instructions: Each of the following questions has four currently being executed is:
they will measure what you have learnt suggested responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read (A) arithmetic logic unit
and help to identify any gaps in your each question carefully then select the most suitable (B) floppy diskette
knowledge so you can revisit the relevant response. (C) main memory
1 ____________ is an area of a computer that temporarily (D) secondary storage
sections of the book. holds data that is waiting to be processed, stored, or
8 Which of the rows in the following table does NOT
output.
contain the correct information?
(A) Memory
(B) Storage Computer Hardware component
(C) Input specification
(D) O I l k d
vi
There are a wide variety
The first time an important new word appears in
of activities to complete so
the text, it is highlighted at the side. Sometimes
that you can reinforce and
a short definition is given in the main text. An
extend your knowledge and
in-depth explanation is provided in the glossary
skills that are covered in
at the back of the book.
each chapter.
8 • Data security 8 • Data security
Grandfather, father and son.

Activity 8.4 Log on to FirstCaribbean International bank’s website at www.cibcfcib.com, then Grandfather: backup of the system from 2 weeks ago
search for ‘Improving your own security’. Read some of the important steps that Father: last week’s backup
you can take to protect yourself online. Son: this week’s backup.
Next week all the backups are older so the father becomes the grandfather, the son becomes
the father, and a new son backup is created.
Sign in to Online Banking Archiving data

archive ❯ An archive comprises the files created or received by an institution or
User ID: organisation during the course of routine business that are stored because of
Password:
their value.
Sign In >
Depending on the nature of the data, some companies may archive data
Figure 8.12 Passwords are a sequence of letters, numbers and special characters that must monthly, others quarterly or annually. These files are usually stored on
be supplied to access a resource. Passwords and usernames can be used so that only authorised removable media such as DVDs or magnetic tapes and kept in a secure location.
users can log on to the system. In a secure system each individual user or group of users will be Files in an archive will be kept for a period of time and then destroyed.
allocated privilege to access only the files and resources they need to perform their jobs.
Summary
Operational procedures • Data security is all about identifying and assessing computer security risks.
Figure 8.11 Windows Firewall is • A computer security risk is any event, action or situation – intentional or not – that could lead to the loss of
implemented as a software-only file security
Backing up data computer systems and the data they contain.
mechanism and is a component of the It is unwise to rely on a single storage device for storing important data. • Data integrity is concerned with ensuring the accuracy, completeness and internal consistency of the data stored in
operating system. The device and the data it contains may fall prey to one of the accidental or a database.
deliberate actions or events mentioned earlier. To safeguard data, it is good • Physical access restrictions can prevent unauthorised personnel from damaging the computer hardware.
ITQ15 practice to copy data to another storage device or media.
• Access to IT systems can be restricted by requiring all legitimate users to input a valid username and password
List THREE potential threats to a backup Adopting a regular backup system such as the Grandfather-Father-Son
before being able to gain access to the system.
media? System means that if disaster should strike the organisation can recover almost
all of its data quickly and business can continue as usual. It is important to • A firewall acts as a barrier between a computer system and an external network.
keep each generation of backup separate from the rest. The son can be kept • Encryption, overwrite protection, password, and making a file read-only access are mechanisms that may be used
in the computer room, the father in a fireproof cabinet and the grandfather to help maintain file integrity.
A backup is a safety copy of files that can be
in another building. For a fast-moving business backups may be taken every • Individual files can be protected using encryption techniques that require the reader to have a correct password to
used to recover data in case of an event that
causes data damage or loss. day rather than every week. If a hard disk drive fails the most recent backup, decrypt the file.
the son, can be used to restore the data. In the event of a fire in the computer
• Viruses, Trojans and worms are malicious program that may infect and do harm to a computer system and its data;
room destroying the son backup and the computer system, the father backup
up-to-date antivirus software can protect computer systems from virus attacks.
can be used to restore the company data. In the worst case, a whole building
may be flooded but the grandfather backup can still be used to restore the data. • Computer fraud involves the use of computers to illegally obtain money, goods or services. There are many types
of computer fraud including identity theft, credit card fraud, electronic eavesdropping and surveillance.
(a) (b) • Backups are copies of files that can be restored in the event that the original files are lost through hardware failure,
accidental deletion or computer fraud whereas an archive comprises the files created, received and accumulated
over time and retained for historical use.
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 The following are SOME ITQ2 (a) The file containing
possible situations: (a) hard disk the credit card details OR the file
failure caused by intermittent power containing the student’s assignment.
outages causes partial data loss; (b) (b) The file with credit card details
hard disk failure caused by a power may have been accidentally selected
surge causes total data loss; (c) laptop and copied to the USB drive; the file
containing the data is stolen from a with the assignment may have been
parked motor vehicle; (d) the file with intentionally copied to the USB flash
the data is copied by an unauthorised drive by the accounting clerk. (c) Any
person without the knowledge of the reasonable explanation consistent
Figure 8.13 (a) The Backup or Restore tool is one of the Windows operating system accessories. (b) A user may choose what to back up and also owner; (e) an employee copies data with the answer in (b).
what device to store the data on. from the file for his/her personal use.
118 119
Suggested Summaries of the key facts from

The smaller column can Each image has
answers to the each module will help you check
contain key facts. It is a caption and a
In-Text Questions your understanding.
good practice to spend figure number to
will allow you to
time reading this column help with cross-
assess yourself.
as well as the main text so referencing.
that you don’t miss any
important information.
ITQ1 Where you see this icon, you will

find an In-Text Question (ITQ).
These are spread throughout each chapter
and will help you to check your progress. If
you can’t answer the ITQ, you should refresh
your knowledge by re-reading the relevant
paragraphs in the main text.
Answers to the ITQs are found at the end of
each chapter.
vii
1 The computer
system
By the end of define what a computer is

this chapter
describe a general-purpose computer system
you should
be able to:
identify the major components that make up a typical computer system
explain the function of the central processing unit
explain the function of memory
explain the function of storage
explain the function of input and output devices
interpret the hardware specifications of a computer system.
Concept map
General-purpose
Computer Systems
perform major functions include major components
examples
processing input storage output CPU: secondary storage: input/output

control unit CD-ROM devices
ALU DVD
hard disk
flash drives such as
general-purpose: memory cards
desktops
laptops primary memory: output devices: input devices:
notebooks ROM printers keyboard
netbooks RAM monitors mouse
smartphones PROM speakers microphone
multimedia projectors scanner
bar code readers
2
1 • The computer system
What is a computer?
The computer has become an indispensable tool in the world of work and play.
Organisations depend on them for communication, document preparation,
record keeping, and a host of other tasks. Whether at school, home or the library,
students use laptops, netbooks and tablets to access interactive content online,
play educational games and conduct research. Computers are also widely used for
leisure activities such as reading, playing games, watching movies and engaging
with friends on different social media platforms (such as Facebook and Twitter).
Figure 1.1 As computer technology has advanced, larger cumbersome machines have made way for lightweight desktop and laptop computers
and today we see a wide range of handheld computers in the form of Kindles, tablets and smartphones.
Activity 1.1 1 Copy the following table to your notebook.
Application area How is it used

Business
Education
Leisure
2 Visit the website of Apple Inc. (www.apple.com) and browse through the
product offerings.
3 In your notebook, complete the table by making a list of one product from each
category that is of interest to you.
Figure 1.2 QR Code for Apple Inc. website.
computer ❯ A computer is a machine capable of executing instructions on data.

Consider the following ways in which computers are now used to
communicate on an everyday basis.
• A homeowner directs his web browser to his home security provider’s
website and makes changes to the settings of his home security system
whilst travelling overseas.
• A student studying in Scotland uses her magicJack phone service to call her
relatives in the Caribbean.
• A parent receives an SMS (text) message from her child’s school advising
that the child’s Easter term report is available for viewing online.
• One smartphone user sends a WhatsApp message to three of her friends to
confirm the details of their movie date.
3
• An international business traveller gets a text message from the car rental
company the minute he steps off the airplane to advise him of the location
of his assigned car.
These days, most computing devices are connected to the Internet and
common household appliances such as television sets and refrigerators are
web-enabled. Computers are all around us and are an indispensable part of
modern life.
Activity 1.2 Describe ONE scenario in which computers may be used by EACH of the following
people for record keeping or document preparation.
1 A form 5/grade 11 student preparing 5 A FedEx package delivery person
an SBA (School-based assessment) 6 A dentist
2 A primary school teacher 7 A world-famous entertainer
3 A school principal 8 A professional athlete
4 The receptionist at an organisation’s
front desk
When we browse the web, play games or update our Facebook status, do we give
any thought to what this wonderful machine is, or how it works? Computers have
been programmed to carry out a series of logical and mathematical operations.
The way in which they carry out these operations has changed over time, but,
fundamentally, the computer always accepts input from you (the user), does
something and then shows you the results. So, if you input www.facebook.com
into a web browser’s address bar, the computer processes this information by
locating and retrieving the home page of that website and outputting the results to
the screen when it opens the page. Input, process, output – simple!
computer system ❯ A computer system is a complete computer installation including
hardware, software, users, procedure and data.
Categories of computer systems

A computer system may be categorised as either a general-purpose or a special-
purpose computer based on the extent of its capabilities.
general-purpose computer ❯ A general-purpose computer consists of hardware and software suitable
for undertaking a wide range of tasks.
special-purpose computer ❯ A special-purpose computer is one which performs a small range of tasks
and contains features uniquely designed for use in a particular industry or
application.
Industry experts further classify computing devices into categories such
as those listed in Table 1.1. These categories tend to change over time. For
example, we have excluded minicomputers as these are no longer in use. A
computer categorised in one category today may have to be placed in a new
category 10 years later. A computer’s size, speed, processing power and price
determine the category it best fits into.
Special-purpose computers General-purpose computers
• Embedded computers • Mobile devices
• Game consoles • Mobile computers (laptops, netbooks, ultrabooks and tablets)
• E-readers • Desktop-based personal computers
ITQ1 • Servers
• Mainframes
Which ONE of the categories listed in
• Supercomputers
Table 1.1 has the (a) LEAST processing
power and (b) MOST processing power? Table 1.1 Special-purpose and general-purpose computers.
4
Activity 1.3 1 Revisit the website of Apple Inc.

2 Download and save the images of EACH of the four devices that you identified
in Activity 1.1. Place the images in your portfolio.
3 Copy and complete the following table.
Product description General-purpose (G) or Reason for placing product in the

Special-purpose (S) category you have chosen
ITQ2
ITQ1
List TWO OTHER consumer devices
that are likely to contain an embedded
computer.
General-purpose computer systems

Regardless of size, speed and processing power, all general-purpose computer
systems solve problems by getting some input, doing some processing and
producing some output. These four functions are explained in Table1.2 and is
also summarised in the block diagram shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.3 A typical desktop computer

system.
Input Designated components (input devices) accept input (from a human user or
another device) and convert it in a form (digital) suitable for processing.
Processing The microprocessor (CPU) performs one or more designated operations (such as
a multiplication) on the digital data, and in the process making it more meaningful
for the use intended.
Storage Data and the information produced are saved for later use.
Output Data and information are retrieved from memory and/or storage and presented to
the end user via one or more output devices (such as a monitor or printer).
Table 1.2 Major functions of general-purpose computer systems.
data information
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT
data/information data/information
Figure 1.4 Block diagram showing

relationship amongst functions of a STORAGE
computer system.
5
Activity 1.4 1 Locate an unlabelled, full-colour picture of a general-purpose computer system.

2 If the picture is in a magazine, cut it out; if it is in a digital format, make a printout.
3 Paste the picture in your notebook in the centre of a new page; we will label it later.
Special-purpose computer systems

Game consoles, embedded computers and e-readers are three of the more
common types of special-purpose computer systems. The Nintendo Wii and
Sony PlayStation 3 are two of the more popular games consoles. Embedded
computers are included in devices such as automated teller machines,
microwave ovens and home security systems. Amazon’s Kindle and the Nook
by Barnes and Noble are two popular e-book readers.
Components of a typical computer system

A typical computer system includes four major hardware components, all
included in a case, the box that holds all the parts of a computer. These are
listed alongside their functions in Table 1.3.
All the components listed in the table are known as hardware components.
Central processing Consists of the control unit and ALU. The control unit fetches,
unit (CPU) (also known decodes and executes instructions stored in memory after which
as processor or the arithmetic logic unit performs calculations on the data in
microprocessor) memory.
Main memory (also known as Stores data, instructions and the results being processed by the
immediate access storage) CPU.
Secondary storage Stores data, instructions and the results of processing on a
permanent basis. Examples include flash drives, memory cards,
DVDs and hard drives.
Input and output devices Accepts input from and gives output to the user. Examples of
input devices are the keyboard, mouse and scanner. Examples of
output devices are flat panel displays, speakers and printers.
Table 1.3 Functions of major hardware components of general-purpose computer systems.
PROCESSOR
CONTROL ARITHMETIC
UNIT LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
instructions
data
information
INPUT MEMORY OUTPUT

DEVICES DEVICES
data information
instructions
data
Figure 1.5 The CPU, input, output information
and storage devices are in constant
communication with each other; memory
STORAGE
serves as a temporary storage location DEVICES
whilst the computer is in operation.
6
hardware ❯ Hardware are the physical parts of the computer system and include
peripherals and core architecture components such as the motherboard, power
supply, processor and memory.
peripheral device ❯ A peripheral device is any hardware component that is connected to and
controlled by a computer, but is external to its CPU.
We will now explore each of the four major components in a little more detail.
DVD drive CD-ROM drive

power supply monitor
motherboard mouse
floppy disk
keyboard
hard disk drive
Figure 1.6 The primary input device is a keyboard and the primary output device is a monitor.
The system unit contains the CPU, main memory and secondary storage devices (CD-ROM, DVD
and hard disk drives). The CPU and main memory are both attached to the motherboard which is
enclosed in the system unit and so are not usually visible from the outside.
The central processing unit

central processing unit (CPU) ❯ The central processing unit (CPU), also called the processor, interprets
processor ❯ and carries out the basic instructions that operate a computer. A processor
contains a control unit and an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), both of which work
ITQ3
ITQ1 to perform processing. The processor is usually housed on a chip (as pictured
in Figure 1.7). In personal computers, mobile devices and gaming devices the
In some ways a person is like a CPU is popularly referred to as a microprocessor because of its small size.
computer, with the brain being the CPU.
(a) What parts of the body act as input Component Functions
devices and output devices? (b) List
TWO other hardware components that Control unit • Fetches instructions and data from main memory.
are likely to be attached to a computer • Decodes instructions fetched from main memory.
system used in a school. • Directs and coordinates the operations of the alu.
Arithmetic logic unit • Performs arithmetic operations, for example, division,
ITQ4
ITQ1 multiplication, addition and subtraction.
• Performs comparison operations, for example checks whether
State TWO functions of EACH of the
one data item is bigger, smaller or equal to a second item.
components of the CPU.
Table 1.4 Functions of a CPU.
7
Figure 1.7 The underside of a pinless microchip that houses a CPU unit has hundreds of tiny
contacts that electrically contact with the pins on the motherboard.
Main memory
Like humans, computers are equipped with both short- and long-term
memory.
main memory ❯ Main memory is the space within a computer where data and information
is stored while being actively worked on. Main memory is also known as
immediate access storage ❯ immediate access storage and is installed in computers as RAM (random
access memory). We discuss main memory in more detail in the next chapter.
Main memory has two main functions:
ITQ5
ITQ1
1 it stores data;
State THREE specific functions of main
2 it stores program instructions.
memory.
secondary storage❯ Secondary storage

The long-term storage needs of computers are met by secondary storage, also
known as backing storage, mass storage or storage.
Secondary storage has two main functions:
1 it holds data, instructions and information permanently;
ITQ6
ITQ1 2 it serves as a storage area for data and instructions that may be needed by
the processor during a current processing activity.
In addition to program instructions, list
TWO OTHER categories of items that For example, a USB flash drive (secondary storage) may store a photograph
may be stored in secondary storage. (data) as well as a photo-editing program (instructions). While the photograph
is being edited, the computer, acting under instructions from the control unit,
may store a temporary work file on the flash drive. When the photo-editing
activity is complete, the edited photograph (information) will be saved to the
flash drive and may be kept for a very long time.
ITQ7
ITQ1
Suggest ONE non-visual format by Input/Output (I/O) devices
which an output device may provide
Data originates in many forms (text, pictures and sounds) but can only
output or feedback to an end user.
be processed and stored in a form that makes sense to a digital computer.
Input devices such as keyboards, microphones and scanners are hardware
components that accept data for processing. Output devices such as speakers
and printers provide users with the information produced by a computer
system.
Interpreting computer specifications

Computer systems vary in many different ways. It is important to understand
what the various acronyms such as DDR, HDD and RPM mean. Also, you need
to understand what the numbers mean – a bigger number does not always
mean your computer system will perform better! Table 1.5 will help to explain
some common specifications.
8
NGS Platinum Performance

Series PPS – 1504 What the specifications mean
Notebook Computer
CPU type and Intel® Pentium® Dual Core • Intel® – Manufacturer
speed T4200 (2.0 GHz/800 MHz • Pentium® – CPU type
FSB/1 MB cache) • Dual Core – CPU has two processors on one microchip
• T4200 – CPU model number
• 2.0 GHz – clock speed of processor (2,048 GHz)
• 800 MHz – speed or frequency at which the data on the motherboard moves; determines how
fast the memory and CPU run
• 1 MB cache – very fast on-processor memory; improves performance of CPU as it interfaces with
memory (that, at a speed of 800 MHz, is 2½ times slower than the processor)
Memory 2 GB Shared Dual Channel • 2 GB – memory capacity
capacity, type DDR2 at 800 MHz • Shared – video/display system uses some of this memory
and speed • Dual Channel DDR2 – memory type
• 800 MHz – memory speed
Hard drive 500 GB SATA Hard Drive • 500 GB – hard drive capacity
capacity, (5400 RPM) • SATA – device interface
speed • 5400 RPM – speed at which the disk platters rotate; the bigger the number the faster the access
time
Table 1.5 Interpreting computer specifications.
Summary
• A computer may be either general-purpose or special-purpose.
• All general-purpose computers usually comprise four major components: CPU, main memory, secondary storage
and input/output devices.
• Computer systems carry out four major functions: input, processing, output and storage.
• The central processing unit (CPU) interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate a computer; it
contains a control unit and an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), both of which work together to perform processing.
• The control unit directs and coordinates the operations in the computer; the ALU performs arithmetic, comparison
and other operations.
• Computers operate on the machine (fetch–execute) cycle. They fetch the instructions of a program and execute
each instruction in turn.
• Main memory stores data being processed by the CPU, data being retrieved from secondary storage and data being
transferred in and out of the computer via I/O devices.
• Secondary storage holds data, instructions and information that are not currently being processed by the CPU.
• Input devices facilitate the entry of data and instructions whereas output devices produce the results of processing.
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 (a) mobile devices; (b) decodes instructions fetched from
(b) supercomputers. main memory. ALU: (a) performs
ITQ2 (a) DVD player, digital photo arithmetic operations (b) performs
frame; (b) microwave, home security comparison-type operations.
system. ITQ5 (a) store operating system
ITQ3 (a) The eye, ear and skin programs (b) store program
act as input whereas the mouth act instructions (c) store data being
as output; (b) Mouse, microphone, processed by the CPU.
speaker. ITQ6 (a) data; (b) results of
ITQ4 Control unit: (a) fetches processing (information).
instructions from main memory; ITQ7 Audible output (sound).
9
IT portfolio
1 Sketch a picture of a desktop computer system you frequently use at home or school or the one you researched in
Activity 1.4. Correctly label the system unit and all attached peripherals. Place the completed sketch in your portfolio.
2 Visit an office, perhaps the school office, and find out about the ways computers are used there. Record the results in
your portfolio.
3 Think about solving a jigsaw problem. Record the inputs, the outputs and the processing in your portfolio.
4 Get hold of a calculator and try the example 5 + 8. Think carefully about what keys you press and what the processor
does in response to your input. Try
5 + 8 – 2. Do you think the processor remembered all three numbers or did it work out the answer to the addition
before going on to the subtraction? Record your thoughts in your portfolio.
5 Interview family and friends and find out the clock speed of their computers. Record the details in your portfolio
under the headings Computer Model, Clock Speed. Hint: if you are using a Windows-based computer, go to Start, All
Programs, Accessories, System Tools, System Information to view this information.
Group activities
1 This activity is for groups of 4–5 students. Each group member is to interview at least three other group members to
find out how they use their computer systems for entertainment. Record these answers in your portfolio. Do any of the
responses surprise you? If so, explain why in your portfolio.
2 This activity is for groups of 3–4 students. Each member of the group is to roll a die (or pair of dice) and the member
with the highest score is to be the group leader. Conduct research and create a list of areas in which robots are used
in life-threatening situations. The group leader is to assign each member a topic at random. (Hint: place the topics on
slips of paper in a box.) Conduct further research and prepare a 3-minute presentation for the rest of the group. Make
sure that you show pictures or videos of the robot in action!
3 This is a group activity for up to six people. This game is called What Am I?
a All members: compare birthdays and select as group leader the member whose birthday is farthest away.
b Group leader: On different slips of paper, write each of the six types of general-purpose computers discussed
earlier.
c Each member: Select one slip of paper and write three clues describing the identity of that particular general-
purpose computer.
d Group leader: Determine the order of the players.
e Each member: When instructed by the leader, read your first clue and field answers from the other group
members. If no correct response is received, give the next clue. Continue this process until a group member
answers correctly or until all three clues are read.
4 This group activity will allow students to demonstrate creative thinking, construct knowledge, and develop innovative
products and processes using technology.
Research how the local police service in your country as well as their counterparts in North America, Europe and
Asia currently access information whilst in the field. Summarise the state of knowledge about a challenge related
to that topic. Analyse existing knowledge and develop an innovative method of accessing information in the field
using tablets and wireless technology. Discuss the feasibility of implementing this method of information access in
your country.
10
Examination-style questions TEST BANK
Multiple-choice questions 7 The component that stores the program and data
Instructions: Each of the following questions has four currently being executed is:
suggested responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read (A) arithmetic logic unit
each question carefully then select the most suitable (B) floppy diskette
response. (C) main memory
1 ____________ is an area of a computer that temporarily (D) secondary storage
holds data that is waiting to be processed, stored, or
8 Which of the rows in the following table does NOT
output.
contain the correct information?
(A) Memory
(B) Storage Computer Hardware component
(C) Input specification
(D) Output I 2.4 GHz Clock speed
2 The microprocessor’s ____________ unit fetches each II 2 GB DDR Memory speed and type
instruction. III 500 GB Hard drive capacity
(A) instruction IV 5,400 RPM Hard drive speed
(B) integrated (A) I and II
(C) circuit (B) II ONLY
(D) control (C) II and III
3 Which of the following is likely to have the LEAST (D) IV ONLY
processing power?
9 Specialised computer hardware can be used for home
(A) game consoles entertainment. Which one of the following is NOT
(B) mobile computers specialised gaming hardware?
(C) mobile devices
(D) servers (A) Wii
(C) Xbox
4 In what order do ICT systems deal with data? (B) PlayStation
(A) process, input, output (D) Super Mario Cart
(B) input, output, process
(C) input, process, output 10 Carefully consider the following statements about
(D) input, process, save. printed books and netbook-type computers. Which of
these statements are UNTRUE?
5 The ____________ is dedicated to perform arithmetic
operations, such as addition and subtraction. I A computer and a netbook both store
information.
(A) CPU II Books are portable, netbooks are not.
(B) CU III Computers are programmable, books are not.
(C) ALU IV Computers only store small amounts of
(D) ATA information whereas books store a large amount
6 What is a computer’s main internal backing store? of information.
(A) CD-ROM (A) I and III ONLY
(B) ROM (B) II and III ONLY
(C) hard disk (C) II and IV ONLY
(D) processor (D) I, II and IV ONLY
11
Structured questions
1 The diagram in the following figure illustrates the b For EACH place identified in part 4a, describe
major hardware components of a computer system. TWO tasks that a computer system might be
used for in that environment. [8]
Sends data Receives data c State TWO other industries or places where
to CPU from CPU computers are likely to be used within the
A: B: next 2–3 years. [2]
5 General-purpose computer systems are becoming
Fetches and increasingly popular in homes. At the same time, more
Performs
decodes people are opting to work from home. State TWO
calculations
instructions ways that a home PC might be used to:
C: D:
a do office-related tasks; [2]
Stores programs b do school-related tasks; [2]
currently in use c communicate with the outside world. [2]
E: 6 Computers are binary devices, the ‘brain’ of which is a
G: CPU.
a Explain the statement ‘computers are binary
Stores data/instructions devices’. [2]
for future use
b Expand the acronym CPU. [1]
F:
c Name the TWO components of the CPU. [2]
d State TWO functions of EACH component
a Name EACH component labelled A–G in the named in part 6c. [4]
above figure. [6] e Briefly describe the relationship between the
b State TWO examples of the type of device that components named in part 6c. [3]
may be used at EACH of the locations labelled:
i A [1] 7 The execution of a program by a computer involves a
ii B [1] number of components and processes.
iii F [1] a Briefly describe the machine cycle (also
c State whether data, information or instructions known as the instruction cycle or fetch and
flow from the component G to E. Justify your execute cycle). [2]
answer. [2] b Explain the role of EACH of the following
2 A general-purpose computer system is said to have components in the machine cycle.
four major functions. i secondary storage [2]
ii main memory [2]
a Describe what a general-purpose computer iii input/output devices [2]
system is. [1]
b List the FOUR major functions of a general- 8 Consider the following specifications for a computer
purpose computer system. [4] system:
3 Computers are made up of different components and Line1: 2nd Generation Intel® Core™ i5-2467M
the names of the components are often written as processor (1.60 GHz)
acronyms. Write the meaning of EACH of the following Line 2: 4GB Dual Channel DDR3 1333MHz
computer acronyms and state ONE function that is Line 3: 128GB Solid State Drive
performed by the component identified. Line 4: Silver Anodized Aluminium and 13.3’ HD
(720p) Truelife WLED Display
a ALU [1]
Line 5: 1.3MP HD Webcam
b CPU [1]
c CU [1] a Which line number refers to EACH of the
d RAM [1] following components
i Secondary storage [1]
4 General-purpose computers are used in a number of ii RAM [1]
places to accomplish a wide variety of tasks. iii CPU [1]
a List FOUR places where a general-purpose b What is the size of the display? [1]
computer system is likely to be utilised on a day- c What is the speed of the processor? [1]
to-day basis. [4] d What is the speed of the memory? [1]
12
2
By the end of
this chapter
Primary and
secondary storage

define what primary and secondary storage are
differentiate between primary and secondary storage
you should
be able to:
manipulate units of storage: bits, bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes, terabytes
outline the functions of primary storage devices such as bistables, ROM, RAM,
PROM and EPROM
outline the uses of primary storage devices
correctly use terms that are associated with storage devices such as read/
write head, tracks, sectors, buffers, cylinders, access time, device interface and
direct access
identify common secondary storage media such as magnetic tape, diskette,
hard disk, optical disks, flash drive and flash memory cards
compare common secondary storage media with respect to portability, speed
and capacity.
Concept map
Storage
may be differ in terms of
primary memory: secondary storage speed capacity portability method of access

bistable devices
ROM
RAM types has is measured in include
PROM
EPROM
flash memory: optical media: interfaces: units of storage: direct sequential random
specifications flash drives CD IDE bit
memory cards DVD SATA byte
SCSI megabyte
magnetic media: gigabyte
capacity speed magnetic tape terabyte
floppy disk
hard disks data read/written using
laser
is read using is organised using
read/write head
tracks cylinders sectors
may be
fixed moving
2 • Primary and secondary storage
In Chapter 1 we discussed how CPU and main memory work together to

execute instructions, aided by storage. There are several different types of
storage in a computer system. We will explain the purpose of each type and
outline their function and use in the smooth operation of your computer.
Understanding the functions and uses of storage will help you in the selection
of the most appropriate media to meet a particular storage requirement. Using
suitable storage will help to reduce the possibility of losing your precious data.
How do primary and secondary storage differ?

ITQ1 Computers depend on two types of storage to meet their data storage needs. To
Explain why a computer system needs meet these needs, computers are equipped with:
both primary and secondary storage. • (short-term) primary storage devices such as RAM, ROM and EPROM; and
• (long-term) secondary storage devices such as flash drives, DVDs and hard
drives.
primary storage ❯ Primary storage is the computer’s main memory that consists of the random
access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM), both of which are
directly accessible by the CPU. In addition to ROM and RAM, there are other
primary storage devices.
storage device ❯ A storage device is any optical, magnetic or memory-style device capable
of information storage functions in a computer system.
storage medium ❯ A storage medium is the material in a storage device that retains the stored
information (such as the magnetic material on the surface of a hard drive).
Primary and secondary storage differ in a number of ways, as described in
Table 2.1.
Characteristic Primary Secondary

Capacity Relatively small Relatively large
(generally less than 4 GB) (generally more than 4 GB)
Cost Relatively expensive Inexpensive
Function Stores data and instruction being Stores data and program
processed by the CPU instructions on a long-term basis
Portability Not portable Varying degrees of portability
Speed Fast in relation to processor speed Slow in relation to processor speed
Read/Write capability Some devices have limited write Full read/write capability for most
capability devices
Table 2.1 The differences between primary and secondary storage devices.
We will discuss primary and secondary storage devices in more detail later. In
the next section we will explore the units used to measure storage capacity and
how to manipulate these units.
How is storage capacity measured?

Digital data is stored and transferred from one hardware component to another
during its transformation. We therefore need to have standard and reliable
ways to measure data storage and transfer.
Digital data is stored as binary values – zeros and ones – and the capacity of
data storage containers is measured in bytes and its multiples.
bit ❯ A bit is a binary digit, taking a value of either 0 or 1.
byte ❯ A byte is a collection of eight bits that is referenced as a single unit. One
byte of data is required to store a character such as A, x or $.
14
word ❯ A word is a group of two or more bytes that is stored in one location and
manipulated by the processor in one instruction cycle.
word size ❯ The word size is the number of bits that make up a word. For example, the
AMD Turion™ 64 processor manipulates an 8-byte word and, as such, has a
word size of 64.
ITQ2
ITQ1 Megabyte and gigabyte are popular units used to measure storage capacities
Briefly explain the relationship nowadays. Both of these are used to describe the storage capacities of primary
between a byte and a word. storage devices as well as secondary storage media.
Table 2.2 shows the relationship among the various measurement units.
Binary Number of bytes

Name (Symbol)
measurement Approximate Exact Equivalent to
ITQ3
ITQ1 kilobyte KB 210 1 thousand 1,024 1,024 bytes
An old 30-pin memory module was
megabyte MB 220 1 million 1,048,576 1,024 KB
capable of providing one byte at a
time to the CPU. A 32-bit machine gigabyte GB 230 1 billion 1,073,741,824 1,024 MB
would require four of these to work
terabyte TB 240 1 trillion 1,099,511,627,776 1,024 GB
together as a single ‘bank’. Explain
why this is so. petabyte PB 250 1 quadrillion 1,125,899,906,842,620 1,024 TB
Table 2.2 Large units for measuring storage capacities.
Manipulating units of storage

Example 2.1 A storage device is capable of holding 1,048,576 bytes of data.
How many 0.5 MB pictures can such a device hold?
Since 1 MB = 1,048,576 bytes
Therefore 0.5 MB = 1,048,576 × 0.5
= 524,288 bytes
# pictures = capacity of device / size of picture
= 1,048,576 bytes / 524,288 bytes
=2
The device can hold two pictures of size 0.5 MB each.
Example 2.2 Nutcracker Gadget Store has some files stored on thousands
of a particular type of magnetic device, DEVICE A. They plan to transfer the
contents from the batch of DEVICE A to a single DEVICE B for safekeeping. The
capacity of each DEVICE A is 1.44 MB. The capacity of DEVICE B is 4.0 GB.
Assuming that each DEVICE A is full to capacity, determine approximately how
many of these devices can be processed for transfer to DEVICE B.
Since 1 GB = 1,024 MB Capacity of DEVICE B in megabytes
= 4.0 × 1,024
= 4,096 MB
# of DEVICE A that may be transferred = 4,096 MB / 1.28 MB
= 3,200
Example 2.3 A student has written an essay for a history school-based

assessment (SBA). The word count feature of the word processor reports that
the document contains 8,192 characters (including spaces). Determine whether
the document can be saved on a newly formatted diskette.
Amount of storage required for 1 character = 1 byte
Storage required for 8,192 characters = 8,192 bytes
Disk capacity in bytes = no. of bytes in 1 MB × capacity of disk in MB
= 1,048,576 × 1.44
= 1,509,949 bytes
Since disk capacity > file size, the document can be saved.
15
Activity 2.1 Manipulate the units in the scenario below to solve the problem outlined.
Alexia is shopping online for a 2 MB storage device. She has identified two
devices from the same manufacturer with the following description, capacities and
prices and needs your help to determine which device is the most economical to
purchase.
Description Price each

Device A RocketSpeed 2 MB magnetic storage media $50
Device B RocketSpeed 4096 KB magnetic storage media $75
1 Determine what the price per megabyte is for EACH of the devices.
2 Suggest which device Alexia should purchase.
Types of primary storage devices

A range of primary storage devices are available to meet the needs of
computing devices as well as their users. All primary storage devices are made
up of bistables.
bistable ❯ A bistable is an electronic circuit that has two stable states. These states are
0 and 1, making it suitable for storing a binary digit. The power button on a
computing device is an example of a bistable device. A group of eight bistables
may be used to store one byte of data.
Table 2.3 lists the four common primary storage devices.
Device Description
RAM Random access memory
ROM Read-only memory
PROM Programmable read-only memory
EPROM Erasable programmable read-only memory
Table 2.3 Types of primary storage devices.
RAM
random access memory ❯ RAM (random access memory) is the main memory in a computer that
stores instructions that are being executed by the CPU as well as the data needed
for the current operations. RAM is also called immediate access storage. Whilst
a computer is in operation, the CPU can read and write to RAM. However, all
of RAM’s contents are lost when the computer is shut down. RAM is thus said
to be volatile. Computing devices are now sold with varying amounts of RAM.
Some devices are sold with as little as 2 GB installed memory whereas others are
supplied with as much as 12 GB installed. Most devices are upgradable so a user
may purchase additional memory and install it as the need arises.
ROM, PROM and EPROM

There are four basic ROM types:
1 ROM
2 PROM
3 EPROM
4 EEPROM (used to develop flash memory)
16
Activity 2.2 Exploring installed memory capacities

1 Copy the following table to your notebook.
Type of computer Manufacturer and model Installed memory

Desktop
Laptop
Tablet
Ultrabook
2 Visit an online computer retailer at www.staples.com, www.officedepot.com or

www.officemax.com.
3 Browse the products for sale in each of the three categories listed in the table
and select ONE device from each category.
4 Complete the table by writing the manufacturer, model and memory size
(a) (b)
(amount of installed RAM) for each device selected.
Figure 2.1 The back (a) and front (b) of a
RAM chip.
Each type has unique characteristics but they are all types of memory with two
things in common:
• data stored in these chips is non-volatile – it is not lost when power is
removed; and
• data stored in these chips is either unchangeable or requires a special
operation to change (unlike RAM, which can be changed as easily as it is
read).
This means that removing the power source from the chip will not cause it to
Figure 2.2 Learn ‘How ROM Works’.
lose any data.
read-only memory ❯ Read-only memory (ROM) is a primary storage device that stores data
and programs that cannot be changed. In ROM, the data and instructions are
written permanently into the memory during its manufacture. The contents
are not lost when the power is switched off and the data can never be changed.
ROM is used to form a computer’s permanent store of vital data and programs
that must be readily available but protected from accidental or deliberate
change by a user. ROM is like a textbook, it is already written when you buy it.
You cannot reprogram or rewrite a standard ROM chip.
Creating ROM chips from scratch is time consuming and very expensive
in small quantities. For this reason, mainly, developers created a type of ROM
programmable read-only memory ❯ known as programmable read-only memory (PROM). Blank PROM chips
can be bought inexpensively and coded by anyone with a special tool. Once
programmed, a PROM memory chip behaves like ROM. PROM is used by
small-scale manufacturers of electronic equipment who need to write their
own data and instructions into read-only memory. PROM is like a ruled
notebook; you can write on each line only once.
erasable programmable Even though PROM chips are inexpensive to produce, the cost can add up
read-only memory ❯ over time. Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) addresses
this issue. EPROM chips can be rewritten many times. EPROM can be
ITQ4
ITQ1 programmed and reprogrammed with a special electronic device. EPROM chips
State ONE difference between EACH of are packaged in a clear plastic case so that the contents can be erased using
the following pairs of devices: special ultraviolet light. EPROM is like a blackboard; you can rub out with a
(a) ROM and PROM special eraser and start again, but without the special eraser the data cannot be
(b) PROM and EPROM. deleted.
17
Type of memory Can be written to by user? Erasable? User programmable?

RAM yes no no
ROM no no no
PROM yes no yes
EPROM yes yes yes
Table 2.4 Summary of read/write properties of primary storage devices.
Device Function Example of use

Bistable • Stores digital data To make RAM and ROM chips: 8 bistable devices combine to create one byte of
• Provides the building block for creating memory on a memory chip.
primary storage devices
RAM Large capacity, volatile storage device. Primary memory in electronic devices. Smartphones, washing machines, motor
vehicles and computers all have some form of primary memory.
ROM Storage device for permanently storing BIOS chip which contains basic information about your computer, such as the types of
binary data and programs. input/output devices attached; also stores bootstrapping program (the first program to
run when a computer is switched on).
PROM A blank ROM microchip for storing data Used in various design operations for prototyping (testing) the data for a ROM before
and programs. Once written the data and committing to the costly ROM fabrication process.
programs CANNOT be changed.
EPROM A blank ROM microchip for storing data EPROM is used in equipment such as satellite receivers that needs scheduled
and programs. The data and programs can reprogramming.
be erased so the chip can be reused. Variants of EPROM are used to manufacture flash memory cards and flash drives.
Table 2.5 Summary of functions and uses of primary storage devices.
Activity 2.3 Common uses of primary storage devices

Device Use #1 Use #2

RAM
ROM
PROM
EPROM
2 Conduct research to determine some of the more common uses of the primary
storage devices listed in Table 2.5.
3 Record your responses.
Secondary storage media

Secondary storage is non-volatile, which means that it will retain its contents
permanently, even when the device or media is disconnected from the
computing device.
Secondary storage uses different technology and three of these will be
discussed.
18
Magnetic Optical Flash memory

Fixed-head hard disk CD-ROM Flash drive (internal & USB)
Moving-head hard disk DVD Flash memory
Tape Compact flash cards
Diskette (Floppy disk)
Table 2.6 Classification of storage media.
Magnetic storage media

The hard drive is easily the most popular secondary storage device in existence
today. Originally, these were internal, however, over the past decade, external
hard drives have become increasingly popular. Magnetic tapes have managed
to hold their own as they are used by medium-sized and large organisations to
store data for both backup and archival purposes. Diskettes have been around
since the 1960s and have seen a rapid decline in their use since the mid-2000s.
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 2.3 The external hard drive (a), DVD (b), CD-ROM (c) and flash drive (d) are four of the
most common storage units in use today. USB flash drives have replaced floppy disks as the
medium of choice for transferring files.
Media organisation
Magnetic media needs to be formatted before use. Some magnetic media are
sold pre-formatted, whereas others are sold unformatted and as such need to
be formatted by the user.
formatting ❯ Formatting is a process, facilitated by the operating system, during
which a storage medium is prepared for data storage. A formatted disk has an
arrangement of tracks and sectors.
a track ❯ A track is one of the many concentric rings that are encoded on the disk
during formatting and that define distinct areas of data storage on the disk.
sector ❯ A sector is one of the segments of the concentric tracks encoded on a
diskette or hard disk during formatting.
cylinder ❯ A cylinder is a unit of storage in a disk system consisting of the set of tracks
that occupy the same position on opposite sides of each platter (disk surface).
19
Figure 2.4 A disk platter is divided into Figure 2.5 Inside a hard disk drive, showing the platters and moving read/write heads. This disk has
tracks (brown) and tracks are divided into four platters, each made of a core of glass or aluminium, covered with a thin layer of magnetic material.
sectors (yellow).
A disk stores data in units called sectors. A fixed number of these sectors are
placed in a concentric circle on the surface of a disk, called a track. The surface
of a disk contains many tracks. To increase the capacity of the disk drive, several
platters can be stacked one above the other. When the read/write heads remain
still the tracks on each platter are accessed and this is known as a cylinder.
ITQ5
ITQ1 Access methods
With reference to a hard disk Data held on storage media may be accessed using either a direct access or a
arrangement, state the relationship sequential access mechanism, depending on the actual physical format of the
between a track and a cylinder. media. A magnetic tape is linear and is accessed sequentially. Both diskettes
and hard disk drives are circular and are referred to as direct-access devices.
direct access ❯ Direct access is an information storage and retrieval technique in which a
storage device allows data to be read from or written to the actual area of the
data storage media without having to interact with any other areas.
sequential access ❯ Sequential access is an information storage and retrieval technique in
which the computer must move through a sequence of stored data items to
reach the desired one.
Direct access media are usually disc-like in appearance, that is, circular and
flat. These storage components of a computer system may have their data read/
written using either magnetic or optical technology. Sequentially accessed
media is usually linear, such as cassette tapes, and access is much slower than
hard disks. These devices are useful in situations where the entire contents of a
disk need to be copied to some other media for storage. This copy operation is
ideal for sequentially accessed devices, hence the popularity of magnetic tape
for backup and restore operations.
Access time
access time ❯ Access time is the time interval between the moment the command is given
to transfer data from the disk to main memory and the moment this transfer is
completed.
Average disk access time = Average seek time + Average rotational delay +
Transfer time
Variable Description
Seek time The time needed to position the read/write head over the correct track.
Rotational delay The time for the beginning of the desired sector to rotate under the read/
write head.
ITQ6
ITQ1
Transfer time The time for the entire sector to pass under the read/write head and have its
Explain how seek time and latency time contents read into or written from memory.
affect the performance of a hard disk
drive. Table 2.7 Components of the access time formula.
20
In an attempt to improve the access time of their disks, some manufactures

tried to build disk drives with one fixed read/write head for each track, thereby
eliminating the seek time. These fixed-head hard disk drives never became
popular because they were more expensive than moving-head hard disk drives.
Defragmentation
During normal operations, the files on a hard disk eventually become fragmented
as parts of a file are written over multiple spaces on the drive. This slows retrieval
operations because an increase in latency leads to an increased access time.
Defragmentation improves access time as it tends to reduce latency.
defragmentation ❯ Defragmentation is a procedure in which all the files on a hard drive are
erased and rewritten on the disk so that all parts of each file are written to
neighbouring sectors.
Windows 8 includes a tool named Optimize Drives (called Disk Defragmenter
in earlier versions of Windows) that may be used to defragment disks.
Device interfaces
device interface ❯ A device interface is a connection between two systems through which
information is exchanged.
Considering that storage devices are peripherals, they need a means of
communicating with the CPU. Various device interfaces exist that allow
secondary storage to communicate with the CPU via the motherboard. The
motherboard is the main circuit board of the computer and is home to the CPU
and RAM. These are fitted directly onto the motherboard via special-purpose
slots. Secondary storage devices such as hard disks, CD-ROM, DVD and tape
drives are each equipped with an interface. One end of a cable is plugged onto
this device interface and the other end onto the motherboard.
Acronym Interface name Comments

IDE Integrated Device Electronics A type of hard disk that has the interface
circuitry built into it.
SATA Serial Advanced Technology Replaces IDE on newer computers because it
Attachment has a faster data transfer rate.
SCSI Small Computer Systems Interface A high-speed interface that can interface a
computer with multiple storage devices.
USB Universal Serial Bus Commonly used to interface a wider range
of devices than all the other interface types.
Replaces SCSI on many computers.
Figure 2.6 The rear view of a typical Table 2.8 Common device interfaces.
desktop computer showing a wide range of
ports and device interfaces. Buffers
Storage devices are slow when compared with the speed of a modern
processor. In order to prevent the processor from continually waiting for
the storage devices, a buffer is used. The CPU writes data to the buffer very
quickly; it is then free to perform other tasks.
buffer ❯ A buffer is a portion of main memory given the task of holding information
temporarily, especially while waiting for slower components to catch up.
The disk drive reads the data from the buffer and writes it onto the platters,
depending on the speed of the disk drive. Buffers are useful in many areas
of life where there is a transfer between a fast device and a slower device. A
rainwater tank is a buffer, it fills up very quickly in a short rainstorm but it
empties slowly as water is used throughout the following days.
21
Magnetic hard disks

A hard disk is the most common secondary storage installed in computer
systems nowadays. There are two types of hard disks – internal and external
hard disks. All hard disks are direct access storage devices and require one of the
device interfaces discussed earlier in order to communicate with the computer.
Internal hard disks

fixed-head disk ❯ A fixed-head disk is a disk storage device in which the read–write heads are
fixed in position, one to a track, and the arms to which they are attached are
immovable.
moving-head disk ❯ A moving-head disk is a disk storage device in which one or more read–
write heads are attached to a movable arm that allows each head to cover
many tracks of information.
Both moving-head and fixed-head hard disks are installed in a system unit’s
drive bay. A drive bay is a rectangular opening inside a system unit that holds a
hard disk. Both of these drives may be referred to as internal hard disks and are
connected to the CPU via a device interface (IDE, SATA or SCSI).
External hard disks

An external hard disk provides extra storage capacity as well as portability and
comes in packages as small as a smartphone. At the time of writing, these disks
were available in capacities up to 16 TB, using interfaces such as USB, Firewire
and SATA.
Figure 2.8 Diskettes are still used in

certain applications such as data logging.
Both DELL and HP stopped offering diskette Figure 2.7 An external hard disk connected to a notebook computer via a USB interface.
drives as standard peripherals in 2007.
Diskettes
diskette ❯ A diskette is a removable flexible magnetic disk on which computer programs
and data can be stored.
ITQ7
ITQ1 The alternative term, floppy disk, has gone out of fashion because present
Perform the necessary computations to day diskettes have rigid shells, unlike the 5¼-inch version which was flexible.
prove that the capacity of a diskette is The rigid shell houses a single flexible, magnetisable platter. Both sides
1.4 megabytes. are usable and when formatted, has 80 tracks per side. Each of these tracks
is further divided into 18 sectors, each having a capacity of 512 bytes (0.5
kilobytes). The capacity of a diskette is 1.4 megabytes (MB).
22
Flash memory cards and flash drives

In recent years, flash memory devices have become very popular for storing
data. They have similarities to RAM as they are electronic devices, but they
are also similar to diskettes because they are removable and they store data
even when the power is removed. This is because they are made from a
flash memory ❯ specific type of EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory). Flash
memory is called this because all the sections of the microchip are erased at
once (or flashed). Flash memory cards lose power when they are disconnected
(removed) from the computer, yet the data stored in them is retained for an
indefinitely long time or until it is rewritten.
Their high capacity, fast data transfer rate, low cost and extremely high
portability are reasons for their popularity. Flash memory cards come in
different physical sizes so you need a special reader to be able to access the data
stored on them. It is common to find flexible devices that accept a variety of
size of memory cards built into modern computers or attached to the computer
via USB connection.
The memory card in your smartphone or the memory in your 8GB or 16GB
iPhone are both relevant examples of flash memory.
Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic in a small rectangular
plastic housing that is capable of storing large amounts of data at a low cost.
Tape is sequentially accessed and is used by organisations primarily for backing
up and archiving data.
Figure 2.9 Magnetic tape.
Optical disks
Optical disks are secondary storage media that use (laser) light to read the data
stored.
CD-ROM ❯ A CD-ROM (compact disc read-only memory) is a pre-pressed compact
disc that contains data accessible to, but not writable by, a computer. CD-ROMs
ITQ8
ITQ1 are popularly used to distribute computer software. A CD-R (compact disc
Name TWO secondary storage media recordable) is a variation of the CD-ROM that can be written to on a computer
whose data are read using lasers. using a CD writer. Reusable CD-ROM disks (CD-RW) allow a user to erase the
disk and re-use it again.
DVD ❯ A DVD (also known as ‘digital versatile disc’ or ‘digital video disc’) is
a popular optical disc storage media format. Most DVDs have the same
ITQ9
ITQ1 dimensions as compact discs (CDs) but store more than six times as much data.
Which of the following devices have the It is mainly used for video recording/playback and data storage. Because of
highest and lowest data transfer rates: their large capacity, DVDs are also used to back up data stored on hard disks.
CD-ROM, external hard disk, USB flash
drive?
Comparing secondary storage media
Each storage technology has its advantages and disadvantages. Computer users
have a wide range of storage needs and it is important to use objective criteria
in selecting your media. You can use criteria such as versatility, reliability,
cost portability, speed and capacity to judge the suitability of storage. We will
discuss portability, speed and capacity.
portability ❯ Portability is a measure of the ease with which a storage media can
function on different computer systems. This includes both the installation and
removal of the media from a particular computer system.
speed ❯ Speed is a measure of how quickly data is transferred from the storage
media to the computer after a request is made. Speed is based on both access
time and data transfer rate.
23
storage capacity ❯ Storage capacity is the maximum amount of data that can be stored
on a storage medium; it is measured in bytes and multiples of bytes such as
megabytes, gigabytes and terabytes.
In today’s fast-paced environment where digital data is frequently created,
access to one’s own storage is a requirement. Quick access to all types of data is
important for users, whether it is a document, picture, movie or music. Users
today will almost always prefer higher capacity, faster and highly portable
storage. Table 2.9 compares popular types of secondary storage media with
respect to portability, speed and capacity.
Device Portability Speed Capacity (as at early 2014)

A couple of hundred gigabytes
Hard disk (external) Portable Faster
to a couple of terabytes
A couple of hundred gigabytes
Hard disk (internal) Not portable when installed in a system
to a couple of terabytes
DVD 4.7 to 17 GB
More portable than external hard disks
CD-ROM 700 MB
Extremely portable. Most computers A few gigabytes to a few
Flash drive
have USB ports terabytes
Flash memory card As portable as a flash drive 16–128 GB
A few megabytes to
Magnetic tape Portable
a couple of hundred gigabytes
As portable as optical media. New
Diskette (floppy disk) computers shipped after 2007 may not Slower 1.4 MB
have diskette drives
Table 2.9 Comparison of characteristics for various types of secondary storage media.
Summary
• Computers store data and instructions on both primary and secondary storage devices.
• Primary storage is volatile, secondary storage is non-volatile.
• Primary storage media are randomly accessed; secondary storage media are accessed either directly or
sequentially.
• RAM, ROM, PROM and EPROM are types of memory.
• RAM (also known as immediate access storage) is the computer’s main memory.
• Hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD, diskette and flash drives are examples of secondary storage media.
• Magnetic disks, optical disks (CD-ROM and DVD) and diskettes are direct access devices whereas magnetic tape is
sequential access storage.
• Units of storage are byte, kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte and terabyte.
• Magnetic hard disks may be internal or external. Internal hard disks are of two types: fixed-head or moving-head.
• Read/write heads in disk and tape drives transfer data and instructions from storage media to a computer system’s
memory and vice versa.
• IDE, SATA, SCSI and USB are device interfaces and allow secondary storage devices to communicate with the
computer.
• Secondary storage media can be compared with respect to portability, speed and capacity.
• Magnetic tape is a high-capacity, sequential storage device ideal for backup and archiving applications.
• Flash drives and flash memory cards are small, convenient, removable storage devices with capacities ranging in
the gigabytes.
24
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 A computer needs fast, ITQ4 (a) ROM is supplied with its
randomly accessible read/write data already ‘burnt in’ whereas PROM
storage to support the processor as it is supplied blank and its contents may
executes programs. Primary storage be programmed by its user; (b) PROM
fills this need. Computer users need may be programmed once whereas
long-term storage for programs, data EPROM may be reprogrammed.
and documents which is provided by ITQ5 A track is the area between
secondary storage. two concentric circles on one disk
ITQ2 A byte is a group of 8 bits surface only whereas a cylinder is all
and is the basic unit of measurement the tracks in the same position on all
for computer storage. A word is a disk surfaces.
group of two or more bytes and is the ITQ6 An increase in seek time
basic unit of data manipulated by the and/or latency increases a disk’s
processor. access time thereby degrading its
ITQ3 Since 8 bits = 1 byte, 30-pin performance, whereas a decrease in
memory provides 8 bits at a time either seek time or latency reduces
to the CPU. Considering that a 32- access time, causing improved
bit machine has a word size of 32, performance.
and that a word is the unit of data ITQ7 Capacity in bytes = bytes per
manipulated by the CPU, this means sector × sectors per track × tracks per
that the CPU must be provided with platter × no. of read/write heads;
all 32 bits of data at once. If we have 512 × 18 × 80 × 2 = 1,474,560 bytes
four memory modules working or 1.4 MB (since 1,024 bytes =
together as a single bank, then we will 1 kilobyte and 1,024 kilobytes = 1,024
be able to provide the CPU with the megabytes).
data needed.
ITQ8 CD-ROM and DVD.
ITQ9 Highest – hard disk, lowest –
floppy disk.
IT portfolio
1 In this activity you will create a storage media photo essay.
a Start off by creating a list of the different types of removable storage media available in your school.
b Locate (or take your own) photographs or images of each of the devices listed.
c Paste the pictures/images in your portfolio along with a brief (20 words or less) narrative about how this device
is used at your school.
2 In this activity you will explore two different access methods. You will need a CD player (as an example of a direct
access device) and an old cassette tape player (as an example of a serial access device).
a Time how long it takes to find and start playing track 2 on each device and make a note of the times.
b Determine which method is the faster one to find a particular track?
c Record the result in your portfolio.
3 In this activity you will explore the capacity of a common storage device – the flash drive.
a Calculate the number of characters on this page by counting the number of characters in a typical line and
multiplying by the number of lines.
b Since one byte can hold one character, determine how many pages of this book will fit on a 1GB USB flash
drive. Remember to manipulate your units correctly.
c Record the result in your portfolio.
25
Group activity
1 Work on this activity in pairs.
a Arrange with your teacher, computer technician, relatives or friends for you to have
access to secondary storage devices and media that are no longer in use.
b Use the necessary tools to dismantle the items.
c Use a digital camera to take photographs of EACH component.
d Upload the image to your computer and rename them (for example, change the
name 20130504_041.jpg to deviceInterface.jpg).
e Import the images into a new word-processing document; add suitable captions
and lines for labelling the various components. Print two copies of the document as
worksheets.
f With the help of your teacher, label each component. Paste the completed worksheet
in your portfolio.
Multiple-choice questions 6 A ____________ is a concentric circle on a disk or

Instructions: Each of the following questions has four parallel path on a tape on which data is stored.
suggested responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read (A) buffer
each question carefully then select the most suitable (B) track
response. (C) sector
1 Memory stores: (D) cylinder
(A) the operating system and other system software 7 Which of the following device interfaces is MOST likely
(B) application programs that carry out a specific to be found in a new desktop computer?
task (A) IDE
(C) the data being processed and the resulting (B) SATA
information (C) SCSI
(D) all of the above (D) SDI
2 Ten megabytes (10 MB) is equivalent to: 8 Which of the following is LEAST likely to have multiple
(A) 1,024 kilobytes read/write heads, a buffer and an IDE interface?
(B) 0.1 gigabyte (A) CD drive
(C) 0.1 terabyte (B) flash drive
(D) 0.01 gigabyte (C) hard disk drive
3 A bistable is a: (D) magnetic tape drive
(A) very small peripheral device 9 A ____________ is the largest unit of storage of all the
(B) unit of measurement similar to bytes items in the list below.
(C) device that may be connected to a computer (A) kilobyte (KB)
(D) device that may exist in one of two stable states (B) megabyte (MB)
4 ____________ is a primary storage device that may be (C) terabyte (TB)
programmed once by the user. (D) gigabyte (GB)
(A) RAM 10 Three storage media – a magnetic tape, a hard disk
(B) ROM and a DVD – have capacities of 1 terabyte, 512
(C) PROM megabytes and 4.7 gigabytes respectively. Which of
(D) EPROM the following statements are NOT true?
5 In relation to storage devices, the acronym IDE refers (A) the hard disk has the smallest capacity
to: (B) the capacity of the magnetic tape is twice that of
the hard disk
(A) device interface
(C) the capacity of the magnetic tape is 200 times
(B) access mechanism
that of the hard disk
(C) type of read/write head
(D) the capacity of the DVD is larger than the hard
(D) arrangement of tracks and sectors
disk but smaller than the magnetic tape
26
1 Rhianna bought a notebook computer with the c In reading data from a disk, what are the
following specifications: TWO main components of access time? [2]
d Explain how a fixed-head system on a hard
Intel® Core™ i3-2350M processor (2.30 GHz, 3 M cache,with disk unit can reduce the access time for a
Turbo BoostTechnology 2.0) device. [2]
15.6 inches HD (1,366x768) Anti-Glare LED-backlit 4 Computer systems are usually equipped with a range
2 GB DDR3 SDRAM at 1333 MHz of secondary storage media.
250 GB 5,400 rpm Moving-head SATA HDD a Name ONE direct-access secondary storage
8X DVD device. [1]
Wireless 802.11g Mini Card b Explain why magnetic tape is a sequential
24 WHr Lithium-Ion Battery access medium. [2]
a Using the computer specifications listed above, c Name ONE storage device most suitable for
state the specifications of each of the following use in EACH of the following situations:
components: i transferring a small word-processing
i Capacity and speed of the hard drive [2] document from one microcomputer to
ii Memory capacity [1] another [1]
iii Type of optical drive [1] ii storing a 2-hour digital quality movie [1]
b Indicate the type of interface used to connect iii recording a medley of songs for a dance
the hard disk drive. [1] recital [1]
c Explain why the access time for a moving- iv backing up all the records in an accounting
head disk drive is GREATER than the access department [1]
time for a fixed-head disk drive. [2] 5 Computers rely on a range of devices and media for
2 Computer users have a wide range of options from storing data and instructions.
which to choose for their data storage needs. (i) (ii)
a In relation to capacity, explain ONE difference
between magnetic tape and CD-ROM as
media for storing data. [2]
b A colleague from St Luago is about to visit
you and wants to bring a set of digital
photographs to show you. There are 300
photographs and each is 100 KB. He plans to (iii) (iv)
use a diskette. What advice would you give
to your friend as to the suitability of using a
diskette? [2]
c Suggest TWO alternative removable media
that might be more suitable. a Identify EACH of the devices labelled (i)–(iv). [1]
Justify your recommendations. [4] b Which is a primary storage device? [1]
3 Hard disks are the most popular secondary storage c Which of the devices are non-volatile? [1]
media. d Which device is likely to have the largest
a On a disk’s surface, what is the relationship capacity? [1]
between a track and a sector? [1] 6 Your microcomputer has a 10 GB hard disk of
b A hard disk system has six disk surfaces, with which only 100 MB is empty. You wish to replace
one moving head for EACH surface. A certain that drive with a 30 GB drive. You want to save all
track has ten sectors forming a ring, each the information stored on the hard drive on 3½″
sector carrying ½ KB. How many KB are there floppy disks while the conversion is made. Is this
in the entire cylinder? [2] practical? Explain your answer. [3]
27
3 Input and output
devices
By the end of define the terms input, input device and input media
this chapter
explain the uses of various input devices and media
you should
be able to:
define the terms output and output device
classify output devices as visual display units, printers, plotters and audio
output devices
define common terms such as hard copy, soft copy, human readable and
machine-readable which are used to refer to output devices and output media
state the functions of specified output devices.
Concept map
Input & output devices
manipulate data in used in environments have various include

different formats such as functions
output devices:
earphones
headphones
soft-copy: hard-copy: homes data entry
impact printers
audio printouts home offices data collection
non-impact printers
lights schools audio output
plotters
visual displays human-readable: retail stores printing
speakers
bar codes restaurants display
visual display units
marks factories
magnetic ink offices
input devices:
machine-readable: bar code reader pads and tablets
bar codes biometric systems point of sale (POS)
marks character readers (OCR, MICR) pointing devices
magnetic ink digital camera remote control
document scanner sensors
joystick sound capture
keyboard touch terminals
light-pen voice response unit
mouse webcam
The typical computer system at school or in an office is very useful, but by

adding extra components, it can be transformed into an amazing tool – a tool
that is more useful and more flexible across a variety of industries. In this
chapter, we look at a broad range of input and output devices that can be
attached to a computer. We will also interpret the specifications of computer
systems so we can understand all the seemingly cryptic numbers and letters.
3 • Input and output devices
Recall from Chapter 1 that input devices are peripherals. These special-
purpose hardware devices serve one primary function: to get data and
instructions into the computer system. Input devices depend on input media
to take the data and instructions from outside the computer to the inside. Input
devices connect to the system unit via device interfaces such as a USB port.
Computer systems are usually sold with one or more devices to facilitate input.
Users have the option of purchasing and attaching additional input devices
depending on the function for which the computer system is intended.
Data collection basics

Humans interact with their environment using five senses: sight, hearing,
touch, taste and smell. Most electronic devices receive input by utilising three
senses: sight, hearing and touch.
Devices that see Devices that hear Devices that sense touch
Biometric systems Microphones Electronic signature capture
Cameras (digital and web) Voice response units devices
Character readers (OCR and MICR) Graphic pads
Light-pens Joysticks
Remote controls Keyboards
Scanners (document scanners and Mice
barcode readers) Touchscreens
Table 3.1 Computing devices that see, hear and sense touch.
Input, input devices and input media

Before we explain the uses of the various input devices mentioned above, we
need to define three key terms: input, input device and input media.
input ❯ Input is data entered into the computer via some form of input device such
as a keyboard, microphone, mouse, or scanner.
input device ❯ An input device is a hardware device designed to convey data and
instructions from a user into a computer system.
input media ❯ Input media refers to the material, means or mechanism used to convey
the data from its source into the computer system.
Input may exist in a range of forms: textual (a password), graphical (a
profile picture) or sonic (a voice message). Table 3.2 shows the relationship
ITQ1 between some common input devices and the medium used in each specific
Name ANY TWO input devices that are case to convey the actual input.
usually a component of each of the
following types of computer system:
(a) a home desktop PC
(b) a laptop or notebook computer. Application area Input device Input medium
Data entry Keyboard Keystrokes
Web browsing Mouse Mouse clicks
Voice-controlled computing Microphone Voice commands
Retail sales Point-of-sale system Barcode
Remote controlled access Remote control Infrared beam
Banking at an ATM machine Magnetic stripe reader Magnetic stripe on ATM card
Table 3.2 Relationship between input device and input medium.
29
Manual data entry vs. data capture

An input device may facilitate manual data entry or automated data capture
from a source document. Manual data entry is usually done from a human-
readable document, whereas data capture is done from a machine-readable
document.
source document ❯ A source document is an original document that contains input. An
example of a source document is an attendance register used by a homeroom
teacher to record daily attendance.
human-readable document ❯ A human-readable document is one that may be read by a human but is
not in a form that a computer can automatically accept as input. An example is
a handwritten list.
machine-readable document ❯ A machine-readable document is one that can be read directly and
understood by the computer.
manual data entry ❯ Manual data entry is a process during which data is entered into a
computer by a user. Devices such as a keyboard, mouse, joystick, light-pen and
tablet are used in this process.
automated data capture ❯ Automated data capture is a process during which data is directly
entered into a computer with little or no user intervention. Microphones,
barcode readers, document scanners and sensors are examples of devices that
facilitate this process. Data capture usually increases the speed and accuracy of
the data collection exercise.
ITQ2
ITQ1 (a) (b)
Name ONE human-readable document

generated by each of the following
persons:
(a) a student in a classroom
(b) a school Principal
(c) a person at home
(d) a police of ficer on traffic duty.
Figure 3.1 Source documents: (a) a handwritten list is a human-readable source document; (b) a
ITQ3
ITQ1 boarding pass issued by an airline contains both machine-readable and human-readable data – the
Which of the source documents shown text may be read by humans and the barcode can be scanned using a bar code reader.
in Figure 3.1(a) and (b) are machine-
readable? Justify your response.
In the next section, we will look at the uses of various input devices. We
have categorised the devices into four groups based on where they are most
likely to be used (Table 3.3). A device that is used in the home may also be
used in industry, but in different ways. Ensure that you understand how input
devices are actually used in the real world.
Home Retail trade Industry Specialised applications

Keyboard Barcode reader Voice response unit Biometric systems light-pen
Mouse Magnetic stripe reader Optical mark reader Remote control sensors
Web camera Touchscreen Graphic pad
Digital camera Point-of-sale OCR
Microphone MICR
ITQ4
ITQ1 Joystick
Name ONE other device that is an Document scanner
automated data capture device. Table 3.3 Input devices.
30
Home/Home office Input devices in the home

Keyboard There is a knock at your gate. Reluctantly, you press the ‘S’ key on the
Mouse keyboard to suspend the computer game on the screen. Peeping through
Web camera the living room window, you observe a TTPost van parked outside and a
Digital camera deliveryman, package in hand, standing at the gate. The game controller and
Microphone web camera have finally arrived. You head out the front door towards the gate,
Joystick with wireless mouse still in hand, squinting to escape the glare of Trinidad’s
Document scanner noonday sun. Quickly, you collect the items and head inside to install the new
Touchscreens devices. You open the Instagram app on your smartphone and upload an image
of the new devices to Twitter to share with your friends.
Table 3.4 Common input devices usually
attached to a home computer. Keyboard
The keyboard is the standard input device attached to general-purpose
computer systems. Some modern keyboards have keys for launching Internet
applications and multimedia control.
main keyboard function keys cursor keys numeric keypad
ITQ5
ITQ1
Outline TWO technologically savvy ways Figure 3.2 A typical keyboard.
that pictures could be shared using the
input devices mentioned in the opening Specialised Keyboard
paragraph on this page.
Braille keyboards are used by computer users with visual impairments. A
standard keyboard would be useless, as the labels on the keys would not be
seen. These special keyboards have raised dots on the key caps, allowing users
with visual impairment to enter data.
Mouse
A mouse is an input device used to manipulate data and program instructions
by pointing, selecting, dragging and clicking. These versatile input devices are
available as different types: corded and cordless, optical and mechanical, radio
and laser. The manuscript for this book was prepared using a battery-operated
Figure 3.3 A corded 2-button mechanical wireless optical laser mouse that communicated with the computer via a USB
mouse. receiver.
Figure 3.4 From left to right, a corded mouse with USB interface, a mini travel mouse with
retractable cord, a wireless mouse on a graphics pad and a cordless optical mouse.
Joystick
A joystick is a point-and-click input device that moves the pointer on the
screen according to the movement of the lever by the user. It is used mainly for
Figure 3.5 Joystick. games.
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Digital and web cameras

ITQ6
ITQ1
Suggest TWO ways in which a student Digital cameras allow digital photographs to be entered into the computer.
could use a web camera to research These include digital cameras, document cameras and web cameras (webcams).
for and prepare a History or Visual Arts Whereas all three are capable of capturing still images and video, the webcam
SBA. is optimised for video and the document camera for still images. Digital
cameras store images and video on the camera’s built-in memory or on
removable (compact flash) memory cards. Cameras may be connected to the
computer directly via a USB connection. Memory cards can be removed from
the camera and the data transferred to the computer using a card reader.
This allows still images and video to be captured or transferred. Webcams are
commonly used in Internet telephony (Skype, MSN and Google Hangout) and
teleconferencing.
Microphone
Figure 3.6 Digital camera. A microphone (mic) is a device for inputting audio data into the computer.
A microphone may exist as a stand-alone device or it may be integrated into
another device such as a webcam, monitor or headset. A stand-alone mic
ITQ7
ITQ1 connects to your computer via the ‘mic’ or ‘line in’ port on the computer
Suggest THREE ways in which a system’s sound card or front panel of the system unit. Microphones are
microphone may be used in the home used for real-time person-to-person conversations during online chats and
as an input device. teleconferencing. They are also used in recording audio clips for webcasts,
broadcasting, advertising and filmmaking.
Document scanner
Document scanners are used to input text, diagrams and pictures into the
computer. Document scanners are often used in conjunction with specialised
software. For example, a scanner combined with optical character recognition
(OCR) software makes an optical character reading system. Scanners are
available in many shapes, sizes and types and range from small portable
business card scanners to larger desktop scanners with automatic document
feeders. Business travellers sometimes carry portable scanners that enable them
to scan source documents directly into their laptop computers.
Input devices in the retail trade

Businesses like supermarkets, restaurants and bookstores that sell goods and
ITQ8
ITQ1 services to customers use devices such as touchscreens, barcode readers and
Suggest ONE way how a primary school magnetic stripe readers.
Language Arts teacher could use a These input devices allow the business operators to perform more efficiently
scanner: since data can be captured automatically from a product that has a barcode or
(a) to prepare for a lesson magnetic stripe.
(b) during a lesson
(c) after a lesson
Retail business
Touchscreen
Barcode reader
Electronic signature capture device
Magnetic stripe reader
Specialised keyboard
Point-of-sale
Table 3.5 Common input devices likely Figure 3.7 A flatbed document scanner. The image
to be found in retail businesses such as in Figure 3.1(a) was scanned using a flatbed scanner
bookstores, pharmacies and supermarkets. similar to the one shown here.
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Touchscreen
touchscreen ❯ A touchscreen is a computer screen that is sensitive to touch, so that the user
can point to things on it by touching the screen itself, without using a mouse.
Touchscreens are used extensively in fast food restaurants, supermarkets
and cinemas. They are commonly integrated into automated banking machines
(ABMs) and in self-service kiosks used in photo labs, phone credit vending
ITQ9
machines and airline check-in. Apple’s iPad and Samsung’s Galaxy tablets both
State TWO ways in which a barcode can feature touchscreens.
be used in a warehouse.
Barcode reader
barcode scanner ❯ A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is a specialised optical mark reader
that ‘visually’ interprets barcodes. This data capture device scans barcodes and,
with specialised software, converts them into machine-readable data. Barcodes
are the black and white stripes found on many products sold in retail. Barcode
readers are now found in many supermarkets as part of a point-of-sale (POS)
system. Barcode readers allow customers’ purchases to be processed quickly
and because the barcode identifies the product, a receipt showing full details of
the item can be produced.
Magnetic stripe card reader

Magnetic stripe card readers convert information from a stripe of magnetic
material attached to a plastic card. Stripe card readers are attached to hotel and
office doors, parking meters, airport check-in kiosks among many other devices
Figure 3.8 Products carry unique
and places. Banks, libraries and health insurance companies issue plastic cards
barcodes which can be interpreted by
fitted with magnetic stripes to their customers. The magnetic stripe encodes
barcode readers.
data such as the customer’s account number, value (money or units remaining
to be spent/used) among other details. This information is read when the card
is swiped through the magnetic stripe reader.
(a)(a)
(b)
ITQ10
Suggest TWO applications of magnetic
stripe card readers in a school setting.
Figure 3.9 (a) A magnetic stripe being read from a credit card; (b) cards issued by banks,
libraries, airlines and hotels (room keys) all have magnetic stripes.
Specialised keyboards
Some applications require specialised keyboards with pre-assigned function
keys. Specialised keyboards generally consist of a flat grid of unmarked
buttons and each key can be programmed with a wide range of different
functions. After the keyboard is programmed, a sheet, called an overlay, is
placed over the unmarked keys to identify each key. The overlay can consist
of any combination of words, symbols, or even pictures. Keyboards that
are components of point-of-sale systems (discussed later in this chapter)
usually require specially labelled keys for particular products. Data entry
Figure 3.10 A cashier using a specialised is quicker for product codes or quantities without having to press multiple
keyboard in a retail store. keys. For example, a point-of-sale system used for selling movie tickets at the
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Olympus Theatre in Barbados would have keys for regular priced adult tickets,
discounted adult tickets and so on.
Specialised keyboards are used in retail establishments such as restaurants
as they reduce data entry time and errors. Specialised keyboards are used in
education, particularly in institutions offering special education.
Activity 3.1 Exploring the uses of specialised keyboards


Business
Education
Leisure
ITQ11 2 Direct your browser to www.overlaykeyboard.com

State TWO sensory capabilities that are 3 Conduct research to determine how specialised keyboards, using overlays, are
combined to facilitate the accepting of used in each of the application areas listed in the table above.
input on point-of-sale (POS) systems. 4 Write your findings in the table in the spaces provided.
ITQ12 Point-of-sale (POS) systems

Suggest ONE benefit to customers of A point-of-sale system is a bundled hardware–software solution that accepts
having their purchases processed using transaction data from a variety of sources and completes the processing of the
a point-of-sale system. transaction at the point of sale. The point at which the transaction is being
carried out is usually in a retail environment such as a supermarket, cinema or
pharmacy.
POS systems often have a range of input and output peripherals connected
to a system unit. The peripherals may include any or all of the devices listed in
Table 3.6.
Input/output device Purpose of device

Barcode reader Scanning barcodes
Digital scales Weighing goods
Electronic signature capture device Capture electronic signature
Figure 3.11 A customer using ‘chip-and- Keypad Entering PIN codes for debit/credit cards
pin’ point-of-sale equipment to make a
purchase using a credit card. Specialised keyboard Select product categories; key in quantities
Magnetic stripe reader Processing debit, credit card and loyalty cards
Receipt printer Print hard copy receipt or invoice
Touch terminal Select options, enter quantities
Display monitor Shows customer details of current transaction
Table 3.6 Components of a typical point-of-sale system in a supermarket.
Input devices in industry

Nutcracker Gadget Store depends on package delivery companies such as
Figure 3.12 A traditional point-of-sale FedEx, UPS and DHL for delivery of supplies from Taiwan. Its purchasing
terminal requiring manual input of data. manager is able to track shipments using a voice response unit that
automatically provides him with status updates via telephone. Incoming
shipments are received at the warehouse at Warrens in Barbados. Each carton
34
is scanned on arrival using an optical mark reader (OMR) and the data is
Large business/industry
automatically transferred to the company’s stock control system. After all the
Voice response unit cartons are scanned, the Warehouse Manager signs for the shipment on the
Graphic pad tablet provided by the delivery courier. The package delivery company uses
OCR OCR to convert data captured from paper-based documents to text that can
OMR be edited in their billing system. When the accountant receives a bill, he pays
MICR it by cheque that he presents to the cashier at the package delivery company.
The cheque is fed through a magnetic ink character reader (MICR) and within
Table 3.7 Common input devices likely to seconds, all the cheque details appear on a screen.
be found in special-purpose organisations
such as banks and advertising agencies.
Voice response unit (VRU)
voice response unit ❯ A voice response unit (VRU) accepts the human voice as machine-readable
input and produces output using synthesised speech.
This data capture technology is useful in businesses that have to handle
thousands of customer queries every hour. Telecommunication providers use
a VRU to handle requests for directory assistance that are made by callers
who dial 114 or 411. Package delivery companies also use this technology
to provide details of the status of packages when customers call. American
Airlines and other airlines allow customers to conduct a wide range of
transactions via the telephone. To access the service, passengers dial a toll-free
number (free of charge to the customer) and respond to questions asked by a
computer-generated voice. The computer system queries the database storing
passenger and flight data and completes the transaction based on the continued
passenger–computer conversation.
X-G-H-
T-U-B
Figure 3.13 Using a voice response unit to get details on a flight reservation. XGHTUB is the
record locator used by the airline to retrieve the passenger’s reservation.
Figure 3.14 A graphics pad can be used Graphic pads and tablets
with a pen (stylus) or mouse. Writing or drawing on the computer using the mouse is possible, but not as
easy as using a pen on paper. A pad and tablet fitted with a special pen (called
stylus ❯ a stylus) can provide a more natural way of inputting handwriting and
drawings. The surface of the pad has a thin membrane that registers the pen’s
movements.
In advertising agencies and design companies, graphic pads are a common
way to produce artistic material.
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Activity 3.2 Exploring the uses of graphic pads

1 Copy the following table in your notebook.

Architectural draughtsman
Newspaper cartoonist
Courier delivery person
Clothing and textile student
2 Add a fifth application area of your choice to the list.

Figure 3.15 Modern OCR systems can 3 Conduct research to determine how graphic pads are used in each of the
convert handwritten text into an electronic application areas listed in the table above.
document. 4 Write your findings in the table in the spaces provided.
ITQ13
Are pages of typewritten text: Optical character reader (OCR)
• machine-readable documents Both OCR and OMR are data capture devices. In fact, an OCR is really a
• human-readable documents specialised OMR. Instead of just reading marks, it reads the shapes of the
• both human-readable and machine characters (letters, numbers and special symbols) and tells the computer what
readable? the characters and numbers are.
Justify your response. OCR can be used to scan whole pages of text into the computer.
Organisations with large amounts of typed paper documents use OCR to
ITQ14 convert paper documents into electronic documents. In a school setting,
an English teacher is able to use OCR technology to scan and convert a
Describe ONE similarity and ONE handwritten essay to editable text. As a learning activity, the spelling and
difference between OCR and OMR. grammar feature of a word-processing package can be used to correct errors in
the document.
Optical mark reader (OMR)

An optical mark reader (OMR) senses the position of marks made on a pre-
printed form and converts them into meaningful data. There is no keying-in of
data.
Mark sensing has revolutionised the way in which data is captured across
a broad range of specialised fields including education, banking, healthcare
and air travel. In education, multiple-choice tests are scored automatically
using OMR. At primary school level in many Caribbean countries, grade six
examinations use OMR forms. At secondary level, CXC uses OMR forms for
their multiple-choice examinations. The US-based Education Testing Services
also use this technology for scoring their SAT college entrance tests.
Magnetic ink character reader (MICR)

Figure 3.16 Bank cheques contain both
human-readable and machine-readable A magnetic ink character reader (MICR) is an automated data capture device
data. The four sets of numbers at the bottom commonly used in banks to examine data from cheques. A MICR is similar to
of the cheque are written in a special MICR an OCR in that they both read and recognise characters. The source document
font using magnetic ink. used is a cheque, which is both human readable and machine readable.
Institutions that use MICR benefit from:
• increased security because the magnetic ink makes it difficult to
ITQ15 fraudulently change data encoded on cheques
Describe ONE similarity and ONE • improved speed with which transactions are completed
difference between OCR and MlCR • increased accuracy of transactions as data are read directly from cheques
technology. thereby eliminating data entry errors.
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Specialised applications Input devices in specialised applications

Biometric systems Danny Travalott, the purchasing manager at Nutcracker Gadget Store, travels
Light-pen to Miami twice a year to meet with new suppliers. On arrival in Miami, his
Remote control identity is confirmed at Passport Control (Immigration) using biometric
Sensors systems. Sensors work alongside remote control systems to deliver his
checked luggage which he presents at the Customs checkpoint for inspection.
Table 3.8 Input devices used in highly Customs officers use a modern device, equipped with a light-pen to check the
specialised applications. contents of his luggage.
ITQ16 Biometric systems

State ONE similarity and ONE difference Biometric systems are specialist input devices that measure physical
in the way a mouse and a light-pen characteristics of the human body and use this to identify an individual for
operate. security purposes. Biometric devices include fingerprint readers, eye retina
scanners and facial recognition systems.
Biometric systems are heavily utilised at airports to screen incoming
ITQ17 passengers. Border control agents (immigration officers) use fingerprint readers
Suggest ONE reason why a light-pen as an input device to collect data about travellers entering their country. Some
may be preferred over a mouse by laptops are now manufactured with built-in fingerprint readers. A few years
many users. ago, the Miami International Airport commenced testing of a new biometric
system that incorporated intelligent video analysis and other technology to
detect intruders at the perimeter.
Light-pen
A light-pen is in the form of a light-sensitive wand used in conjunction with a
computer monitor. It senses light when placed near the surface of the monitor
and its position is calculated by the software. Because the user was required to
hold his or her arm in front of the screen for long periods, the light-pen never
became popular as an input device. Since the current version of the game show
Jeopardy! began in 1984, contestants have used a light-pen to write down their
Figure 3.17 An operator using a light-pen
wagers and responses for the Final Jeopardy! round.
and monitor.
Remote control
Computers can be used to control digital and analogue devices from a distance.
Using a seamless mix of sensors, communication devices and communication
media, a computer can control devices remotely. Devices such as cameras,
traffic signals and complex equipment such as robots can be controlled in this
way.
In law enforcement, remote controlled equipment is useful in activities
such as bomb detection and intelligent remote surveillance. Web cameras
and microphones can be remotely controlled using private or public network
Figure 3.18 A blood pressure measuring facilities.
sensor.
Sensors
Sensors are devices used to measure physical characteristics such as
temperature, pressure or wind speed. For example, a sensor connected to
a computer could allow the temperature of a furnace to be automatically
monitored. In a hospital, a blood pressure sensor can be linked via a
wireless connection to a computer so that the patient’s blood pressure can
be continuously monitored and alarms automatically sounded if the blood
pressure falls below a safe level.
Figure 3.19 Learners in classrooms all Output devices

over the world use clickers like the one
shown here. A USB sensor is attached to the Information produced by a computer must be presented in a useful form to
teacher’s computer and the signal sent by be of value to the user. We will discuss four types of output devices – visual
the clicker. display unit, printers, plotters and audio output devices.
37
Output is the information a computer generates as a result of its processing.

Computer output may be printed on paper/plastic (hard copy), displayed on a
monitor/screen, or stored on a secondary storage medium (soft copy).
output device ❯ An output device is any device that displays, plays or prints the results of
processing operations or status messages related to that processing.
hard copy ❯ Hard copy is permanent printed output from the computer.
soft copy ❯ Soft copy is a temporary form of output, as produced by a visual display
unit or audio output device.
Visual display unit/monitor

visual display unit❯ A visual display unit (VDU) is the hardware component of a computer
ITQ18 system that handles the display of information that users see. This information
Many visual display units are being may be program output, error messages or data that is being entered at the
marketed as being ‘green’ which means keyboard or input from some other input device. Other common names for the
it is environmentally friendly. VDU are monitor and visual display terminal. When selecting a VDU, the
(a) What feature of a monitor allows user should consider three factors: monitor type, monitor size and monitor
the user to conserve power? resolution.
(b) How is this feature accessed and
activated? Types, sizes and resolution
(c) Do you think the annual savings
may be substantial? Justify. Monitor type refers to the technology that the device uses to produce and
present the output. There are two common types of visual display units:
cathode ray tubes ❯ cathode ray tubes (CRT) and liquid crystal displays (LCD). CRTs are bigger
liquid crystal displays ❯ and bulkier than LCDs, consume more power and are prone to screen flicker.
flat panels ❯ LCDs are also called flat panels and are more expensive compared with CRTs
but require less space on the desk or work station.
CRT monitors are no longer widely sold, however, they exist in sizes
ITQ19 ranging from 10 to 22 inches. LCD displays are available in sizes ranging from
Some CRTs contain a substance that is 14 to 55 inches.
harmful to the environment. The resolution of a VDU is the quality of the image displayed. Resolution
(a) What is this substance? is measured in pixels. A pixel is one of the individual dots that make up a
(b) Outline how a CRT may be disposed graphical image. The higher the resolution, the better the quality of the image
of so that the harmful substance produced. High-resolution monitors are useful for very detailed graphic work
it contains is not a threat to the and gaming as they make 3D virtual worlds come to life on screen, enriching
environment. the user’s gaming experience.
Figure 3.20 A CRT monitor and a modern LCD monitor.
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Figure 3.21 Measuring the size of a laptop screen. The size is measured as the diagonal distance
of the viewable area. Some VDUs are now available in wide-screen versions.
Activity 3.3 Exploring screen resolution

1 Display your computer’s desktop.
2 If using a Windows computer, open the screen resolution dialogue.
3 Make a note of the current/recommended setting.
4 Experiment with the various resolutions that your attached display is capable of
supporting.
5 Record the highest and lowest resolutions that your display supports.
Printers
Nutcracker Gadget Store has four different types of printers installed at their
head office. Heather is responsible for public relations and marketing. She has
two printers connected to her desktop computer – a laser printer and an
inkjet printer. Both of these printers print vibrant colour documents that
illustrate objects very realistically. Tiffany is responsible for the accounting
department and uses a line printer to print thousands of invoices and
statements each month. Alexia in the customer service department has a very
noisy dot matrix printer attached to her PC.
Whilst all printers produce hard copy, they differ in the mechanisms used to
produce it. This forms the basis for classifying printers as impact or non-impact.
These are discussed in the sections that follow.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.22 Three types of printer: (a) impact printer, (b) inkjet printer, (c) laser printer.
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Impact printers
impact ❯ Impact printers produce output by employing a striking or hammering
mechanism. Because of this, they are noisy but are able to produce multiple
identical copies at the same time. Some impact printers produce their output
a character at a time whilst others do so a line at a time. Most impact printers
print on fan-fold paper (or continuous forms). Dot matrix and chain printers
are two types of impact printers.
dot matrix printer ❯ A dot matrix printer produces one character at a time. It does so by
striking an inked ribbon on paper to create the impression. These printers are
ITQ20 relatively inexpensive to purchase and operate, and very reliable. A dot matrix
Suggest TWO types of commercial printer is suitable for use in situations that require multiple copies of the same
business that would use dot matrix document.
printers for producing multi-copy
output. Non-impact printers
non-impact ❯ Non-impact printers create output on media (paper or plastic) using a range
of different technologies such as:
• laser: a technology used in photocopy machines that utilises heat, light and
photoconductivity
• inkjet: nozzle-like print heads spray ink onto paper to form characters and
images
• thermal transfer and dye sublimation: both beyond the scope of this book.
page-printers ❯ Most non-impact printers are page-printers as they print on cut sheet
paper. Lasers and inkjets are two types of non-impact printers.
inkjet printers ❯ Inkjet printers are inexpensive to buy but expensive to operate as the ink
needs replacing regularly. These printers are very versatile and can produce a
range of documents including high-quality photographs, school projects and
business presentations. Inkjet printers can produce colour photographs (on
glossy paper) of a quality similar to those produced by a professional photo
studio.
laser printers ❯ Laser printers are flexible as they:
• print both text and graphics
ITQ21 • are available in monochrome (black and white) or colour models
Suggest why a laser printer may be • can print on paper of varying sizes and plastic (transparencies).
preferred for printing legal documents. They produce high-quality output, are very fast, and operate quietly. Whilst
laser printers are expensive to buy, they are usually less expensive to operate
than inkjets.
ITQ22 Features of printers

Which of EACH of the following pairs of Printers differ in resolution, print speed, memory and paper capacity.
print jobs prints faster and why?
(a) a full page of text only or a half- Feature Description
page graphic
(b) a colour printout or a black-and- Resolution The sharpness of printed images and text depends on the printer’s resolution.
white printout. Printer resolution is measured by the number of dots printed per linear inch (DPI).
Print speed measured in pages per minute (ppm), lines per minute (lpm) or characters per
seconds (cps).
Memory Colour images and graphics-intensive documents require more memory; some
ITQ23 printers let you add memory to improve printing performance.
Name a type of printer whose output is Paper tray Sheet-feed printers are equipped with at least one tray that may hold 50–250
measured using EACH of the following: capacity sheets. Some printers let you add additional paper trays to extend the number of
(a) characters per second prints that you can do without stopping to add paper.
(b) lines per minute
(c) pages per minute. Table 3.9 Description of printer features
40
Characteristics
Type Mechanism How output produced Speed Max. resolution (dots per inch) Print buffer memory capacity
Dot matrix Impact Character 1,066 cps/6 ppm 72–360 2–128 KB
Chain Impact Line 1,200 lpm/20 ppm 600 16–256 KB
Inkjet Non-impact Page 4–60 ppm 4,800 × 1,200 256 KB–512 MB
Laser Non-impact Page 10–200 ppm 2,400 16 MB–2 GB
Table 3.10 Comparison of characteristics of printer types.
Plotters
plotter ❯ A plotter is a large format hard copy output device that produces high-quality
graphical output on different types of materials, commonly paper and vinyl.
A plotter may be more suitable in some situations than a printer. As plotters
are able to handle output media the size of a large outdoor billboard, they are
invaluable to architects and designers for the production of blueprints and
architectural designs.
Figure 3.23 A large-scale industrial plotter.
Figure 3.24 Plans for a new building being

output on a plotter.
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ITQ24 Audio output devices

Differentiate between a plotter and a Audio output devices include a range of peripherals that enable the user to
printer. play and hear sounds. These include speakers, earphones, headphones, and
headsets. Most computer systems come with a built-in speaker that is used to
provide system feedback.
The output from an audio output device is temporary and cannot be kept
for later use, thus making the speaker a soft-copy output device. Audio output
devices depend on a device interface called a sound card to work. These sound
cards are either integrated with the motherboard or installed as a separate
add-on card ❯ add-on card. Computer systems provide one or two different ports that allow
users to plug in their speakers, earphones or headphones.
Speakers are useful in situations where:
• the user has a disability and cannot depend on sight to receive information
produced by a computer system
• verbal output is used to provide emergency notices in hazardous
environments (for example, an evacuation notice in a school in the event of
a fire).
• the sound output is essential to the application, such as computer gaming,
Internet telephony and videoconferencing.
Summary
• Input and output devices are peripherals.
• Input devices transfer input into a computer system. Input may be data or instructions in textual, graphic or sonic
form and are held on source documents.
• Source documents may contain input that is human-readable, machine-readable or both. Machine-readable
documents facilitate automated data collection/capture.
• Input media include keystrokes, mouse clicks, voice commands, light beams, barcodes, magnetic stripes, paper and
other mechanisms that store and convey input.
• Data capture increases the accuracy of input and reduces data collection time and cost.
• Character readers (OCR and MICR), light-pens, scanners (document and barcode) and cameras (digital and web) all
sense input based on sight whereas graphic pads and tablets, keyboards, joysticks and mouse input data directly.
• Sensors, remote controls and biometric systems are highly specialised input devices.
• Information produced by a computer must be presented in a useful form to be of value to the user.
• Output is conveyed to the user via output media such as visual images, sound and paper and maybe data,
information or status messages such as beeps and flashing lights.
• An output device displays, plays or prints the results of processing operations.
• Four types of output devices are visual display units, printers, plotters and audio output devices.
• Hard copy output is permanent whereas soft copy is temporary.
• Resolution is a measure of the quality of output based on the number of dots per inch used to make up the picture.
• Devices that produce hard copy output include printers and plotters.
• Printers are of two types: impact and non-impact. Line and dot matrix printers are impact printers, inkjet and laser
printers are non-impact printers.
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Answers to ITQs ITQ1 (a)Any two of: keyboard, ITQ11 Sight and touch
mouse, microphone, scanner, ITQ12 Any ONE of the following:
webcam, joystick. (b) Any two of: (a) more accurate billing as products
keyboard, mouse, microphone, are correctly identified (b) faster
webcam, fingerprint reader. checkout means customer spend less
ITQ2 (a) an essay, (b) a speech, time in line (c) improved customer
(c) a grocery list, (d) a traffic ticket. service as a result of faster and more
ITQ3 (a) handwritten list – can accurate checkout
be read and recognised using OCR ITQ13 They can be easily read
technology, (b) Multiple-choice and understood by both people and
answer sheets – read using OMR machines.
technology ITQ14 Both are devices that sense
ITQ4 MICR input using sight. OCR recognises
ITQ5 Any TWO of: (a) scan the characters whereas OMR recognises
product boxes, attach and e-mail the marks.
images (b) do a live video chat using ITQ15 Both sense input using
the microphone and web camera character recognition. OCR ‘sees’ the
(c) take pictures with the digital input whereas MICR ‘feels’ the input.
camera, attach and e-mail the images ITQ16 Both are pointing devices.
ITQ6 Any TWO of the following: A light-pen uses sight technology, a
(a) conduct video interviews; mouse senses touch.
(b) record questions to send to 1TQ17 Any ONE of: (a) faster than
information providers; and a mouse (b) picking up a light-pen
(c) discussions with fellow classmates; and pointing it to where you want the
(d) discussions with teacher. cursor to go is a more intuitive way to
ITQ7 Any THREE of: (a) audio interact with the computer
recordings (b) Internet telephony ITQ18 (a) Automatic standby.
(c) typing with voice recognition (b) Accessed from the display
software (4) PC control properties, activated by checking a
ITQ8 Any ONE from each of the box.
following: BEFORE (a) scan images ITQ19 (a) Mercury or arsenic.
for inclusion in a print-based activity (b) Follow guidelines issued by solid
(b) scan pictures for projection using waste agencies and health authorities.
a multimedia system; (c) scan a map,
ITQ20 Hardware store, computer
reduce it, print note-sized versions of
retailer
it and paste in students’ book for easy
reference; AFTER (a) Scan handwritten ITQ21 Print speed, quality of output
student work for discussion; (b) Scan ITQ22 (a) a full page of text – text
student work and keep in an electronic usually prints faster than graphics;
portfolio (b) black-and-white – prints faster
ITQ9 (a) to identify storage than colour
locations such as shelves and bins ITQ23 (a) dot matrix printer
(b) to identify specific items being (b) chain printer (c) laser or inkjet
warehoused printer
ITQ10 Any TWO of: (a) access ITQ24 A plotter produces large
library services (b) lunch card format output whereas a printer does
(c) identification card that allows door not.
access
43
IT portfolio
1 In this activity you will explore printers.
a Interview at least five persons and find out the make and model of the printer they use. For example, if you
interviewed me, I would tell you I use a Samsung ML-2165W.
b Conduct research to get more details about each of the printers based on the make and model supplied.
c Copy the following table in your portfolio and complete it. Note that I have completed the first row based on
research done about my printer.
Make & Model Impact or Non-Impact Type Print Speed Print Resolution (dpi)
Samsung ML-2165W Non-Impact Laser 21 PPM 1200
d Paste a picture of each of the printers.

2 In this activity you will explore input and output devices.
a Visit the website of an online computer store (www.cdw.com, www.provantage.com or www.newegg.com).
b Download at least TWO pictures of EACH of the following devices.
i barcode reader iv optical mouse
ii electronic signature capture device v wireless keyboard
iii optical mark reader (OMR)
c Print all the images and paste them into your portfolio, complete with a brief description (make, model, price
and key features).
d Compare your pictures with at least two other people in your class. Note the similarities and differences.
Group activities
1 This is a small-group activity for 3–4 people.
a Each group member should collect at least TWO source documents generated in each of the following scenarios:
• a classroom environment
• a home
• a micro or small business (ask the Principles of Business teacher at your school what this is)
• a meeting of a sports team or co-curricular activity (Cadet, Key Club, etc.)
b Compare the documents collected from each area. Note their similarities and differences.
c Classify all the documents as either human-readable or machine-readable.
d Suggest which device(s) are ideal for reading the documents categorised as machine-readable.
e Paste the documents in your portfolio and record your findings next to each of them.
2 Your local police station has just received a donation of a digital camera and US$800 to purchase a printer suitable for
printing crime-scene photos. The officer in charge of the station has sought your help to select a suitable printer. You
have to co-opt two of your classmates to undertake this task. You are required to:
a Assess the needs of the police station and make a list of the TWO types of printers that the group believe are
most suitable.
b For EACH type, identify TWO named printers available for sale at a local computer store or online retailer.
Complete the table below.
Type 1 Type 2
Printer 1 Printer 2 Printer 3 Printer 4
Brand
Model
Resolution
Print speed
Memory capacity
Price
c Based on your findings, make a recommendation to the officer in charge.
Place a copy of the recommendation in your portfolio.
44
Multiple-choice questions 6 A ____________ system connects telephone users

Instructions: Each of the following questions has four with the information they need, serving as a bridge
suggested responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read between people and computer databases.
each question carefully then select the most suitable (A) voice capture
response. (B) voice recognition
1 All of the following are widely used input devices (C) voice response
EXCEPT the: 7 Banks utilise ____________ technology that
(A) keyboard and mouse automatically verifies the identity of callers who wish
(B) microphone and scanner to access their accounts.
(C) digital camera and web camera (A) voice capture
(D) printer and monitor (B) voice recognition
2 A ____________ is an input device that converts printed (C) voice response
material to a form the computer can use. (D) biometric
(A) mouse 8 Setting a monitor to display a higher resolution uses a:
(B) keyboard (A) smaller number of pixels and thus provides a
(C) light-pen smoother image
(D) scanner (B) smaller number of pixels and thus provides a
3 ____________ is used almost exclusively by the rougher image
banking industry for check processing. (C) greater number of pixels and thus provides a
smoother image
(A) OCR
(D) greater number of pixels and thus provides a
(B) OMR
rougher image
(C) MICR
(D) POS 9 An automated system used for sorting mail in a postal
facility can use conveyors equipped with:
4 Which of the following is NOT a likely component of a
point-of-sale system? (A) OMR
(B) OCR
(A) light-pen
(C) remote control
(B) graphic pad
(D) biometric systems
(C) MICR
(D) barcode reader 10 In an airport, a system comprised of sensors, barcode
readers and remote controls is MOST LIKELY used for
5 Which of the following pairs of devices are MOST
____________ activities.
LIKELY to be used by immigration personnel at ports
of entry to capture biometric data? (A) aircraft boarding
(B) baggage handling
(A) light-pen and graphic pad
(C) border control
(B) web camera and fingerprint reader
(D) passenger check-in
(C) digital camera and fingerprint reader
(D) document scanner and barcode reader
45
1 A small advertising agency in St Lucia has just employed 5 PriceSavers, a St Vincent based membership club,
a visually impaired person to develop advertisements for operates over 20 warehouse clubs in 11 Caribbean
poster, newspapers, radio and television. countries. PriceSavers uses point-of-sale terminals to
a Suggest ONE input and ONE output device that manage membership data and stock and to produce
might help a visually impaired person use a receipts for customers at the checkout counter.
computer system effectively. [2] a What is a point-of-sale (POS) system? [2]
b Identify THREE peripherals that might be found b Name THREE input devices that are usually
in an advertising agency that would not normally components of a POS system. [3]
be found in a regular office. For each device, c Briefly describe how any TWO of the devices
outline an example of how it might be used. [4] named in part b function. [4]
2 The devices shown in Figures 1 to 3 are available for sale. d Briefly describe how a product’s barcode is
processed by the computer at the checkout
counter leading to the production of a sales
receipt. [3]
e Is the sales receipt regarded as hard copy, soft
copy or neither? [1]
6 Give ONE situation when it would be better to use
a A laser printer instead of a dot matrix printer.
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 State ONE reason to justify your answer. [2]
a The table lists two requirements of the St Luago b An earphone instead of a speaker. State ONE
National Bank. In your book, copy and complete reason to justify your answer. [2]
the following table to show which device would best c A plotter instead of a printer. State ONE
meet EACH of the requirements in the table. [2] reason to justify your answer. [2]
7 Describe the use of biometric systems, stating clearly
Organisational Requirements Figure
To make soft copies of hard copy documents a An example of a situation where it may be used [1]
To capture signatures b ONE type of data that is collected [1]
c ONE advantage of its use over a traditional
b Write the general name given to the devices in data collection method. [1]
part (a). [1]
8 Write the letters A–G on separate lines in your book.
3 Mercury Metals uses a personal computer system for Using the information in the following table, match
controlling a number of hazardous processes. The the letter for the person who use the device with the
system has to keep a constant check on the operating number of the device, by writing the number next to
temperature and produce hard copy output showing the correct letter in your book. You may use a device
the changes in temperature over time. In the event of a only once or not at all.
problem, the operator has to be notified immediately.
The system is equipped with a CRT, keyboard, mouse Person who uses the device Device
and printer. A Cashier at a point-of-sale station 1 Bar Code Reader
a Suggest TWO OTHER peripherals that may be B Player in a games arcade 2 Digital Camera
useful attachments for this system. [2] C A visitor at an information kiosk at 3 Joystick
b For EACH peripheral suggested, briefly an amusement park
describe how this would be utilised in the D A bank teller processing cheques 4 Light Pen
situation given. [4]
E A teacher scoring a Multiple-choice 5 OCR
4 The following advertisement for a printer was test
published by a computer retailer:
F A television reporter researching a 6 OMR
PRINTY XJ – 1000 Laser Printer story
USB Interface, 16 pages per minute (ppm) G An expert giving video testimony in 7 MICR
600 dots per inch (DPI) Cartridge yields approx. 3,000 pages a court case
8 Scanner
Briefly explain why it is important to consider EACH of
the following: 9 Touch Screen
a printer interface c dots per inch 10 Web Camera
b pages per minute d cartridge yield [4] [7]
46
4 The Internet and
communications
technology
By the end of define what data communication is
this chapter
define what a network is
you should
be able to:
describe the main types of networks: LAN, MAN and WAN
discuss options for connecting computers in a network
outline common modes of communication such as simplex, half-duplex and
duplex
distinguish among Internet, intranet and extranet
explain concepts associated with the Internet.
Concept map
Internet & Communications Technology
facilitates includes features
network services: World Wide Web

blogging types: communication modes: protocols:
bulletin board local area network simplex FTP
downloads contains metropolitan area network half-duplex HTTP
e-commerce wide area network duplex TCP/IP
e-learning VOIP
electronic mail (e-mail) hyper linked web pages ownership:
file transfers private (intranet & extranet) TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Internet relay chat (IRC) public (Internet) wired:
newsgroups coaxial
pod-casting twisted-pair
telnet written using each has arranged on accessed using fibre-optic
uploads
voice over Internet wireless:
World Wide Web HTML unique website web browser infra red
XHTML URL microwave
satellite
hosted on
web server
In this chapter, we will explore how computers facilitate the exchange of data
in all its forms: text, images, sound and video. We will look at how computers
can be connected to transfer data from one point to another. Additionally,
we will explore a range of computer-based tools used by individuals to
communicate personally and professionally.
4 • The Internet and communications technology
Data communication and networks

Every day, billions of individuals utilise the facilities offered by at least one
communication network to trade, share data and generally keep in touch.
Phone companies, electronic media organisations (radio, television and cable),
families and friends all depend on private and public networks to transfer data
from one point to another. This data may be a simple text message sent via a
mobile phone, a live report from a journalist covering an event or images sent
back to Earth from the International Space Station.
data communication ❯ Data communication is the transfer of information from one computer to
another.
In data communications, one computer (the sender or transmitter)
transfers data to another computer (receiver) over a communication
channel or communication link. This channel or link may be wired or
wireless. Where the receiving computer is located some distance away from the
sending computer, we say that the receiving computer ‘is remotely located’.
Two common terms that are used in data communications to describe the
action of transferring data are upload and download.
Transferring a file from one computer to another computer on a network
uploading ❯ using data communication links is known as uploading.
Transferring a copy of a file from a distant computer to a disk in one’s local
downloading ❯ computer using data communication links is known as downloading.
When computers are connected via communication channels so that users
can share hardware resources, data files and programs we have a network.
network ❯ A network is a communications, data exchange and resource-sharing
system created by linking two or more computers, using established standards
or protocols so that they can work together.
Figure 4.1 A notebook connected wirelessly to a Wi-Fi router.
Types of networks
The three main types of computer networks are local area networks (LANs),
metropolitan area networks (MANs) and wide area networks (WANs).
Type Description
LAN A network that uses cables or radio signals to link two or more computers in a
ITQ1 geographically limited area (generally one building or a group of buildings).
Answer the following questions.
a What is WiMax? MAN Regional computer or communication network spanning the area covered by an average
b Name ONE telecommunications to large-sized city. A WiMax network is an example of a MAN.
provider in the Caribbean that offers WAN A data communication network extending a LAN (local area network) outside its building,
WiMax service. over telecommunication lines or wirelessly, to link to other LANs over great distances.
c Suggest TWO ways in which WiMax The Internet is an example of a WAN.
service is advantageous to specific
user groups. Table 4.1 Types of networks.
48
Networking hardware
A range of hardware devices are used to connect computers together to create
networks. These include network cards, hubs, switches and routers. Each
network card has a socket into which a special cable fits. A hub is just a device
that connects many cables together and transfers network messages between
those cables. Many homes are now equipped with both a modem and a
wireless router.
Types of transmission media

Both cables and radio waves are used for linking computers in a network.
wired media, coaxial, twisted pair ❯ Cables are referred to as wired media and include coaxial, twisted pair
fibre-optic, wireless media ❯ and fibre-optic cables. Radio waves are referred to as wireless media or
wireless, satellite, microwave ❯ simply wireless and include satellite, microwave and infrared. Bluetooth
infrared, radiowave ❯ and Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) are both trademarked names for popular
radiowave technologies used in data communication. A Wi-Fi hotspot is an
area covered by a Wi-Fi antenna. Wi-Fi hotspots are often found in airports
and Internet cafes.
hub
ITQ2
ITQ1
What is the difference between EACH of
the following pairs of devices: Figure 4.2 A four-computer local area network using a hub.
(a) hub and switch
(b) switch and router.
If trailing wires around the office are unsightly and dangerous then a
wireless network may be set up, eliminating the need for cables. In this case,
the hub would be replaced with a wireless router (pictured in Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3 Wi-Fi routers are now commonly found in homes, offices, hotel corridors and a long list
of other places. Multiple antennas ensure increased signal strength.
49
ITQ3
ITQ1 (a)
Which of the cable types mentioned do

you believe
(a) has the greatest bandwidth;
(b) is the most costly to purchase and
(b)
install;
(c) is the most common in local area
networks?
(c)
Figure 4.4 (a) Twisted pair, (b) coaxial and

(c) fibre-optic cables.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.5 (a) Rear view of a wireless router showing connection ports; (b) twisted pair cables like
these are used to connect the modem to the wireless router.
Wireless technology Common usage Technical stuff

Microwave Used by mobile telecoms providers for transmission of radio • Used over distances (up to 70 km).
signals. • Must be a line of sight between the transmitter and
receiver.
Bluetooth • Communication between a computer and graphic pads, • Has a limited range of approximately 10 meters (30 feet).
digital cameras and mobile phones. • Uses a radio (broadcast) communications system; devices
• Linking mobile phone with car stereo system. do not have to be in line of sight of each other.
• Control of games such as Nintendo Wii. • Does not penetrate walls; no interference with other
devices in adjoining rooms.
Infrared • Short-range communication among computer peripherals Less expensive than fibre-optic cable in some situations
and personal digital assistants. whilst providing very high bandwidth.
• Communications links in urban areas, providing bandwidth
up to 4 GB.
Satellite • Long-distance telephony (calling Jamaica from Barbados, Has very long range:160–2,000 km (100–1,240 miles).
etc.).
• Satellite television and radio.
• Distance learning.
• Video conferencing.
• GPS navigation systems.
• Google maps, Google Earth.
Table 4.2 Wireless transmission media.
50
Bandwidth
Each transmission media has a characteristic that determines the speed at
bandwidth ❯ which data is carried. This characteristic is called bandwidth.
A number of terms have been coined to refer to bandwidth such as
narrowband, voiceband ❯ narrowband, voiceband and broadband.
broadband ❯
Description & Bandwidth Usage
Narrowband A limited-capacity transmission Wide range of uses in aviation, marine
Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be
transmitted via a given communications channel
channel that carry audible signals using activities, telecommunications and
in a given unit of time (generally 1 second). frequencies less than 12.5 kHz broadcasting. For example, some fishing
Bandwidth is measured in bits per second (bps). boats use narrowband sonar to locate
<64 kbps (digital devices) fish. In telecommunications, narrowband
300–3,400 Hz (analogue devices) channels are used for transmitting
telephone calls and faxes. Ocean going
vessels use narrowband frequencies for
ship to shore communications.
Voiceband One of the frequencies, within part of Plain old telephone service. Limited
the audio range of the narrowband frequency range of a signal to carry the
range of frequencies, that is used for the sound of the human voice both ways at
transmission of speech. once.
300 Hz to 3,400 Hz
Broadband The wide bandwidth characteristics of Internet connectivity for residential
ITQ4
ITQ1 a transmission medium and its ability homes and businesses.
Suggest ONE reason why a residential to transport multiple signals and traffic
householder would purchase a pricey types simultaneously. These transmission
8 MB broadband Internet service. channels carry signals using frequencies
greater than 12.5 kHz (or 256 kbits/s)
Table 4.3 Bandwidth description and uses.
Figure 4.6 Large international

organisations may use communications
satellites. In 1987, Wal-Mart, the
world’s largest retailer, used a satellite
communication network to connect its
headquarters (in Arkansas, USA) with its
distribution centres and thousands of retail
stores worldwide.
Communication modes
When computers communicate, they can do so in one of two ways: broadcast
broadcast ❯ or point-to-point. Broadcast means sending out a message to all the other
computers on a network. Radio and television stations broadcast their programs
so that people with a device capable of receiving the signal may do so if they
point-to-point ❯ want to. Point-to-point, however, establishes a direct communication channel
between two computers on a network. When one person calls another on a
mobile phone, a wireless path is created between the two callers. Other people
in the vicinity are unable to receive the call even though they also have mobile
phones.
Data travels over a transmission medium in one of three ways: simplex,
half-duplex or full duplex.
51
Transmission mode Description System/device

Simplex Uni-directional • Car stereo systems
• Microwave transmitter
• Microwave receiver
• Pager
Half-duplex Bi-directional, but only in one • Two-way radio (walkie-talkie)
direction at a time • Push-to-talk mobile phone
• Fax machine
• Web browser
Full duplex Bi-directional, both directions at the • Mobile phone
same time • Wi-Fi router
• LAN, WAN, MAN
Table 4.4 Examples of devices and the transmission modes utilised.
ONE WAY STREET
Simplex transmission is in one direction only.
Simplex transmission
Half-duplex transmission is in both directions, but

only one at a time (e.g. Walkie-talkie).
Half-duplex transmission
Full duplex transmission is in both directions,

simultaneously (e.g. mobile phone).
Full duplex transmission
52
ITQ5
ITQ1 The Internet, intranet and extranet
Suggest THREE ways in which an Some organisations rely on the Internet, intranet and an extranet to meet
extranet may typically be used by an their data communication needs. Whilst all three have similarities, they all
organisation. have features that make them different.
Internet ❯ The Internet is a public, global (wide area) network based on the TCP/
IP protocol. The TCP/IP protocol assigns every connected computer a unique
Internet address, also called an IP address, so that any two connected
computers can locate each other on the network and locate data.
intranet ❯ An intranet is a private computer network designed to meet the needs of a
single organisation or company that is based on Internet (TCP/IP) technology.
It is not necessarily open to the external Internet and definitely not open to
outside users. It utilises familiar facilities such as web pages and web browsers.
extranet ❯ An extranet is an intranet that has been selectively opened to specially
selected individuals or organisations (including customers, suppliers, research
associates). An online banking application is an example of an extranet.
Firefox
Mozilla Firefox Start Page Add-ons Manager
https://slb.slbnetbank.com/Login.asp Google
Sign in to Online Banking
User ID:
<PHOTO>[INSERT IMAGE 063]
Password:
Sign In >
SLB
St. Luago
If you are experiencing problems with St. Luago Bank Internet Bank website
please email us at: support@slbbank.com
© copyright 2011 St. Luago Bank
Figure 4.7 Online banking is a service facilitated by an extranet and provides customers with
around-the-clock access to their accounts.
Internet concepts
Data communication via the Internet, a global wide area network, is based on
the TCP/IP protocol. Communication with the World Wide Web is based on
another protocol: HTTP. Other popular protocols that we may encounter in
data communication include FTP, VoIP, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
HTTP
HTTP ❯ Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol used to request and
transmit files, especially web pages and web page components, over the
Internet or other computer networks.
FTP
FTP ❯ File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a protocol used to transfer files between
FTP servers and clients. An FTP site is like a large filing cabinet. With a
53
traditional filing cabinet, the person who does the filing has the option to
label and organise the files as well as deciding which files to keep in locked
drawers and which files remain available for public access. When using an FTP
client program, users are able to link with FTP sites (on the Internet or other
A protocol is an agreed set of rules that specifies
the format of data as well as the rules to be
networks), and browse the remote directories and files as if they were on a
followed to transmit it. local hard disk.
Figure 4.8 FTP client software allows

users to manage a website from their own
computer. The left section of the screen
shows the files on the remote computer
(web server) whereas the section on the
right shows the files on the local machine.
VoIP
VoIP ❯ Voice over IP (VoIP) is the use of Internet-based technologies to transmit
voice-grade data over the Internet. As more people connect to the Internet
with fast broadband connections, it has become possible to use the Internet
for voice communication. Instead of text-based chat, two or more persons
are able to have voice chat facilitated by Internet technologies. This is a very
economical way to communicate but is restricted to communication between
Internet users. Companies are now using IP-based phone systems (by Cisco
and Avaya) instead of the conventional service offered by telecommunication
companies. Skype and Google Hangout all facilitate VoIP.
Activity 4.1 Exploring Skype

1 Visit the Skype website at www.skype.com
2 Click on the ‘learn’ link and explore the wide range of features that it offers.
Feature Brief description
Skype mobile
File sharing
Instant messaging
Multi-person video conference
Multi-person voice conference
Screen sharing
Other
4 Write brief notes about each of the features.
54
Bluetooth
Bluetooth ❯ Bluetooth is a wireless protocol for exchanging data over short distances from
fixed and mobile devices, using radio waves. Bluetooth capability is enabled in
a device by means of an embedded Bluetooth chip and supporting software.
The chip enables Bluetooth to be built into a wide range of devices such as
cellular phones and PDAs. Some of the current uses of the Bluetooth protocol
include:
• wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a
handsfree headset;
• wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a
Bluetooth compatible car stereo system;
• wireless Bluetooth headset and intercom;
• wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little
bandwidth is required;
• wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most
common being the mouse, keyboard and printer;
• transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders
between smartphones.
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi ❯ Wi-Fi is a marketing term created by the Wi-Fi Alliance, a non-profit industry
group that tests products to ensure that they comply with particular industry
wireless standards. These standards relate to a range of protocols governing
wireless LAN communications.
The World Wide Web (WWW)

At the heart of the World Wide Web (WWW) is a huge collection of documents
called web pages. These web pages are grouped into websites, stored on web
servers, downloaded, and displayed on a user’s computer by a web browser.
Figure 4.9 A web page being viewed in a web browser. Each of the items in the red box on the left
are hyperlinks to other pages on the Macmillan Caribbean website.
55
web page ❯ A web page is a document, written in Hyper Text Markup Language
(HTML), that may contain text, sound, images, video clips, hyperlinks and
other components.
web site ❯ A website is a group of web pages that belong together and are linked to
each other using hyperlinks. Organisations want viewers to be able to find
documents on their website easily so they arrange their website to have a
single entry point from which the rest of the website is accessed; this is the
home page ❯ organisation’s home page.
One of the main features of HTML is the ability to convert an item of text
into a hyperlink. This hyperlink serves as a navigational scheme that allows
users to browse from one web page to another or from one website to the next.
Each hyperlink contains the full address of another web page so clicking on
the hyperlink has the same effect as typing the full address in the web browser.
When a hyperlink is clicked, the web browser downloads and displays the new
web page. Hyperlinks are like shortcuts to other web pages.
hyperlink ❯ A hyperlink is an icon, information object, underlined or otherwise
emphasised word or phrase that displays another document (or resource)
when clicked with the mouse.
web server ❯ A web server is special-purpose application software that accepts requests
for information, framed according to the Hyper Text Transport Protocol (HTTP),
processes these requests and sends the requested document.
web browser ❯ A web browser is special-purpose application software that runs on an
Internet- connected computer and uses the HTTP to connect with web servers.
All web browsers can decode web pages that have been written (marked) with
HTML. A web browser is needed for a web page to be requested, downloaded,
decoded and displayed on a user’s local machine. The most common web
browsers are Internet Explorer, Firefox, Chrome, Safari and Opera.
A uniform resource locator (URL) is a string of characters that uniquely
identifies an Internet resource’s type and location. Consider the following URL:
http://www.amazon.com/Apple-iPad-Mini-Black-16GB/
• http:// – identifies a World Wide Web protocol.
• www.amazon.com – www. indicates a resource on the World Wide Web, amazon
indicates the Internet domain name and .com indicates the domain suffix.
• Apple-iPad-Mini-Black-16GB/ – fully describes the directory structure (where
the document is stored) and includes the document’s name and extension.
Many companies use their company name as part of their Internet domain
name. This makes it easier for users to find the website using search engines.
A top-level domain name is the last part of an Internet domain name, that
is, the group of letters that follow the final dot of any Internet domain name,
‘com’ in our example above.
Figure 4.10 Firefox is a free, open-source

web browser from Mozilla. It is one of the
most popular Internet browsers today.
56
The home page is automatically downloaded if no file is specified in the

ITQ6 URL. For example, www.amazon.com takes you to the Amazon Store home
Give THREE other examples of top-level page where hyperlinks may be clicked to take you to each of the web pages
domain names. made available by Amazon.
Communicating globally using network-based

tools
With many users accessing the Internet using their smartphones and tablets,
tweets, Facebook inbox messages and instant messages are now much more
popular than e-mail. We will now discuss a range of tools available for
communicating today.
E-mail
electronic mail ❯ Electronic mail (e-mail) applications allow users to send an electronic
message over a network to anyone with an e-mail address and access to a computer
system. An e-mail address is always in the form username@domain_name, for
example, info@macmillan-caribbean.com.
Common desktop e-mail application programs include Evolution Mail,
Outlook and Outlook Express. Many users have free web-based e-mail
accounts with Gmail, Hotmail and Yahoo Mail provided by Google, Microsoft
and Yahoo respectively.
e-mail message ❯ An e-mail message is usually text-based but may include images, sounds
and video clips as attachments. Unlike regular surface mail (snail mail), we
cannot send physical objects using e-mail. E-mail applications have similar
functionality including the ability to read and store received messages, create
and send new messages. Messages can be sent to one or more recipients.
Facilities to maintain an address book or contacts list are also usually provided.
This makes it quicker and easier to send e-mail to the correct recipients. The
delivery of e-mail usually takes a matter of seconds, and, in the situation where
delivery fails, the sender is advised accordingly.
Internet relay chat (IRC) and instant messengers

IRC ❯ IRC is a messaging system that allows users to ‘chat’ with other people on the
Internet using text messages.
Common IRC applications are Yahoo Messenger, Google Talk, Kik and
WhatsApp. These applications, when installed on your smartphone or
computer, allow you to ‘chat’ with other users of the system. Every user of
the system has a unique ID (identification) that enables you to create a list of
friends with whom you want to chat. IRC is usually text chat; you type your
comments and read the replies made by other people.
Bulletin boards and newsgroups

bulletin board ❯ A bulletin board is an electronic forum that hosts posted messages and
articles related to a common subject.
newsgroup ❯ A newsgroup is an online discussion group or forum specifically focused
on a particular area of interest.
Bulletin boards and newsgroups were popular before the Internet and
WWW were created. Users of the bulletin board would dial into the computer
that hosted the bulletin board where they could read or leave messages. They
have largely been replaced by discussion forums on the WWW which have
the same functionality, allowing users to post and reply to messages using a
standard web browser.
57
Blogging
blog ❯ A blog or web log is a diary maintained by its author on the World Wide Web.
It allows people to comment on the posts.
Blogging has become very popular in recent years. People who used to
maintain a diary of their daily activities started to make these entries, or posts,
on their websites. You do not have to have a website to maintain a blog as free
blog hosting sites are available on the Internet.
Podcasts
podcast ❯ A podcast is an audio broadcast using the Internet that can be played back on
an iPod or similar device.
Podcasts have become very popular with radio broadcasters, making their
programs available online so listeners can catch up with any programs they
might have missed. Podcasts have now expanded, with smaller organisations
producing their own podcasts only available on the Internet.
Figure 4.11 The Yummy Truth is a blog

maintained by April Jackson who introduces
her blog with the statement ‘I live 2 eat’.
Readers get a peek into her world through Figure 4.12 Nature Publishing Group offers podcasts on a wide range of Science topics. The URL
her taste buds. is http://www.nature.com/podcast/index.html/
Summary
• Networks can be categorised as LAN (Local Area Network) for computers in close proximity, MAN (Metropolitan Area
Network) for computers connected within a town or city, WAN (Wide Area Network) for computers geographically
separated.
• Network cabling can be coaxial, twisted pair or fibre optic.
• Computers and computer devices can be connected using Wi-Fi, microwave, Bluetooth and satellite technologies.
• Broadband, voiceband and narrowband define the speed of network connections.
• Broadcast communication is messages sent from one computer to many whereas point-to-point communication is
a one-to-one link.
• Modes of communication are simplex, half-duplex and duplex.
• The Internet facilitates a wide range of services including the World Wide Web, e-mail, IRC, and bulletin boards.
• E-mail (electronic mail) applications allow messages to be sent over a network.
• Internet relay chat (IRC) is interactive text chat between people with access to computers on a network.
• Web browsers are programs for viewing web pages made available on the World Wide Web.
• Newsgroups and bulletin boards are older technologies that allow viewers to post and read comments. The
interactive nature of newsgroups and bulletin boards has now largely been replaced by online forums.
• Blogging refers to maintaining an online diary. Blogging software allows readers to comment on diary entries.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a method of uploading files from a local computer to a remote computer and
downloading files from a remote computer to a local computer.
• Telemarketing and teleconferencing refer to using computer networks, particularly the Internet, to market goods
and services, and to hold meetings, respectively.
58
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 (a) A telecommunications ITQ3 (a) Fibre optic; (b) fibre optic;
technology providing wireless data, (c) twisted pair.
voice and video over long distances; ITQ4 To download multimedia
(b) Digicel; (c) (i) facilitates more content such as music and movies.
commercial activities as e-commerce
ITQ5 Any THREE of: (a) to
facilities can be made available in
communicate using electronic data
places not served by wired telephone
interchange (b) to publish catalogues
service or wired network; (ii) provides
for wholesalers and trade partners
opportunities for the development of
(c) to share training programmes
more innovative products/services.
(d) to provide team collaboration
ITQ2 (a) A hub is a passive device, environments.
switch is intelligent; (b) switch
ITQ6 Any THREE of: .biz.com, .info,
forwards data packets between
.net, .org, .pro
computers on one network, router
forwards data packets between
computer networks.
IT portfolio
1 This activity will explore the concepts related to data communications and networking.
a Check out the computer lab at school (make sure to get permission from your teacher before you do so); ask the
following questions:
i Are the computers networked?
ii What types of cabling are used?
iii Is there a server?
iv Is the central connecting device a hub, switch or router?
v Is there Internet access?
b Record your findings in your portfolio.
2 In this activity you will explore concepts related to Wi-Fi and the Internet. Conduct research (read books, use search
engines on the Web and interview people) and record your findings in your portfolio:
a What is the name of the organisation that owns the Wi-Fi trademark?
b When was the term ‘Wi-Fi’ first used commercially?
c What wireless networking standard is used by Wi-Fi?
d Describe the THREE most recent variations of the Wi-Fi standard. Ensure that you make mention of distance
limitations.
e What does the logo look like? Have you ever seen the logo on a product or its packaging? Paste an image of the
logo in your portfolio.
f Visit your local Internet café and find out if they offer VoIP telephone calls. What hardware and software
components are required?
g Download Skype and make a VoIP telephone call. How does the cost and call quality compare with a call made
via a fixed line or mobile telephone?
59
Group activities
1 This activity should be done at the same time as three other classmates using Google’s Gmail.
a Create an e-mail account using your firstname and lastname as username: For example, danielle.sterling@
gmail.com.
b Use the address book to add contact details for at least three of your friends.
c Compose a new e-mail to the first person in your address book. Cc (carbon copy) the second person in your
address book. Bcc (blind carbon copy) the third person in your address book.
d In the body of the e-mail message, distinguish among Internet, intranet and extranet. Attach a text file
containing the definition of ‘data communication’.
e Send the e-mail to all three recipients.
f Retrieve and read the e-mail received from your friends. Observe the names in the To and Cc fields. Why is
there no mention of the person who was blind carbon copied?
g Print copies of all three e-mails and place them in your portfolio.
2 Help your teacher to organise a field trip to your local government (parish council) office. Ask your parent, guardian or
a relative to help, as they may know someone responsible for the network there.
a What type of network is installed there?
b Are the computers within the offices networked?
c Can any of the computers communicate with the regional or national government computers? What type of
network is this?
d Discuss with the staff the advantages of government sharing information and communicating using computers.
Record your findings in your portfolio.
5 Which of the following Internet-based services is NOT

Multiple-choice questions
suited for text- based communication?
Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested
(A) bulletin board (C) FTP
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each
(B) e-mail (D) podcasting
question carefully then select the most suitable
response. 6 Which of the following is the most appropriate type
of network for connecting computers in a single
1 The process of sending a file from a local computer to
building?
a remote computer is called
(A) CAN (C) MAN
(A) downloading (C) updating
(B) LAN (D) WAN
(B) uploading (D) inputting
7 Which of the following types of cable should be used
2 An e-mail program allows
for a very fast network?
(A) real-time exchange of messages or files with
(A) coaxial (C) copper
another online user
(B) twisted pair (D) fibre optic
(B) geographically separated people to transfer
audio and video 8 An international company needs to transfer large
(C) transmission of messages and files via a network amounts of data around the countries where it has
such as the Internet offices. Which communication technology is best
(D) users to access and view web pages on the suited to this task?
Internet (A) microwave (C) infra red
3 A network that allows staff and customers to securely (B) Bluetooth (D) satellite
access data is known as a 9 The device that is used to connect many computers
(A) extranet (C) outernet together is a
(B) Internet (D) intranet (A) broadband router
4 A blog is an example of (B) hub
(C) local area network
(A) an online diary
(D) coaxial router
(B) an audio broadcast on the Internet
(C) a text-based ‘chatting’ system 10 Which is NOT a mode of communication?
(D) a place online where you can post and read (A) complex (C) full duplex
messages with people of similar interests (B) simplex (D) half-duplex
60
1 Networks provide a range of facilities for data 5 Networks span the globe.
communication. a State TWO advantages and TWO
a What is a network? [1] disadvantages of networking computers. [2]
b In what way does a blog differ from a bulletin b Explain ONE drawback or limitation of linking
board? [1] computers in a network via each of the following
c What is telnet? [1] media:
d Describe the operation of the Internet Relay i satellite [1]
Chat facility. [2] ii microwave [1]
2 Businesses are expanding their activities to exploit iii infrared [1]
opportunities made possible by Internet, intranet and iv fibre optic [1]
extranet technologies. v coaxial [1]
a Clearly distinguish between the Internet and 6 The following questions refer to the illustration below.
an intranet. [2] a Name the THREE types of cabling illustrated. [3]
b Suggest TWO ways in which a company may b Identify which cable is most likely used to
benefit from using an extranet. [2] connect a modem to a wireless router. [1]
c Suggest TWO drawbacks in using electronic
mail as compared with using normal mail A
for day-to-day business communication. [2]
3 A network is a communications, data exchange and
resource-sharing system created by linking two
or more computers and establishing standards, or
protocols, so that they can work together.
a What is meant by the word ‘protocol’? [1] B
b Name THREE protocols commonly used in data

communication. [3]
c List THREE resources that may be shared by a
network. [3]
d List the THREE main types of computer
networks. [3]
C
4 E-commerce is dependent on the seamless operation
of web browsers, websites, web servers and web
pages.
7 Name EACH of the devices described below.
a What is a web browser? [1]
b What is the relationship between a web page a Modulates and demodulates communication
and a website? [2] signals over a network. [1]
c Explain how a web server facilitates b Determines the pathway that communication
e-commerce. [2] signals take over a network. [1]
d Discuss TWO advantages gained by an c Device installed in a computer system that
individual or a company that sells products facilitates wireless communication between
or services via e-commerce. [4] the computer system and a network. [1]
61
5
5 • Data storage and manipulation
Data storage and

manipulation
By the end of describe the binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems
this chapter
convert numbers from one number base to another
you should
be able to:
perform binary addition
perform binary subtraction
describe the sign and magnitude scheme for representing integers
describe the BCD scheme for representing integers
describe the two’s complement scheme for representing integers
describe the ASCII scheme for representing characters.
Concept map
Data
stored internally represented externally
binary codes characters numbers
may be using include
subtracted added ASCII floating point integers
using may be
two’s complement arithmetic negative positive
manipulated using
binary decimal octal hexadecimal
including
representation schemes:
unsigned binary
sign and magnitude
Binary Coded Decimal
Earlier we saw that a microprocessor is an electronic device that operates

on 1s and 0s. In this section you will learn how to convert from human-
friendly decimal numbers to computer-friendly binary numbers. We also see
how characters can be represented as binary numbers. After all, we want the
information output by the computer to be in a form we humans can understand.
Number systems
Humans count in the base 10 using what is called the decimal (or denary)
decimal number system ❯ system. The decimal number system uses 10 digits: 0 through 9. The most
positional value ❯ important feature of a number system is the concept of positional value –
the value of a digit in a number depends on its position or place. Recall
from mathematics that the leftmost digit in any number is called the most
most significant digit ❯ significant digit (MSD) and the rightmost digit is called the least significant
least significant digit ❯ digit (LSD).
Consider the base 10 number 132.
We readily recognise this number as one hundred and thirty-two since the
Hundreds Tens Units
first digit, the ‘1’ has a value of 100, the ‘3’ has a value of 30 and the ‘2’ has a
1 3 2 value of 2.
The value of the LSD in the base 10 number 132 is two (2) and the value of
the MSD is one hundred (100).
We will now consider three other number systems. These use the numbers
2, 8 and 16 as their base and are called binary, octal and hexadecimal
respectively.
Binary
binary ❯ The binary number system has only two digits, 0 and 1, and the place values
are 1s, 2s, 4s, 8s, 16s, 32s and so on. The first eight place values are shown in
Table 5.1.
MSD LSD
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Place values 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 20
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Table 5.1 Place values for an 8-bit binary store.

Unless otherwise stated, all examples in this chapter will use a 1-byte word
8-bit store ❯ (which has a word size of 8). We will refer to this 1-byte word as an 8-bit
bit string ❯ store. The term bit string will also be used to refer to a group of ordered
binary digits such as ‘0001 1001’ which could represent:
ITQ1 • a number (for example, 37 or –25)
What is the value of the most • a character or string of characters (for example, the letter ‘A’ or the word
significant digit in a 1-byte store? ‘Love’).
Conversion between binary and decimal

Example 5.1 Convert 10012 to decimal.
Step 1: Starting from the LSD and working left towards the MSD, assign each digit in
the bit string a positional value; remember that the LSD has a value of 20.
MSD ← LSD Work from right to left

23 22 21 20 Place values
8 4 2 1 These are the positional values
1 0 0 1 The bit string (binary number)
63
Step 2: Multiply each digit in the bit string by its place value, giving the value of each
column.

1 0 0 1 The bit string (binary number)
(1 × 8) (0 × 4) (0 × 2) (1 × 1) The expanded products
8 0 0 1 The value of each column
Step 3: Sum the values obtained in step 2, giving the decimal value being sought.

1 0 0 1 The bit string
(1 × 8) (0 × 4) (0 × 2) (1 × 1) The expanded products
8 0 0 1 The value of each column
ITQ2
ITQ1 8+0+0+1=9 10012 = 910
Convert 111 0012 to decimal. Our conversion is now complete: 10012 = 910
Example 5.2 Convert 101 1012 to decimal (quick method).

We will skip the table in this example but still follow the steps.
10 11012 = (25 × 1) + (24 × 0) + (23 × 1) + (22 × 1) + (21 × 0) + (20 × 1)
ITQ3
ITQ1 = 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1
Convert 100 1112 to decimal using the = 45
quick method. Our conversion is now complete: 101 1012 = 4510
Example 5.3 Convert 10 0112 to decimal (really quick method).

10 0112 = (1 × 16) + (1 × 2) + (1 × 1)
ITQ4
ITQ1 = 16 + 2 + 1
Convert 10 110 0112 to decimal using = 19
the really quick method. Our conversion is now complete: 10 0112 = 1910
ON-bits ❯ Note that we processed only the 1-bits (also called the ON-bits).
Example 5.4 Convert 1 110 1112 to decimal (really quick method).

1 110 1112 = (1 × 64) + (1 × 32) + (1 × 16) + (1 × 4) + (1 x 2) + (1 × 1)
= 64 + 32 + 16 + 4 + 2 + 1
= 119
ITQ5
ITQ1 Our conversion is now complete: 1 110 1112 = 1910
Convert 1 101 1112 to decimal. Again, we processed only the ON-bits.
Activity 5.1 Visit khanacademy.org and watch the video ‘Understanding how numbers are
represented’.
1 Write the web page address (URL) of the YouTube video in your portfolio.
2 Complete the following statements in your portfolio:
a One new concept I learned was …
b It is important for us to understand how numbers are represented because …
64
Example 5.5 Convert 6710 to binary.

This can be done by successive divisions by 2, recording the remainder of each
division, e.g.
ITQ6
ITQ1 This can be done by successive divisions by 2, recording
the remainder of each division, e.g.
Convert 5910 to binary.
6710 67 ÷ 2 = 33 remainder 1
33 ÷ 2 = 16 remainder 1
16 ÷ 2 = 8 remainder 0
∴ 6710 = 1 0 0 0 0 1 12
Our conversion is now complete: 6710 = 1 000 0112
Example 5.6 Convert 6710 to binary (a different layout).
Remainder
2 67
2 33 1
2 16 1
Step 1 2 8 0
2 4 0 Step 3
2 2 0
2 1 0
0 1
Step 1: Perform successive divisions, each time recording the remainder.

Step 2: Stop after you perform the division ‘1 divided by 2 equals zero remainder
one’.
Step 3: Your answer is the bit string read from bottom to top. Our conversion is now
complete: 6710 = 1 000 0112
Conversion between decimal and octal

octal ❯ Octal is a number system whose base is 8. It uses the digits 0 through 7. The
place values increase in powers of 8.
Example 5.7 Convert 6910 to octal.
6910 69 ÷ 8 = 8 remainder 5
ITQ7
ITQ1
Convert 7510 to octal. 8 ÷ 8 = 1 remainder 0
∴ 6910 = 1 0 58
Our conversion is now complete: 6910 = 1058
65
Conversion between octal and decimal

Example 5.8 Convert 1238 to decimal.
82 81 80
Place values
–64 –8 –1
Octal number 1 2 3
(1 × 64) (2 × 8) (3 × 1)
Conversion
ITQ8 64 + 16 + 3 = 83
ITQ1
Convert 1078 to decimal. Our conversion is now complete: 1238 = 8310
Conversion between octal and binary

The conversion table below is useful in the conversion exercise.
Octal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111
Table 5.2 Conversion between octal and binary.
Example 5.9 Convert 768 to binary. Example 5.10 Convert 548 to binary.
ITQ9
ITQ1
Octal 7 6 Octal 5 4
Convert 678 to binary.
Binary (from table) 111 110 Binary (from table) 101 100
ITQ10 Our conversion is now complete: 548 =
Our conversion is now complete: 768 =
Convert 458 to binary. 111 1102 101 1002
Example 5.11 Convert 1 010 011 001 1002 to octal.

Look at each group of three binary digits, working from right to left. Add extra zeros
to the left of the rightmost group if necessary.
Grouped binary digits 001 010 011 001 100
ITQ11 Binary (from table) 1 2 3 1 4

Convert 11 110 011 101 1012 to octal. Our conversion is now complete: 1 010 011 001 1002 = 12 3148
Example 5.12 Convert 5410 to binary via octal.
Step 1: Convert 5410 to octal. Step 2: Convert 668 to binary.

5410 54 ÷ 8 = 6 remainder 6 Octal 6 6
6 ÷ 8 = 0 remainder 6 Binary (from table) 110 110
∴ 5410 = 668
ITQ12 Our conversion is now complete: 5410 =
Figure 5.1 Conversions between decimal and 110 1102
Convert 12710 to binary via octal.
binary are often quicker via octal.
Hexadecimal (hex)
hexadecimal ❯ Hexadecimal is a number system whose base is 16. The symbols used are the
digits 0–9 (like base 10) and the letters A–F (which are the equivalent of 10–15
in decimal). The place values increase in powers of 16. A group of binary digits
can represent any value between 0 and 15.
66
Conversion between hex and decimal

These conversions follow the same pattern used for binary and octal.
Example 5.13 Convert 9110 to hexadecimal.
9110 91 ÷ 16 = 5 remainder 11
∴ 9110 = 5B16
Our conversion is now complete: 9110 = 5B16

ITQ13
Convert 12710 to binary via octal. Example 5.14 Convert 8C16 to decimal.
Place values 162 161 160

ITQ14 –256 –16 –1
Convert 7E16 to decimal. Hex 0 8 C
Conversion (0 × 256) (8 × 16) (12 × 1)
Hex number Binary Decimal 0 + 128 + 12 = 140
equivalent value
Our conversion is now complete: 8C16 = 14010
0 0 0
1 1 1
Conversion between hex and octal
2 10 2
A conversion between hex and octal is most easily done via binary.
3 11 3
Example 5.15 Convert 9D16 to octal.
4 100 4 Step 1: Convert hex to binary with the aid of the conversion table.
5 101 5
Hex number 9 D
6 110 6
Binary (from table) 1001 1101
7 111 7
Our conversion is not yet complete. 9D16 = 10 011 10110
8 1000 8
Step 2: Convert binary to octal.
9 1001 9
Binary 10 11 101
A 1010 10
Octal 2 3 5
B 1011 11
C 1100 12 Our conversion is now complete: 9D16 = 2358
D 1101 13
E 1110 14 Binary addition
F 1111 15 Addition of binary numbers is similar to the addition of decimal numbers.
Consider how you would do the following decimal sum.
Table 5.3 Table of values for binary,
decimal and hexadecimal bases.
27
+ 188
215
We say to ourselves 7 + 8 = 15, which is 5 carry over 1

then 2 + 8 + 1 = 11 which is 1 carry over 1
ITQ15 then 1 + 1 = 2
Convert 7C16 to octal.
67
Four basic rules govern binary addition.
Rule What we add Result

1 0+0 0
2 1 + 0 or 0 + 1 1
3 1+1 0 carry 1
4 1+1+1 1 carry 1
Table 5.4 Rules for binary addition.
Example 5.16 Add together 11 0102 and 11 1002.

We will illustrate by performing the following computation:
1 1 0 1 0
+ 1 1 1 0 0
Step 1: Apply rule 1 (0 + 0 = 0) Step 2: Apply rule 2 (1 + 0 = 1)

(carry) (carry)
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
+ 1 1 1 0 0 + 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0
Step 3: Apply rule 2 again (0 + 1 = 1) Step 4: Apply rule 3 (1 + 1 = 0 carry 1)

(carry) (carry) 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
+ 1 1 1 0 0 + 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0
Step 5: Apply rule 4 (1 + 1 + 1 = 1 carry 1) Step 6: Bring down the 1 that was
(carry) 1 1
carried over as there is nothing to add
to it.
1 1 0 1 0
+ 1 1 1 0 0 (carry) 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
+ 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0
Our computation is now complete: 11
0102 + 11 1002 = 110 1102
Example 5.17 Add together 11102 and 1102.

ITQ16 Set out the sum, taking care to align the bits to the right as shown in step 1.
Add together 11102 and 111 1002.
Step 1: Starting with the rightmost (carry)
column, add 0 and 0. Apply rule 1: 0
1 1 1 0
+ 0 = 0. Write the result in the same
+ 1 1 0
column.
0
Step 2: Add the digits in the 2nd column (carry) 1

from the right: 1 and 1. Apply rule 3:
1 1 1 0
1 + 1 = 0 carry 1. Write the 0 in the
+ 1 1 0
same column and carry 1 to the column
0 0
to the left.
68
Step 3: Add the digits in the 3rd column (carry) 1 1

from the right: 1, 1 and 1. Apply rule 4: 1
1 1 1 0
+ 1 + 1 = 1 carry 1. Write 1 in the same
+ 1 1 0
column and carry 1 to the leftmost column.
1 0 0
Step 4: Add the digits in the leftmost (carry) 1 1 1
column: 1 and 1. Apply rule 3: 1 + 1 = 0
1 1 1 0
carry 1. Write 0 in the same column and
+ 1 1 0
ITQ17 carry 1 to the leftmost column.
0 1 0 0
Add together the following pairs of
Step 5: Bring down the 1 that was (carry) 1 1 1
binary numbers, giving the answers in
carried over as there is nothing to add
binary form. 1 1 1 0
to it.
(a) 11012 and 00112 + 1 1 0
(b) 10112 and 11102 1 0 1 0 0
(c) 11 1002 and 1112
Our computation is now complete: 11102
(d) 110 0112 and 10 0012.
+ 1102 = 10 1002
Binary subtraction
Binary subtraction has a set of rules that are more complicated than addition.
Rule What we subtract Result

1 0 from 0 0
2 1 from 1 0
3 0 from 1 1
ITQ18
4 1 from 0 We can’t unless we borrow 10 from the next column
Using the rules for binary subtraction,
subtract 10112 from 11 1102. Table 5.5 Rules for binary subtraction.
Fortunately, computer systems have a simple method of subtracting called
complementation. We discuss complementation later in this chapter. After we
learn how to do complementation, we will perform binary subtraction.
Representing integers
integer ❯ Recall that an integer is a whole number that is either greater than zero, zero
negative integer ❯ or less than zero. In the case where it is less than zero we call it a negative
integer. We will discuss three schemes for representing integers:
• binary-coded decimal (BCD) – an early suggestion for storing decimal
numbers using the binary number system; not very useful because we can’t
perform binary addition on the numbers
• sign and magnitude representation – developed to try to overcome the
limitations of BCD; works well for storing negative numbers but it is not
suitable for adding numbers
• two’s complement – the method computers use to represent signed integers.
We will work through each of these schemes in turn.
ITQ19 Binary-coded decimal (BCD)

Express 63 as a binary-coded decimal. BCD is the simplest way of storing data in a computer where each decimal
digit from 0 to 9 is given a binary code. This code is a representation of each
digit’s own binary sequence. BCD’s biggest selling point is that it allows
easy conversion to decimal digits for printing or display and faster decimal
calculations.
69
There are many binary-coded decimal schemes, however, we will use BCD
Digit BCD
8421, a scheme where a digit is usually represented by four bits which, in
8421 general, represent the values/digits/characters 0–9. The bit pattern ‘1010’ and
‘1011’ represent the ‘+’ and ‘–’ signs respectively. Even though we have been
0 0
given the code for ‘+’, it is not common practice to use it.
1 1
2 10 Example 5.18 Express 37 as a binary-coded decimal.
3 11 Step 1: Retrieve the code for first digit in the number
Step 2: Write down this code followed by a space 0011
4 100
Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 until all the digits in the number are 0011 0111
5 101 processed
6 110 The process is now complete: 3710 = 0011 0111BCD
7 111 Alternatively, the representation could be found as shown in the next example.
8 1000
9 1001 Example 5.19 Express NEGATIVE 37 as a binary-coded decimal.
Table 5.6 Binary-coded Step 1: Find the four-bit representation for each digit in the number: 310 = 0011BCD,
decimals using the BCD 8421 710 = 0111BCD
scheme. Step 2: Write out the sequence of BCD codes in the same order as the integers they
represent.
0011 0111
3 7
Step 3: Place the code for negative (1011) to the left of the bit string.
1011 11 111
– 3 7
ITQ20
What is the decimal equivalent of the The process is now complete.
binary-coded decimal 1011 0101 0010? The BCD representation of –3710 is therefore 1011 0011 0111.
Sign and magnitude

In the decimal number system, a ‘+’ or ‘–’ sign indicates whether the number
is positive or negative. Sign and magnitude uses a similar mechanism. We will
work with a one-byte word for simplicity; hence the word size is 8, one of
which – the most significant bit – will be used for the sign bit. Conventionally,
0 is used to denote a positive number, 1 a negative.
Example 5.20 Convert 3710 to its sign and magnitude representation.

Step 1: Convert the integer to binary
3710 = 100 1012
Step 2: Write the binary bit pattern,

Sign Magnitude
starting with the least significant
digit. 1 0 0 1 0 1
Step 3: Pad the remaining bit

Sign Magnitude
location(s) set aside for the
magnitude with zeros. 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
70
Step 4: Write either a 1 or a 0 to

Sign Magnitude
indicate the sign of the number.
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
ITQ21 The process is now complete.

The sign and magnitude representation of 3710 is 0010 01012.
Convert 7710 to its sign and magnitude
representation. By convention, we underline the sign bit in the answer.
Two’s complement
Complements are used mainly for representing negative numbers and for
subtraction. It is a really clever system for storing numeric data so that
numbers with different signs can easily be added. For any binary number the
negative of that number is represented by reversing the bits (1’s complement)
and adding 1 (2’s complement).
Recall that 15 – 7 is equal to 15 + (–7). If we were to do this computation in
binary, we would:
1 Compute the binary equivalent of 15.
2 Compute the binary complement of 7.
3 Add the binary equivalent of 15 to the binary complement of 7.
The procedure to find the binary complement of an integer is:
1 Ignoring the sign, convert the decimal value to its binary representation.
2 If necessary, extend the bit string to 8 bits.
3 Flip the bits (change all the zeros to ones and the ones to zeros) giving the
one’s complement value.
4 Add one, giving the two’s complement value.
The best way to master this is by working through an example.
Example 5.21 Compute the two’s complement of NEGATIVE 12.

Decimal 12 is 0000 1100
So to find how decimal –12 will be stored, reverse the digits, turn 0s into 1s and
1s into 0s:
0000 1100 (original)
1111 0011 (1’s complement)
This is the one’s complement representation of 0000 1100. Now we can add 1 using
binary addition
1111 0011
+ 1
1111 0100 (2’s complement)
This is the two’s complement representation of –12.
The really clever thing about two’s complement is that it makes maths easy
for the computer because it only uses binary addition.
Here is an example.
7 – 3 is the same as 7 + ( –3)
0000 0111 is decimal 7
1111 1101 is decimal –3 (using 2’s complement)
Add them together and hey, presto! we get 0000 0100 which is 4.
Example 5.22 Using 8-bit strings, compute the 2’s complement of NEGATIVE 7.
Step 1: Ignoring the sign, convert 7 to its binary equivalent
111
Step 2: Extend the bit string to 8 bits
0000 0111
71
Step 3: Flip the bits

1111 1000
Step 4: Add one giving the two’s complement value.

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
+ 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
The 2’s complement of NEGATIVE 7 is 1111 10012
To prove that the above computations are correct, we can convert the 2’s
complement back to decimal. This computation will be based on positional
values once again. An important fact to remember is that the most significant
bit position in a 2’s complement storage has a negative value.
Positional values –128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Two’s complement number 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1

Value –128 64 32 16 8 0 0 1
ITQ22
= –128 + (64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 1)
Using 8-bit 2’s complement arithmetic,
compute 11 1112 MINUS 1510. = –128 + 121
= –7
Now that we have verified that the conversion was a success, we can
complete our subtraction computation. In the next exercise, we will compute
15 MINUS 7.
Example 5.23 Binary subtraction (as an additional operation using 2’s

complement): Using 8-bit 2’s complement arithmetic, compute 15 MINUS 7.
Step 1: Convert the subtraction problem to an addition problem.

15 MINUS 7 is the same as 15 added to (complement of 7)
In binary, 00 001 111 – 0111 is equal to 00 001 111 + 11 111 001.
Step 2: Set out the addition problem.
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
+ 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Step 3a: Perform the computation on the column with the least significant digits.
ITQ23 (carry) 1
Using 4-bit 2’s complement arithmetic, 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
compute 01112 MINUS 710.
+ 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
0
Step 3b: Perform the computations on the next six columns.

(carry) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ITQ24 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Using 8-bit 2’s complement arithmetic, + 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
compute 11 1112 MINUS 1510. 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
72
Step 3c: Perform the computation on the column containing the most significant digits.
ASCII Symbol Decimal
(carry) 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1000001 A 65
1000010 B 66 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
+ 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
1000011 C 67
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1000100 D 68
Step 4: The final step in the computation is to discard the carry (circled for emphasis).
1000101 E 69
We are working with an 8-bit store and already have all the digits that we need. The
1000110 F 70 final answer should be 8 bits long.
1000111 G 71 (carry) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1001000 H 72 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1001001 I 73 + 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1001010 J 74
The answer is 0001 10002
1001011 K 75
1001100 L 76 Storing text data
1001101 M 77 To be useful a computer also needs to be able to manipulate text. Characters
1001110 N 78 are held in the computer using binary numbers according to the ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange) code. To represent
1001111 0 79 textual material in binary, the system assigns a unique binary number to each
1010000 P 80 printable letter, numeral or symbol. ASCII is the most widely used code for
representing characters in computer system. Eight bits are used to represent
1010001 Q 81 each character, allowing it to encode 28 (256) unique characters.
1010010 R 82 The text BYE! can be encoded in ASCII as:
1010011 S 83 01000010 01011001 01000101 0010001

1010100 T 84 B Y E !
1010101 U 85 If the bit pattern for the character B is converted to a decimal number, that
1010110 V 86 value will be 66, indicating that the ASCII character for ‘B’ can be determined
by simply adding 1 to the binary pattern for the character ‘A’. Similarly, since
1010111 W 87 the character ‘E’ is 3 characters to the right of the character B, it follows that:
1011000 X 88 ASCII code for ‘E’ = ASCII code for B + 3
= 01000010 + 3
1011001 Y 89 = 01000010 + 011
1011010 Z 90 = 01000101
This result matches the code for ‘E’ in the word BYE!
Table 5.7 ASCII codes for uppercase
alphabetic characters
Activity 5.2 Encoding and decoding with ASCII

For this activity, you will be the encoder, and a classmate will be the decoder.
1 Use the ASCII table on this page to convert the name of your favourite sport to
ASCII.
2 Write the codes on a sheet of paper and give them to your classmate. Ask him/
her to use their ASCII table to decode the characters to reveal the name of your
favourite sport.
73
Summary
• Number systems: decimal (base 10), binary (base 2), octal (base 8) and hexadecimal (base 16).
• BCD, sign and magnitude and two’s complement are methods of representing integers. ASCII is a method of
representing characters.
• In BCD (a four-bit code), each code is the numeric value of the decimal digit it represents; the code 1011 is used to
represent the negative sign.
• In the sign and magnitude method of storing numeric values the first binary digit (bit) represents the sign of the
number and the remaining digits represent the size of the number.
• Two’s complement is a powerful method of storing integers in a way that makes subtraction of binary numbers
easy.
• Characters are stored as binary numbers according to the ASCII code.
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 128 ITQ14 12610

ITQ2 5710 ITQ15 1748
ITQ3 3910 ITQ16 1 001 0102
ITQ4 17910 ITQ17 (a) 10 0002; (b) 11 0012; (c)
ITQ5 11110 100 0112; (d) 1 000 1002
ITQ6 111 0112 ITQ18 10 0112
ITQ7 1138 ITQ19 0110 0011BCD
ITQ8 7110 ITQ20 –5210
ITQ9 110 1112 ITQ21 0100 1101
ITQ10 100 1012 ITQ22 00 010 0002
ITQ11 36 3558 ITQ23 00002
ITQ12 1778 →1 111 1112 ITQ24 01000011 01000001
01010011 01001000
ITQ13 29510
IT portfolio
1 Write a message in your portfolio using the ASCII numbers to represent the characters.
2 Here is a message to you: 71, 111, 111, 100, 76, 117, 99, 107, 33. Decipher this message using the ASCII code and
write the result in your portfolio.
3 An interesting property of binary numbers is what happens when a zero is put on the right hand side of the number. If
we are working in base 10 (decimals), when you put a zero on the right hand side of a number, it is multiplied by 10, for
example, 10 becomes 100, 71 becomes 710.
We now need YOU to explore what happens when you put a 0 on the right hand side of a binary number.
a Try the following and record your findings in your portfolio:
i 0111 01110
(7) (?)
ii 10100 101000
(20) (?)
b Complete the following statement in your portfolio:
As a general rule, when a zero is put on the right hand side of a binary number …
74
Group activity
Number of group members: 3–6
Resources required: A timer or stopwatch
Multiple-choice questions 4–9 (on next page)
a Each person in the group should take turns at keeping time. For each round, the timekeeper selects a problem
involving computations and records the time it takes him or her to calculate the result.
b The other group members are given an opportunity to solve the problem. If one of them correctly solves the
problem in less time than that taken by the timekeeper then they win the round, otherwise the timekeeper wins
that round.
c Repeat steps (a) and (b) until each person gets an opportunity to be the timekeeper.
Multiple-choice questions 6 In a certain number system, the number 110 011? has
Instructions: Each of the following questions has four a decimal value of 1 114 129. What is the base of the
suggested responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read number system?
each question carefully then select the most suitable (A) 2
response. (B) 8
1 In the binary number system, what is the value of the (C) 10
leftmost digit in the number 1012? (D) 16
(A) 0 7 What is the value of x in the equation x2 + 11012 =
(B) 1 10012 + 10112?
(C) 2 (A) 111
(D) 4 (B) 101
2 ____________is the most widely used coding scheme (C) 1001
used to represent data in personal computers. (D) 100 001
(A) 2’s complement 8 What representation scheme represents NEGATIVE 2
(B) ASCII as the bit pattern
(C) BCD 1011 0010?
(D) binary (A) sign and magnitude
3 In the sign and magnitude representation of a number, (B) one’s complement
if the ____________, the number is negative. (C) two’s complement
(D) binary-coded decimal
(A) first bit is 1
(B) last bit is 1 9 Using 8-bit two’s complement arithmetic, what is the
(C) first bit is 0 result of 16 MINUS 17?
(D) last bit is 0 (A) 0111 1111
4 In the hexadecimal number system, what is the value (B) 1111 1111
of the leftmost digit in the number 10116? (C) 1000 0000
(D) 1000 0001
(A) 1
(B) 16
(C) 64
(D) 256
5 In a certain number system, the number 1101? has a
decimal value of 577. What is the base of the number
system?
(A) 2
(B) 8
(C) 10
(D) 16
75
1 An 8-bit machine uses the binary number system. 5 Compute the following:
Clearly show how this machine would perform the a The eight-bit binary representation of the
calculations below. decimal number 23. [2]
a 1102 + 0112 [1] b The sign and magnitude representation of the
b 01012 + 11012 [1] decimal number NEGATIVE twenty three. [2]
c 11012 – 00112 [2] c The result of 57 − 27 using eight-bit, two’s
d 1102 – 0112 [1] complement representation and express your
e 50 MINUS 30 [2] answer as an eight-bit binary number. [2]
2 Express NEGATIVE 58 in EACH of the following d The decimal equivalent of the binary-coded
representations. decimal 1011 0001 0011 0101. [1]
a sign and magnitude [2] 6 Carry out the following computations.
b two’s complement [2] a Convert the decimal number 21 into the
c binary-coded decimal [1] following forms:
3 Express the decimal value 234 as i Binary [1]
ii Octal [1]
a a binary-coded decimal [1]
iii Hexadecimal [1]
b a hexadecimal number [1]
iv Sign and magnitude [2]
c an octal number [1]
v BCD [1]
4 Numbers and characters are stored by computer b Add 110112 to 1012 [1]
systems in a variety of formats. c Subtract 1012 from 110112 [2]
a Describe ONE way in which characters are 7 Copy and complete the following table with the
stored. [2] equivalent values in the representations indicated.
b Name TWO schemes used for representing
integers. [2] Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal
c Using an example, explain ANY ONE of the 0010 1101
schemes named in part b. [2] 1278
d State ONE advantage and ONE disadvantage 87
of the scheme explained in part (c) compared 1E
with the other scheme named in part (b). [2]
99
1438
0110 0011 [20]
76
6 System programs
and application
programs
By the end of distinguish between system and application programs

this chapter
explain the functions of an operating system
you should
be able to:
distinguish among multitasking, multiprocessing and multiprogramming
explain the different forms of processing modes
distinguish between types of user interfaces.
Concept map
Software
utilises various has may be include
processing modes: user interface: purchased custom- application software system software
batch command driven off the shelf written
on-line graphic user
real-time menu driven customised types include such as
time-sharing
operating translators:
systems compiler
general-purpose: special-purpose: interpreter
word processor media player
spreadsheet web browser functions examples execution utilities:
database management photo-editing modes antivirus software
backup software
packaged as file management multitasking disk cleanup
memory management multiprocessing disk defragmenters
security multiprogramming file compression
integrated software software suite device management
(such as Microsoft Works ) (such as Microsoft Office ) input/output management
user interface
process management
Windows 8
Apple Mac OS X
Android
Blackberry OS
6 • System programs and application programs
Software is a general term for the various kinds Software is the name given to programs that run on a computer. Software
of programs, installation files and documentation performs the useful jobs that people want the computer to do such as working
that together are used to operate computers and
out people’s pay. It also helps to keep our computer systems healthy. In this
related devices.
chapter, we will explore software – the non-hardware component that makes a
computer system work.
Software
System Application
Operating General Special

Translators Utilities
Systems purpose purpose
Figure 6.1 The general classification of software.
The difference between system programs and

applications programs
Over 20 professionals operating in five different countries collaborated to
publish this book. Collectively over 500 different software titles are installed
on the computers used by the development team members. Howard Campbell,
the author, used Microsoft Word and OpenOffice.org Writer, two of the world’s
most widely used word processors to prepare the manuscript for this book.
Howard used two different computers to write the manuscript, both running
operating systems that are members of the Windows family. The editors used
all Apple Macintosh computers running the Mac OS X operating system. This
OS is popular with editors, typesetters, illustrators and page compositors who
all use a range of special-purpose software packages to complete their
editing tasks. The author communicated with his editors via e-mail and he
ensured that the files that he attached were virus free by scanning with an
antivirus program.
Like hardware, the word software remains unchanged when pluralised.
Remember to say ‘software’ and not ‘softwares’.
program, software program ❯ A piece of software is commonly called a program, software program or
software package ❯ software package. Technically, a program is a sequence of instructions that
a computer can interpret and execute. It is beyond the scope of this chapter
to attempt to make a distinction at this stage. We will, however, use the term
software and will discuss programs and their development in Chapters 10 and
system software ❯ 11. Software can be classified into two main categories: system software and
application software ❯ application software.
System software
system software ❯ System software is the category of software used to operate and maintain a
computer system including the operating system, utility programs and program
language translators.
There are three major categories of system software – programming
language translators, utility programs and operating systems.
Translators
Language translators are specialised system software that are used in program
implementation. We will discuss these in Chapter 11 when we consider
program implementation.
78
Utility programs
A utility program is a program that assists in maintaining and improving the
efficiency of a computer system.
Utility Function
Backup Archives data to protect it from accidental loss.
Disk defragmenter Organises files on the disk drive so that the computer runs faster and more
efficiently.
Disk error checker Examines files, folders and the platter surfaces of the specified disk drive
and corrects any errors found.
Disk cleanup Clears a disk of unnecessary files.
Antivirus Checks for and removes viruses infecting the system and also prevents viral
infections.
Table 6.1 Common utility programs and their function.
Operating systems
operating system ❯ An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer
hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs.
ITQ1
What is the function of EACH of the A family of operating systems that includes Windows XP, Windows Vista
following utility programs supplied as Microsoft Windows and Windows 8, the latest member of the Windows family, was released in
a part of the Windows XP operating October 2012.
system: Another family of operating systems. Mandriva, Ubuntu, Knoppix, Linspire
(a) system restore Linux and Suse all belong to this family. These operating systems have similar
(b) narrator functionality but vary considerably in the way they look.
(c) magnifier?
A series of GUI-based operating systems developed by Apple Inc. for their
Mac OS
line of Macintosh computers.
ITQ2
ITQ1 Table 6.2 Most personal computers are sold with a pre-installed operating system. Windows had
just over 91% of the desktop operating system market share as of May 2008.
Name TWO popular antivirus programs
that may:
(a) be bought online or in a computer
store Functions of an operating system
(b) be downloaded free of cost from the
Internet. Operating systems have seven primary functions.
1 Establish basic elements of a user interface
2 Maintain a secure computing environment
3 Manage files and folders
4 Manage storage devices
ITQ3
ITQ1 5 Manage input and output operations
6 Manage memory
Some computers have two operating
7 Manage processor resources.
systems installed, for example, Linux
and Windows XP. Suggest ONE reason
why a computer user may opt for dual
installation of operating systems.
79
Manages files
and folders.
Manages the computer

The
system’s hardware and
operating
peripheral devices
system
Provides a way for the

user to interact with
the computer
Manages the Manages the

processor memory and
Figure 6.2 Operating systems facilitate storage
the management, safekeeping and upkeep Provides a consistent
of a computer system’s resources. It helps means for software
us to manage the computer system while an applications to work
with the CPU
application program helps us to do our work.
Function 1: Establish basic elements of a user interface

user interface ❯ A user interface can be defined as the combination of hardware and
software that helps people and computers communicate with each other. The
user interface is made up of a hardware interface and a software interface.
The hardware interface includes components such as the keyboard, mouse
and monitor that allow the user to manipulate and view the computing
ITQ4
ITQ1
environment. Braille keyboards and sensors are non-visual interface
Name the first: components. Unlike a keyboard and monitor which the user interacts with
(a) working GUI ever produced by sight, these depend on other senses. Software elements of a user interface
(b) GUI-based OS publicly available include components such as icons, menus, toolbars and dialogue boxes. One
(c) mass-produced GUI-based of the functions of the operating system is to establish a basic ‘look and feel’
operating system. for all the compatible software that will operate in its environment. It uses
these and other elements to bring about this function. Two common software
interfaces are graphical user interfaces and command driven interfaces.
Graphical user interface (GUI)

Most modern operating systems feature a graphical user interface (GUI).
The way users interact with operating systems was revolutionised with the
emergence of the mouse. This facilitated the development of the GUI, which,
Figure 6.3 A graphical user interface over time, replaced the command driven interface. The way a GUI works is
features icons that you can manipulate with often summarised by the word WIMP – windows, icons, menus and pointer.
a mouse. A menu is an onscreen list of available command choices. A menu bar
stretching across the top of a screen (or window) contains the names of
pop-up menu ❯ available pull-down menus. Another type of menu is a pop-up menu. A pop-
up menu appears on your display screen at the point where your mouse is
positioned. It is usually activated by a right-click.
80
An icon is a small picture or image that

represents an action to be carried out.
Activating the icon causes the action to be
carried out. It can be activated by double-
clicking on the icon, causing the action
associated with the icon to be started.
A pointer is an onscreen symbol (usually )

that shows the current position of the pointing
device. The pointing device is the primary
means of interacting with a computer running
a GUI. It is used to move the pointer around the
screen to carry out actions such as selecting
icons and menu options, dragging and clicking,
among others.
ITQ5
ITQ1
Briefly explain the relationship between
Windows the operating system and a Figure 6.4 Two overlapping windows. The window on the left is a document window in a word
window. processer while the other is a listing of files in a folder.
Command driven interface

command driven interface ❯ A command driven interface is one that requires the user to type command
statements to access the system resources. Since interaction with the computer
is by lines of text, the primary device for interacting with this interface is
the keyboard. Very simple operating systems interact with the user using a
command line. These operating systems need very few resources and can run
on very old computer equipment. Operating systems with a command line
interface are used by technicians when setting up computers. The command
line interface was largely made redundant with the introduction of the
graphical user interface.
Function 2: Maintaining security

If you are the only person to use a computer then security may not be an issue
but in large organisations, security is critical. Multi-user operating systems
provide the ability to assign login codes and passwords to different users.
Function 3: Managing files and folders

Data and programs are stored in files. Files are electronic containers that can
hold programs or data permanently. The operating system helps us keep track
of our files. To help manage files on a computer system the operating system
uses folders. A folder is a container in which files that belong together and
other folders can be stored. For example, Windows XP users usually keep their
files in a folder called My Documents. The OS allows users to copy, rename and
delete files. It also uses a Recycle Bin that allows users to restore files that were
previously deleted.
Figure 6.5 Command line of a command

driven interface.
81
Function 4: Managing devices

Each peripheral device attached to the computer system is managed by the OS.
For example, when we plug a USB flash drive into a USB port, the OS assigns
that new device a drive letter.
Having completed our work using application software, we certainly want
to save our files. The operating system controls the storage devices, whether
it is the hard disk drive, USB flash drive or another writeable storage device.
The OS works with the application to ensure that the data is correctly saved.
Devices such as USB flash drives must be ‘safely removed’ from the computer
system, a function also managed by the OS.
Figure 6.6 The operating system provides a way for the computer user to safely remove storage
devices such as USB flash drives, external hard drives and memory cards.
Function 5: Managing input/output devices and operations

Each new input/output device added to the computer system will be controlled
by the operating system. For example, when a new printer is first connected,
the OS needs to know about the particular model of printer and requests the
device driver ❯ device driver provided by the printer manufacturer. A device driver is a small
program that contains specific details about the printer. The operating system
installs this file thereby making the output device available to all applications
installed on the computer system. The OS then manages the queue of print
jobs sent to the printer, allowing users to pause, cancel and restart printing.
Function 6: Memory management

Recall from Chapter 2 that program instructions and data are loaded into
RAM (random access memory) and executed by the CPU. RAM is managed
by the OS, which creates partitions in memory. Each partition contains the
instructions and data for an individual program. The OS manages these
partitions and ensures programs do not interfere with each other. When
a program terminates, the OS releases this memory so it is available when
another program needs to run.
82
Figure 6.7 A print dialogue presented to a user by Figure 6.8 Many applications provide features for running processes in
the operating system. the background. Printing and saving documents are two such processes.
Function 7: Process management

A process (or task) is an independently executing The CPU is central to the operations of the computer system. Operating
program and its data. systems allow multiple programs to be loaded into memory at the same time.
processes ❯ Each of these programs may have one or more processes.
In the past, a CPU was a processor and most computers had only one
Multiprocessing is the ability of a computer CPU. Today, a multi-core processor combines two or more independent cores
to execute programs on two or more (normally a CPU) into a single package composed of a single integrated circuit
processors at the same time. A multi-core (IC). A dual-core processor contains two cores, and a quad-core processor
microprocessor implements multiprocessing in
a single physical package. contains four cores. To complicate matters further, modern computers can
contain more than one CPU.
Technique # processors # tasks # programs

Multitasking 1 2 or more 1 or more
Multiprogramming 1 1 or more 2 or more
Multiprocessing 2 or more 1 1
Table 6.3 Differences between multitasking, multiprogramming and multiprocessing.

Multitasking is the capability of an operating The OS uses techniques such as multiprocessing, multiprogramming and
system to run two or more programs in the same multitasking to manage program execution, hence ensuring that each job has
computer at the same time. In a multitasking
operating system, the user can move from
the opportunity to be served by the processor.
application to application while the applications In word processing, sending a 20-page document to print and saving the
continue processing. For example, while this document are separate processes or tasks.
paragraph was being written in the word
processor, an e-mail was being downloaded in a
second application whilst music was being played Processing modes
by a third.
Similar to how operating systems implement various techniques for managing
Multiprogramming is the ability of a computer to the processor, they also have various modes that guide their overall operation.
execute two or more programs at the same time, In specialised industries, operating systems are selected based on the nature of
using one CPU (or processor). their operations.
Consider the following scenarios in the industries indicated:
• In the public utilities industry, a computer system processes electricity bills
and produces printed statements for customers at a pre-determined time
each month.
• In the retail trade, a POS system installed at a supermarket’s checkout
counter facilitates the update of the store’s inventory the instant a customer
checks out his purchase.
83
• In the aviation industry, an in-flight computer is used to read an aircraft’s

current position and electronic flight plan, and directs a flight control system
to guide the aircraft.
• In the IT industry, expensive corporate server farms (a group of networked
ITQ6
ITQ1 web servers) costing millions host thousands of customers (via the Internet),
Does an automated teller machine all sharing the same common resources.
(ATM) operate in a real-time, online or These situations are examples of batch processing, online, real-time, and
time-sharing mode? time-sharing respectively. We explain each of these below.
Batch processing
Batch processing is a mode of computer Batch processing systems were common in the early days of computing when
operation in which program instructions are organisations had only one powerful mainframe computer managed by a
executed one after the other without human
intervention. command driven OS. The huge cost of operating a mainframe meant that they
had to be used efficiently. Users would prepare their programs and data away
from the computer on punched cards, paper tape or using key-to-disk systems
and then submit them to the computer operator to be run by the computer
in one batch. All data must be provided with the programs because in batch
processing there is no interaction with the user when the program is running.
Nowadays, financial institutions, telecommunication and utility companies
use batch processing to produce customer statements and bills.
Online
Online processing is a mode of computer Online processing systems allow users to interact with the program when it is
operation in which the data input device running.
is connected to the computer (online) and
processes the data received to produce output
with relatively very little delay in the processing. Real time
At its core is an online system that processes input as it is made available to
Real-time processing is a mode in which the produce output that could serve as feedback to control or affect the outcome of
timing that constrains a computer system’s
processing originates from the ‘real world’
an ongoing activity or process. The SABRE airline reservation system, created by
outside the computer instead of the computer’s American Airlines over 50 years ago, uses real-time processing. So too do life-
internal timing mechanism. support systems, systems managing power generation and distribution systems.
Time-sharing
Time-sharing is a processing mode employed
by multi-user systems that gives each user the
We have already introduced time-sharing as the idea that the operating system
impression that he is the only person using the can control the CPU in such a way that each program is given a share of the
system. CPU time.
With the rise of micro computing in the early 1980s, time-sharing faded
ITQ7
ITQ1 into the background because the individual microprocessors were sufficiently
inexpensive that a single person could have all the CPU time dedicated solely
Amazon made headlines on the night to their needs, even when idle. The Internet has brought the general concept of
of Sunday, 1 December 2013, when it time-sharing back into popularity.
announced it was working on small Fast-forward to 2009 and well-known companies like HP, IBM and
drones (unmanned aerial vehicles) Amazon have started to offer time-sharing services under a new name – cloud
that could someday deliver customers’ computing. Under this Internet-based time-sharing scheme, expensive corporate
packages in half an hour or less. The server farms costing millions now host thousands of customers all sharing the
world’s largest parcel service, UPS, has same common resources. This means that a company such as Nutcracker Gadget
also been experimenting with its own Store does not have to invest in expensive hardware when expanding as they
version of flying parcel carriers. Which can simply time-share and feel as if they are on their own system.
processing mode would most likely
be used by the computer system that
operates these drones? Application programs
According to a Wikipedia entry retrieved in early March 2009, ‘the exact
delineation between system software such as operating systems and application
software is not precise, however, and is occasionally subject to controversy. For
84
Application software is the category of software example, one of the key questions in the United States v. Microsoft antitrust
that performs specific end-user tasks to solve trial was whether Microsoft’s Internet Explorer web browser was part of its
everyday problems, inform and entertain.
Windows operating system or a separable piece of application software’.
The entry continued:
In computer science, an application is a computer program designed to help people perform

a certain type of work. An application thus differs from an operating system (which runs
a computer), a utility (which performs maintenance or general-purpose chores), and a
programming language (with which computer programs are created). Depending on the
work for which it was designed, an application can manipulate text, numbers, graphics, or a
combination of these elements.
There are many subtypes of application software. This is not a complete list but
an indication of some of the categories that you are likely to meet:
enterprise software ❯ • Enterprise software addresses the needs of organisation processes and
data flow, often in a large distributed environment.
information worker software ❯ • Information worker software addresses the needs of individuals to create
and manage information, often for individual projects within a department.
Content access software is software used primarily to access content without
editing, but may include software that allows for content editing. Such
software addresses the needs of individuals and groups to consume digital
entertainment and published digital content.
educational software ❯ • Educational software is related to content access software, but has
distinct requirements for delivering evaluations (tests) and tracking progress
through material. It is also related to collaboration software in that many
educational software systems include collaborative capabilities.
media development software ❯ • Media development software addresses the needs of individuals who
generate print and electronic media for others to consume, most often in
a commercial or educational setting. This includes graphic art software,
desktop publishing software, multimedia development software, HTML
editors, digital animation editors, digital audio and video composition, and
many others.
We have been building the foundations of an efficient computer system and
have already discussed the hardware components and the operating system.
There is a huge selection of competing application programs and it can be
difficult to select from the choices presented.
We will now discuss applications in terms of their purpose, their acquisition
and bundling for distribution. With this knowledge, we can make a good
choice.
Purpose: general or special

Application software may be regarded as general-purpose or special-purpose
specialised applications ❯ (specialised applications) depending on how broadly or narrowly focused
their intended tasks are.
General-purpose applications are flexible and
can be used for a variety of different tasks. For How acquired: packaged, custom-written or customised
example, a word-processing package is general- Software may be acquired by a user in a number of ways, including but not
purpose software because it can be used to
write letters, reports, stories or advertisements. limited to:
An electronic spreadsheet package such as 1 purchasing packaged software from a store
Microsoft Excel may be used to do budgeting, 2 developing their own from scratch
payroll processing, or statistical analysis and as
such is considered general-purpose. 3 modifying software that previously existed
4 purchasing new hardware bundled with software
5 legally downloading free software from the Internet
6 using ‘software as a service’ as provided by online companies.
85
We will discuss the first three as packaged software, custom-written

software and customised software.
packaged software ❯ Packaged software is mass-produced, copyrighted software that meets the
needs of a wide variety of users, not just a single user or company.
Some advantages of acquiring software via this route include:
1 Software is tailored to suit the needs of the user.
Packaged software is also called off-the-shelf 2 The user has close control over revisions and can modify the software as
software, ready-made software or shrink- needed.
wrapped software. Word processors and
spreadsheet software are examples of packaged 3 The program may run fast as the code is optimised for a specific purpose only.
software. Packaged software is available in retail
stores or on the web.
Subtype by focus Application Examples Main function
subtype
Specialised applications can only be used for General-purpose Word processor Microsoft Word Create and edit text and
one task. An application program like Skype™ is
intended solely for Internet-based telephony and Open Office Writer graphics in letters, web
as such is considered special-purpose. Similarly, Corel WordPerfect pages and e-mail
a payroll package developed for computing the
General-purpose Spreadsheet MS Excel Perform calculations,
pay of workers in the tourism industry (hotels,
restaurants and guest houses) is likely to be Open Office Calc analyse information and
useful for preparing pay for sugar cane cutters. IBM Lotus 1-2-3 manage lists
General-purpose Database MS Access Create databases and
Open Office Base programs to manage
Paradox (by Corel) information
Adobe Dreamweaver
Adobe Photoshop
Adobe Quicktime
Special-purpose Web page design MS FrontPage Website creation
Dreamweaver
Special-purpose Photo editing MS Office Picture Manager Enhancing photographs
PhotoShop
Special-purpose Media player MS Media Player Viewing and listening to
Figure 6.9 Selecting packaged software, QuickTime music and videos
also called ‘shrink-wrapped software’
because they sometimes come in a Table 6.4
pre-sealed, cellophane-clad package.
Custom-written or custom software is software that is created by
programmers on behalf of a company to meet its unique requirements.
On the down side, the disadvantages of developing custom software as
compared with purchasing packaged software are:
1 It is more costly.
2 Longer development time; packaged software would be readily available.
3 It may have flaws during a period of initial use whereas packaged software
would have been tested extensively.
customised software ❯ Customised software may be customised to a user’s liking through the
selection of options or preferences, or the addition of components called
add-ins ❯ add-ins.
Many general-purpose packages are customisable. For example, a user may
purchase and install a range of add-on modules to allow their spreadsheet
ITQ8
ITQ1
package to perform some tasks automatically. This customisation maintains the
What is an add-in? familiarity of the package while adding important features.
Bundling: stand-alone, integrated or software suite

A stand-alone program is an application that is An application program usually covers a single broad application area such
sold individually. as word processing, spreadsheets or data management. These single-purpose
applications may be purchased off the shelf and include many advanced
features. For example, an author may only need a word-processing package
86
and as such may purchase Word, Star Office Writer or WordPerfect. Similarly,
an accountant may only need spreadsheet software and may acquire and
install Excel or Lotus 1-2-3.
A software suite is a set of application programs When the manufacturer provides a collection of individual programs (e.g.
that can be purchased together. Word, Excel, PowerPoint and Access) as a single package, we refer to this as a
software suite (Microsoft Office). A user may opt to install any combination of
components from a software suite on his microcomputer. These software suites
can often be cheaper to purchase than the separate individual programs.
Integrated software is a single program that A small business operator or a home user, on the other hand, may only
contains a range of different functionalities. need basic functionality of each of the three applications: word processor,
spreadsheet and database management. To suit the needs of these users,
manufacturers usually integrate all three applications into a single program and
sell it (or give it away free) as one package.
Microsoft Works is an example of such an integrated package. A user who
has obtained an integrated package may not opt to install one component – it’s
all or nothing.
Some advantages of purchasing and using integrated software rather than
using multiple single-purpose applications include:
1 It needs less space for installation as the software is installed as one
application.
2 Data can be easily shared among applications using a range of built-in
features.
3 Users get value for money as it costs less to purchase the integrated
application rather than multiple packages.
Disadvantages include:
1 The integrated software does not have all the features of the individual
single-purpose applications.
2 Some integrated software packages do not include all the applications that
may be required.
Activity 6.1 1 Make a list of all the applications installed on the computer you most often use.
2 Carry out investigations to determine how acquired.
3 Categorise each item in the list based on Figure 6.1.
Summary
• Software is a key component of information systems. It consists of executable instructions, stored on secondary
storage media that can be executed by the CPU.
• Two main categories of software are system software and application software.
• Application software may be bought off the shelf or may be custom-written and may be stand-alone, integrated or
bundled into a software suite.
• System software includes operating systems, program language translators and utility programs.
• Operating systems perform seven main functions.
• Operating system modes include batch, online and real time.
• Users interact with computer systems via a user interface. Interface types include command driven and graphical
user interface (GUI).
• GUI is based on windows, icons, menus and pointers (WIMP).
• Application software performs common tasks such as word processing and web page design.
87
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 (a) used to restore a computer become more experienced with it
to a previous state if an error occurs (4) computer system can be booted in
during start-up or operation (b) a one OS and used to fix a problem in/
text-to-speech utility for users who with the other OS.
are blind or have impaired vision (c) ITQ4 (1) the oNLine System (1965–
a display utility that makes the screen 1968) (2) the Star (1981)
more readable for users who have (3) Macintosh (1984).
impaired vision.
ITQ5 Windows is an operating
ITQ2 (a) Norton Antivirus or system that allows a user to work
McAfee (b) AVG or Clamwin. simultaneously (multitask) with
ITQ3 Any ONE of: (1) user may applications each running in separate
have a need to run a range of windows.
programs, some of which may operate ITQ6 Online.
only on a particular operating system
ITQ7 Real-time processing.
(2) user may be a ‘power user’ and
like the flexibility of having dual ITQ8 A piece of software that can
operating systems installed (3) user be added to a computer program to
may use the second operating system give extra features or functions.
as a training facility in an attempt to
IT portfolio
1 Visit your local computer store and look at the range of off-the-shelf software they have for sale. Record the name
of 10 software titles in your portfolio. Indicate whether each is an operating system, utility program, general-purpose
application or special-purpose application.
2 Visit an online retail store such as staples.com, officedepot.com or officemax.com. In your portfolio, record the name
and price of TWO products in EACH of the following categories:
a software suite
b integrated software
c stand-alone software
d productivity tool
e operating system
f utility program
Group activity
This game is called ‘What Am I?’ and is ideal for 3 to 6 players.
a Select a group leader who will determine the order of the players and keep score.
b Group leader: On different slips of paper, write types of software discussed earlier such as specialised, customised,
custom-written, general-purpose and utility.
c Each member: Select one slip of paper and write three clues describing the identity of that particular software type.
When instructed by the leader, read your first clue and field answers from the other group members. If no correct
response is received, give the next clue. Continue this process until a group member answers correctly or until all
three clues are read. The person who answers correctly gets one point.
88
Multiple-choice questions 6 A software ____________ is a collection of application

Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested software sold as a single package.
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question (A) club
carefully then select the most suitable response. (B) collection
1 A user ____________ is the combination of hardware (C) group
and software that helps people and computers
(D) suite
communicate with each other. 7 The ____________ is a small symbol displayed on the
screen that moves as a user moves the mouse.
(A) panel
(B) system (A) icon
(C) surface (B) menu
(D) interface (C) button
2 A ____________ interface features menus and icons (D) pointer
that the user can manipulate with the click of a mouse. 8 The programs within a software suite (for personal
use) use a:
(A) menu-driven
(B) graphical user (A) different interface but share some common
(C) command driven features
(D) mouse-controlled (B) different interface and have completely different
3 Supercomputers such as IBM’s Deep Blue utilises features
multiple microprocessors to crunch vast amounts of
(C) similar interface and share some common
data in a technique referred to as:
features
(D) similar interface but have different features
(A) multi-user computing
(B) multiprocessing 9 An online (web-based) retailer that updates its stock
balances, revises prices and refreshes display screens
(C) multiprogramming
on remote terminals after each transaction is engaged
(D) multitasking
in ____________ processing.
4 Which of the following is NOT a system utility?
(A) batch
(A) antivirus program (B) real-time
(B) disk checking program (C) interactive
(C) word-processing program (D) online
(D) disk de-fragmenting program
10 Two MAJOR categories of software are:
5 Allowing many bank tellers to simultaneously access
the same banking application via terminals is an
(A) system software and utility programs
example of:
(B) operating systems and system software
(C) utility programs and operating systems
(A) multitasking (D) system software and application software
(B) multiprocessing
(C) multiprogramming
(D) multi-user computing
89
1 When upgrading an old computer system, a 3 Computers utilise different processing modes.
businessperson is given a command driven interface a Clearly differentiate between real-time
and a graphical user interface as options. processing and online processing. [2]
a Describe how the user interacts with each of b For each of the processing modes give an
the two interfaces. [2] example of when that type of processing
b State ONE advantage and ONE disadvantage mode is most suitable. [2]
of using a graphical user interface as compared c Explain the concept of time-sharing as it
with a command driven interface. [2] applies to a multi-user system. [2]
2 The operating system is critical to the smooth running 4 Most operating systems now utilise a graphical user
of a computer system. interface which is often thought of as being user
friendly.
a Describe the relationship between the operating
system, the hardware and the application a State TWO ways in which a user can input a
programs. [3] command using a graphical user interface. [2]
b Clearly explain the difference between files and b Explain why a graphical interface is
folders. [2] considered to be user friendly. [2]
c Microsoft Windows 98 is one example of an c Name THREE main components that are
operating system. Name TWO other desktop features of a graphical user interface. [3]
operating systems not supplied by Microsoft. [2]
5. Possibility High School recently acquired three software packages described below:
Developed by a past student, which automates the process of registering new
Package 1:
students in July of each year.
Purchased online and downloaded to the school’s file server and used to keep
Package 2:
computer virus free.
Came pre-installed on a new computer. A single file, which when executed, allows the
Package 3:
user to access a database, spreadsheet and a word processor.
a Complete the table below. Write ‘Yes’ in a cell to indicate whether the package belongs to that category of
software. [3]
Application Integrated
System program Software suite General-purpose Special-purpose
program software
Package 1
Package 2
Package 3
b Explain whether Package 1 is custom-written or customised. [1]

c Suggest TWO benefits to the user of using package 3. [2]
d Suggest ONE drawback of using Package 3. [1]
90
7
By the end of
Information
processing
distinguish between data and information
this chapter
explain the characteristics and functions of information processing
you should
be able to:
describe methods of validation and verification of data
identify the sources of data in specified application areas
distinguish between data and information
explain the characteristics and functions of information processing
describe methods of validation and verification of data
identify the sources of data in specified application areas
identify appropriate verification and validation checks given a particular scenario
describe how files are organised and accessed
select appropriate forms of file organisation for particular applications.
Concept map
Data
is obtained from verified by validated by is organised in is converted to

information through
unprocessed facts: verification methods:

numbers double entry information processing:
words visual check automation
images process control
sound files commercial
industrial
sources of data: validation methods: science data processing
source documents consistency checks information retrieval and management
turnaround documents data type checks
human-readable documents range check
machine-readable documents reasonableness checks
identify and correct and accessed either
errors: directly
typographical index-sequentially
transposition randomly
sequentially
7 • Information processing
Data, information and information processing

Data
data ❯ Data are facts about people, places, things and events that have been collected
through observation or measurement.
Data is the plural form of the word datum, however, data is commonly used
to represent both singular and plural. Data may exist in one of the following
forms: text, numbers, sounds and images.
Some examples of data are:
• 5:35 am – the time this author awoke on 20 May 2012
• 8 – the number of ounces of orange juice poured in the glass
ITQ1
• 140 – the number of persons who attended the 10 am worship service at the
Suggest THREE items of data for EACH
author’s church on Sunday, 20 May 2012
of the forms of data:
(a) text • 87 – the temperature reading at the Grantley Adams International Airport at
(b) images 7 am on 13 March 2013
(c) sound. • The price per pound for chicken at a Karim’s pluck shop in Couva, Trinidad.
Data is generally considered as the raw material needed to produce
information.
Information
information ❯ Information is data – whether in the form of words, numbers, graphics or
sound – that has been organised and presented so that underlying patterns
become clear.
Example Data items How the data was obtained

1 1500, 1502, 1552, 1506, 1508, Data collected at the Piarco International Airport
1554 through observation one weekday morning.
2 197, 140, 110, 122, 167 Data collected at a church through counting.
3 744, 724, 717, 700, 696 Candidate numbers extracted from the CXC
Statistical Bulletin 2012.
4 91.05, 91.09, 91.07, 91.12, Data extracted from a spreadsheet containing
91.10, 91.13 foreign currency exchange rates (JM$:US$)
Table 7.1 Examples of data.
When a relationship is established between data items, it results in

information being produced. Counting, sorting, analysing and carrying out
mathematical computations are just four methods of establishing relationships
between data items.
Table 7.2 below shows some examples of information extracted from the
data items in Table 7.1.
Example Information What information is The process used to obtain

presented information from the data
1 1552, 1500, 1502, First six daily Caribbean Sorting flight numbers in
1554, 1506, 1508 Airlines flights from Port of ascending order of the
Spain to Tobago. departure time of the flight.
2 147 The average weekly Computing a mathematical
attendance at the 10 am average of all the data items.
worship service at a specific
church during March 2014.
92
Example Information What information is The process used to obtain

presented information from the data
3 24 The difference between Subtracting the second
the number of candidates highest number of candidates
presented by two centres in the list from the highest
with the highest number of number of candidates.
candidates in the June 2008
CSEC exams.
4 y = 0.0238x + 91.014 A linear growth rate equation Trend analysis.
that relates to the set of
exchange rates.
Table 7.2 Examples of information.
Table 7.3 summarises this relationship between data and information.
Data Information
• Raw facts • Data with context
• No context • Processed data
• Plain numbers, text, images, sound clips and • Value added to data through
codes – analysis (comparisons
– organisation (sorting, ranking)
– computations (counting, totals, averages)
Table 7.3 Data versus information.
Information processing
information processing ❯ Information processing is the acquisition, recording, organisation, retrieval,
display, and dissemination of information. It is the application of structure (or
order) to data in an attempt to communicate meaning.
Information processing systems are used to carry out tasks such as:
i capture data from a bar code on a product label and retrieve the
discounted selling price
ii process a series of images in real time using facial recognition software
ITQ2
ITQ1
iii search a database of fingerprints for a particular fingerprint
For EACH item labelled (i)–(vi), suggest iv update data in a file
an actual scenario in which that type of v display a particular image on a screen
task is likely to be carried out. vi sort vast quantities of data in a particular order
Information processing systems can take many forms depending on
the environment in which they are deployed. There are many examples
of information processing systems in everyday use in our homes, schools,
churches and communities.
ITQ3
ITQ1
• In our homes, web-based information retrieval and management systems
State ONE example of how information
are used on a daily basis. Facebook, Twitter, Flickr and YouTube are all
retrieval and management systems
examples. Each of these manages millions of items of data and allows its
are used in EACH of the following
users to retrieve information when required.
institutions in the city closest to where
you live: • In our schools, information processing systems are used to manage records
(a) public libraries for staff (administrative, academic and ancillary) and students
(b) tax office • In our churches, computer-based records of events such as baptisms,
(c) health centre weddings and burials are kept.
93
Form Purpose Examples of how the systems function

Automation To automate existing manual • Windward & Leeward Brewery, manufacturers of Piton Beer,
systems. uses an automated system for bottle rinsing, filling, labelling and
sealing.
• Public utility company, such as one which generates and
distributes electricity, has to monitor the demand for electricity and
match the supply to ensure that no power outages occur.
• Your mobile phone company has automated the process of sending
out monthly bills. Instead of receiving a paper bill in the post you
will now get an e-mail allowing you to view your bill online.
Process control Safely and effectively • Petrotrin, Trinidad and Tobago’s state-owned oil refinery uses
manage a range of a process control system to convert crude oil into hundreds of
complex processes that run refined products including liquefied petroleum gas, gasoline,
simultaneously and result kerosene, aviation fuel, diesel fuel, fuel oils and lubricating oils. A
in the creation of an end typical refinery carries out over 20 distinct processes.
product. • The anti-lock brake system on modern cars calculates multiple
factors such as speed of each wheel and differential to control the
braking system and avoid skidding.
Commercial The system performs • Digicel, the Caribbean’s largest mobile service provider, uses a
complex financial operations. commercial information processing system to complete millions of
transactions daily.
• On a daily basis, CARICOM nationals and foreign investors buy
and sell securities on the Regional Stock Market. Traders at the
Regional Stock Exchange depend on computer systems to execute
trades (buying and selling of stocks).
• Banks use complex systems to recognise when you pay money
into your account and to identify you when you use your ATM card
to take money out.
Industrial Industries often use a See examples for automation and process control above.
combination of human Other industrial uses in the Caribbean include:
expertise and the power • Ice-making
of information processing • Meat and broiler processing
systems to achieve their • Canning (of processed foods)
desired outcomes. • Water and sewerage treatment
• Sugar cane cultivation.
Scientific data The collection, • Petrotrin uses 3D seismic surveys to collect vital data during land
processing summarisation, aggregation, surveys and interprets the data in order to guide and refine their
validation, tabulation and land drilling programs.
statistical analysis of data to • The National Weather Centre in Florida, US, provides the Caribbean
make useful models of the with daily weather forecasts which are based on the processing of
world. scientific data.
• A hospital uses complex systems to analyse a patient’s blood and
look for infections.
Information The storage of information • Caribbean Airlines allows customers to perform a ‘Web Check-in’.
retrieval and in a relational database in Passengers booked to travel on a flight can check in using a web
management a manner that facilitates browser once they have retrieved their reservation record.
retrieval and the necessary • CXC allows candidates to check their examination results online.
processes that ensures the • Facebook is a giant database of people’s information including
safety and integrity of the their personal information, their friends and their photos.
data and the efficiency of the
processing operations.
Table 7.4 Forms of information processing.
94
Data: Sources, verification and validation

Data sources: Machine readable, human readable and
turnaround documents
Data comes from a wide range of sources. Some of these are listed in the table
below:
Type of information system Source of data

Figure 7.1 Information processing systems Automation Weighing scales, thermometers, heat sensors, bar code readers,
are used in oil refineries for process control cameras, microphones
activities.
Process control Heat, light, sound and pressure sensors that read data from the
process being controlled
ITQ4
ITQ1
Commercial Product catalogues, order forms, invoices, point-of-sale
Describe how EACH of the following transactions, air waybills, delivery notes, cheques, business
well-known organisations have letters, memoranda, bank statements
automated aspects of their operations
in the Caribbean. Industrial Data from floor of manufacturing plant such as: operating times
(a) CIBC First Caribbean Bank for machines, amount of fuel used in steam production, volume
(b) American Airlines of steam produced, volume of steam used, quantity of items
(c) Digicel. produced
Scientific data processing Weather probes in outer space, scientific experiments, secondary
data, weather stations
Information retrieval and Customer request for new service, data capture activities such as
management meter readings, utility bills, customer complaints, visitor logs, bill
payments
Table 7.5 Information processing systems and their sources of data.

ITQ5
ITQ1
State THREE sources of data at a In order to be processed by a computer, data needs first to be manually
school. entered into the computer system or captured automatically using a data
capture device. Data entry and data capture was discussed in chapter 3.
Departure
Please retain Departure Record for presentation upon departure
ITQ6
ITQ1 DEPARTURE RECORD (B)
Examine the departure record shown 1. Flight / Vessel Name 2. Port of Final Destination
in Figure 7.1. Observe that the area for
Departure no. at top right is incomplete. 3. Last Name
Suggest:
(a) how this data will be supplied; 4. First Name 5. Middle Name
(b) how it is likely to be used by the
person/organisation collecting the 6. Date of Birth 7. Sex 8. Passport #
data. M
F
D D M M Y Y
9. Nationality 10. Country of Birth
Signature Date
B CUL DIP E H NE PR RR RRV S T UL UN V
Figure 7.2 A Departure Record Card completed by a passenger leaving St Luago by air. This is an
example of a source document that is human readable. This data will be manually entered into an
information retrieval and management system by an immigration officer at the airport.
95
ITQ7
ITQ1
Identify THREE items of data in
Figure 7.4.
ITQ8
ITQ1
Identify THREE items of information in
Figure 7.4.
ITQ9
ITQ1
Suggest THREE other data items that
are likely to be encoded in the bar code
in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3 A product label. This source document is both human readable and machine readable.
ITQ10 A human data entry operator can read the label and enter the relevant details in a database. The QR
code in the top left corner can be read using a smartphone whereas the bar code in the lower left
Suggest TWO ways in which the
corner can be read using a bar code scanner.
bar code could be used to support
information retrieval and management
activities. Review the definitions for source documents and machine-readable
documents on page 30.
Service Name/Address:
Ms Lyrita Preglaglass Due Date 28-MAY-2012
33 Luago Court
St. Luago Utility Service St. Luago Statement Date 11-MAY-2012
Electricity provider Rate RT 10
Page 1 of 1
since 1939
TAX INVOICE
CUSTOMER # – PREMISES #
ACCOUNT SUMMARY 012345 - 90025
Previous Balance Brought Current Total

Balance Payments Forward Charges Amount Due
$13,593.84 $13,593.84 $0.00 $11,175.70 $11,175.70
Dear Customer,
CURRENT CHARGES FOR METER # 2049
The price of oil continues to increase
on the world market. This will have Billing Cycle No. of Days Billing Exchange Rate Base Exchange Rate Deposit Multiplier
an impact on your electricity bill. 05 31 87.35 86.50 $1,500.00 1
From: 10-Apr-2012 To: 10-May-2012
We therefore encourage you to use
Register Reader Current Previous Current Current
energy efficiently. Type Type Reading Reading Description Usage Rate Period Charges
Here are some ways to achieve KWH Actual 7397 7103 Energy 1st 100 6.280 $628.00
this: Energy Next 194 14.360 $2,785.84
Change to fluorescent
Cust Charge $300.00
lighting where possible.
SUBTOTAL $3,713.84
Turn on the water heater
one hour before using it. F/E Adjust @ 0.747% $27.59
Turn your television set Fuel & IPP Charge 294 24.055 $7,072.17
off if it is not being
Total Current Electricity Charges Before Tax $10,813.60
watched.
Use your AC unit wisely. Non Taxable Charges (up to 200 KWH) $7,192.56
Taxable Charges $3,621.04
For further information, please visit
GCT @ 10% on Electricity Charges $362.10
your nearest customer service
office or contact us at
TOTAL CURRENT CHARGES $11,175.70
1-888-215-6692.
Figure 7.4 This electricity bill has is both human readable and machine readable. The bar code at top right is encoded information
such as the customer number, premises number and meter number. Items of data are shown in red, information in green.
96
Turnaround documents
turnaround document ❯ A turnaround document is a document that has been output from a
computer, some extra information added to it, and then returned to become an
input document.
In summary, a turnaround document is:
• created by a computer
• filled in by users
• input back into the computer.
Student Name: Roland Craig 1 2 3 4 5

Assignment: Mid-year Examination: 0 0 0 0 0
Period: Date: 05-12-2013 1 1 1 1 1
Student ID Number
2 2 2 2 2
Marking instructions Example
ITQ11 • Use a No. 2 pencil (do not use pen) T F
3 3 3 3 3
• Fill the circles in completely 4 4 4 4 4
The questions below all refer to • Erase completely to change your answer
5 5 5 5 5
• Make no stray marks
Figure 7.5. 6 6 6 6 6
Score
(a) Suggest TWO benefits of pre- 7 7 7 7 7
slugging the student information 8 8 8 8 8
section of the examination answer 9 9 9 9 9
sheet. T F T F
1 16
(b) Is the document human-readable or
T F T F
machine-readable or both? Justify 2 17
your response. T F T F
(c) Is the document a turnaround 3 18
document? Justify your response. T F T F

4 19
(d) Suggest TWO data capture devices
T F T F
that may be used to read data from 5 20
the document when it is completed
by the student.
T F T F
13 28
T F T F
Figure 7.5 A turnaround document used 14 29
for capturing and scoring examination T F T F
responses. The student ID number has been 15 30
filled in by the computer (pre-slugged) before

the form is distributed to the candidate.
Examples of turnaround documents include:
• Multiple-choice answer sheets
• Utility bills
• Cards for collecting meter readings
Data verification and validation

In many situations, data are collected on forms and are later captured by data
entry personnel. Data capture converts the human-readable data (such as that
on the departure record in Figure 7.1) into a machine-readable format. Once
data is in a digital format, various procedures can be applied on the data to get
useful information.
Humans are prone to making mistakes, sorry mistakes, when typing hence
the popular saying: garbage in, garbage out. If poor quality data is input into
a computer system it is likely that the information produced will also be of
poor quality. Errors can occur during both the data collection and data capture
phases.
97
A transposition error is a computing error caused Validation and verification checks are used to minimise or eliminate data
by switching the position of two adjacent digits in capture errors. Verification is performed by a human whereas validation can be
a number.
carried out by the information processing system.
typographical error ❯ A typographical error is a typing error, for example a missing letter or
typing an extra letter.
Data collection Description What was written/typed Correct data

Typographical errors Mistyping • Guyaana • Guyana
• 4300.00 • $300.00
• Cookies 7 cream • Cookies & cream
• A293032 • A2930312
• 96OOO12 • 9600012
• 31-21-2012 • 31-12-2012
Transposition errors Swapping the position of • 1284 • 1248
two adjacent digits • 1909 • 1990
Table 7.6 Examples of typographical and transposition errors.
validation ❯ Validation is a process that ensures that data entered into a database form,
a web form, or a computer program conforms to a set of validation rules.
Any invalid data is rejected by the validation process.
Data verification
verification❯ Verification is a process during which data that has already been inputted or
captured is checked to ensure that it matches the data on the source document.
One way to eliminate typographical and transposition errors is to have two
different people enter the data. The computer then compares the two versions.
If the two versions are identical then no errors have been made. When data is
entered twice and compared by the computer double-entry verification has
been performed.
A simpler method of verification is visual verification where one person
enters the data but another human looks at the data on the computer and the
original source documents and checks that they are the same.
(a) Departure (b)

Please retain Departure Record for presentation upon departure
DEPARTURE RECORD (B)
1. Flight / Vessel Name 2. Port of Final Destination
3. Last Name
4. First Name 5. Middle Name
6. Date of Birth 7. Sex 8. Passport

M
F
D D M M Y Y
9. Nationality 10. Country of Birth
Signature Date
B CUL DIP E H NE PR RR RRV S T UL UN V
Figure 7.6 During visual verification, a person will look on the (a) source document and compare it with the (b) data on the computer screen.
Observe that the data at items 3 (last name) and 8 (Passport #) were incorrectly transcribed.
98
ITQ12 Method What it does Example

(a) Identify the types of errors shown in Consistency Detects whether the values of The system will check the Rate (in the top right
Figure 7.6. (b) Suggest a simple method check two or more data items are in hand corner) and the Premises number to
that the person entering the data could contradiction. ensure that the customer is being billed using
use to reduce the chance of the error the correct rate.
being saved in the file.
Data type check Compares an input value If the previous reading was entered as 71O3
with the type of data that was (the letter O instead of the numeral zero) then
expected. a data type check would flag the data as being
invalid.
ITQ13
Range check Checks that an input value The billing exchange rate is expected to be
Suggest one of EACH of the following is within a pre-determined within a narrow range which is ± 2% of the
types of checks for capturing the data range of values. base exchange rate. If the billing exchange rate
that would be collected using the form falls outside the range 84.77–88.23 then the
in Figure 7.6. data will be reported as invalid.
(a) Consistency
(b) Data type Reasonableness Compares an input value with The current reading is reasonably expected to
(c) Range check expected reasonable values. be greater than the previous reading. A current
(d) Reasonableness. reading that is less than or equal to the current
reading will result in an error.
Table 7.7 Methods of data validation.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.7 Software programs such as Microsoft Excel can (a) automatically check for validation errors and (b) give the user a friendly message
indicating that a possible error has occurred and asking them to retype the data.
Activity 7.1 Exploring data validation

1 Collect samples of the following data collection forms:
a a bank deposit slip
b a money remittance ‘Receive Money’ form used by companies such as
Western Union and Moneygram
c Permission slip from your school office.
2 Describe suitable validation checks for each data item collected by the data
collection forms.
99
File organisation and access

What is a file?
Data that is captured must be stored in a file for it to be processed by an
information system.
A file is a collection of data or information that has a name called the
filename and exists permanently on a secondary storage media.
File type Common file extensions Contents

Document file .doc, .docx Text, images, document formatting codes (page
ITQ14 layout, margins, fonts, etc.)
A shoe store stocks a wide range of Data file .mdb A collection of records related to the same type of
shoes for men and women. Suggest item about which data is being stored.
suitable checks for validating:
(a) Shoe sizes Image file .gif, .bmp, .png Photographs and illustrations.
(b) Stock codes Text file .txt Just the characters that are typed.
(c) Quantity of shoes sold to a
customer. Table 7.8
A data file (that contains records) is the simplest form of a database. Most
information processing systems store their data in a database that contains
Field
names
more than one data files. For example, the Immigration Department at the
St Luago International Airport will have a database with two files – one for
arrivals and the other for departures. We will focus on the Departures file.
Departure # Last Name First Name A record is a collection of all the data collected from the Departure Record
95 Berry Garlin card. Observe in Figure 7.1 that there are 10 data items. The data about each
96 Penn Redd departing passenger will be stored under a set of headings called fields. The
101 Jones Marsha
field names are similar to the field labels on the Departure Record cards.
102 Augustine Sue
104 Wood Alan
300 Preglaglass Lyrita File Organisation and Access
A column File sizes vary. A student may have a contacts file on their mobile phone with
A record up to a few hundred contacts. The customer file at a mobile phone company
Figure 7.8 A portion of the Departure like Digicel may have more than 10 million! A company like Facebook will
Records file showing three of the nine fields have a user database with a few hundred million users. Over ten years ago,
and six of the thousands of records. Amazon.com, the world’s largest e-tailer, reported its record sales day, tallying
2.8 million items sold, an average of about 32 items sold every second.
Whether large or small, an information processing system must store
all these records in a manner that retrieval and management is efficient. A
company like Amazon or Facebook has to ensure that the method of storage
and retrieval that they choose is the most efficient available. The storage media
that is used will impose limitations on the file organisation method chosen.
ITQ15 More about sequential and direct access devices

Which method of access (Sequential or Devices such as hard disk drives are direct access devices meaning that the
direct access) do you believe is most device can access data quickly because the device can move directly to where
appropriate for each of the following the data is stored. Other devices such as magnetic tape are sequential access
real-life scenarios? devices. Sequential devices must access data in the order that it was stored.
(a) Accessing books on a bookshelf. A sequentially accessed video tape works well for watching a film from
(b) Waiting for a particular bus at a bus start to end. A sequential access device is very slow when we want to access a
stop. particular file or scene in the film. Video tapes were very popular because they
(c) Going to your next class in room are high capacity, inexpensive and effective when accessing data in the order it
P12. was stored.
DVDs have replaced video tapes as the media of choice for storing films.
Both DVD drives and the hard disk drive found in computers are direct access
100
devices. Direct access has the advantage over sequential access because data
can be accessed quickly in any order.
File organisation methods

There are three main methods of organising a file:
1 Sequential
2 Indexed-sequential
3 Random
Method Storage media type Example of storage media
Sequential Sequential access Magnetic tape
Indexed-sequential Direct access Optical media, magnetic disc, flash memory
Random
Table 7.9
We will now describe four types of file organisation: serial, sequential,
index sequential and direct access.
Departure # Last Name First Name
97 Rosem Darlene
Serial access files
104 Wood Alan When the amount of data in a file is small compared with the amount of main
101 Jones Marsha memory available, serial access is appropriate. This means that the complete
96 Penn Redd contents of the file can be read into main memory, processed and then the
95 Berry Garlin updated data can be written back to the file.
102 Augustine Sue Serial access is the easiest type of file organisation to understand. In a serial
223 Guiness Jenn access file, all the data is read from the file in the order it was written to the
300 Preglaglass Lyrita file. If we write ABCD … XYZ to a file and then close the file, when we open
the file and read we will get ABCD … XYZ.
Figure 7.9 Serial storage of records.
A serial access file can be stored on a sequential access device or a direct
access device.
In our Departure Records example, the data will be stored in the order that
Departure # Last Name First Name the passengers are processed at the immigration counter: Darlene Rosem, Alan
95 Berry Garlin Wood, Marsha Jones, Redd Penn … and finally Lyrita Preglaglass.
96 Penn Redd
97 Rosem Darlene Sequential access files
101 Jones Marsha In sequential access files, data is stored in an ordered way or in sequence.
102 Augustine Sue In the case of our Departure Records, they will be ordered by the departure
104 Wood Alan number.
223 Guiness Jenn
300 Preglaglass Lyrita Indexed-sequential access files
Figure 7.10 Sequential storage of records. You may already be familiar with the idea of indexed-sequential access if you
have ever used the school library. When searching for a particular book we first
look in the card index. It is easy to find the correct card because the cards are
kept in alphabetic sequence. When the correct card is found, it directs us to the
position of the book on the shelves.
ITQ16
An indexed-sequential access file should be considered if:
List TWO real-life places you might find
1 the amount of data is too great to reasonably fit into main memory;
an index.
2 it is not possible to arrange the records so that they can be sequentially
accessed.
An indexed-sequential access file has two parts:
1 an index of where each record of data is stored;
2 the data file itself which is stored sequentially.
An indexed-sequential file is ideal for storing the departure records.
With approximately 1,000 passengers departing daily, the file will store
approximately 250,000 records by the end of a year.
101
95 Berry, Garlin An example of our Departures Record file stored in an indexed-sequential

96 Penn, Redd file is shown in Figure 7.11. The index number in the index file stores a
Index Highest 97 Rosem, Darlene
Key number and the corresponding highest key. The procedure for retrieving the
101 Jones, Marsha record with departure number 225 is as follow:
1 100 102 Augustine, Sue
1 search the highest key column in the index file for the number just higher
2 200 104 Wood, Alan
than 225 (300 will be found);
3 300 223 Guiness, Jenn 2 retrieve the corresponding index key (3 will be retrieved);
225 Cox, Suetania
4 400 300 Preglagass, Lyrita
3 go to position 3 in the sequential file and search sequentially until 225 is found.
301 Campbell, Alicia As the file grows larger, say 2 million records (by the end of year 8), an
The index file
302 Harris, Duane indexed-sequential file may become inefficient. To overcome the problems that
305 Jones, Terique may be caused by using an inefficient file access system, the same direct access
The sequential file storage media may be used with an improved method of file access: direct access.
Figure 7.11 The index file and the Direct access files
associated sequential file.
A direct-access file is a special case of an index sequential file. In this type of
organisation, there is no need for an index. Direct-access files require that:
1 the records are fixed-length;
2 the storage media is direct-access.
Here is how a direct access file works when a record is added:
1 the disk address will be calculated using a special formula as well as some
data contained in the record;
2 the record will be stored on the disk at the disk address calculated.
To retrieve a record, the address is again computed and the record retrieved.
Summary
• Data is the plural form of the word datum, however, data is commonly used to represent both singular and plural.
Data may exist in one of the following forms: text, numbers, sounds and images.
• Data is generally considered as the raw material needed to produce information.
• Information is data – whether in the form of words, numbers, graphics or sound – that has been organised and
presented so that underlying patterns become clear.
• Information processing is the acquisition, recording, organisation, retrieval, display, and dissemination of
information.
• Data sources may be machine readable, human readable or both.
• In order to be processed by a computer, data needs first to be manually entered into the computer system or
captured automatically using a data capture device.
• A turnaround document is a document that has been output from a computer, some extra information added to it,
and then returned to become an input document.
• Errors can occur during both the data collection and data capture phases.
• A typographical error is a typing error, for example, a missing letter or typing an extra letter.
• A transposition error is a computing error caused by switching the position of two adjacent digits in a number.
• Validation and verification checks are used to minimise or eliminate data capture errors. Verification is performed
by a human whereas validation can be carried out by the information processing system.
• Validation is a process that ensures that data entered into a database form, a web form, or a computer program
conforms to a set of validation rules.
• Verification is a process during which data that has already been inputted or captured is checked to ensure that it
matches the data on the source document.
• A file is a collection of data or information that has a name, called the filename, and exists permanently on a
secondary storage media.
• There are three main methods of organising a file: sequential, indexed-sequential and random
102
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 (a) Text: name of your best class tests, home work assignments
friend, month you were born, country and examinations; report cards.
you live. (b) Images: photograph ITQ6 (a) The departure number
of the house in front of your own, will be automatically assigned by the
a picture of yourself, a picture of information processing system. (b)
Miss Universe 2013. (c) Sound: The departure number will serve as a
voice recording of an interview, a key to uniquely identify the record in
baby’s first words, sounds from a the file.
surveillance microphone. ITQ7 ANY THREE of the following:
ITQ2 (a) In a supermarket, hardware service name, service address, due date,
store or pharmacy, a bar code scanner statement date, rate, previous balance,
may be used to scan a product label payments, number of days, billing
and retrieve the discounted selling exchange rate, deposit, multiplier, rate –
price. (b) In an airport or seaport, Energy 1st rate – Energy next, customer
facial recognition software may be charge, GCT rate.
used for border control activities. (c) ITQ8 ANY THREE of the following:
The investigative unit of a police force current usage, current period charges,
may search a database of fingerprints subtotal, F/E adjustment, Fuel and IPP
for fingerprints collected at the scene Charge, non-taxable charges, GCT on
of a crime. (d) A utility company electricity charges.
(electricity, telephone, water or cable ITQ9 Rate code, statement date,
TV) may update a customer’s record total current charges, account status
with payment data. (e) A security and due date.
camera may display a particular image
on a screen based on a monitoring ITQ10 To retrieve the customer’s
program. (f) A national researcher account to (i) provide account details
may sort vast quantities of data in a (ii) to update account with payment
particular order to aid in the process of details.
data analysis. ITQ11 (a) (i) Eliminates data
ITQ3 (a) Public libraries: to keep collection errors (ii) eliminates data
records of book, their loans and capture errors. (b) Both. The data can
returns. (b) Tax office: to manage be read by humans and the bar codes
records of tax payers and their may be read by machines. (c) Yes.
payments. (c) Health centre: to It was generated by a computer to
manage patient records (visits, capture data that will be returned to
complaints, treatments). the computer as input. (d) (i) Optical
mark reader (ii) bar code reader.
ITQ4 (a) CIBC First Caribbean
Bank: automated teller machines ITQ12 (a) Typographical errors.
(ATM) that allow customers to get (b) Verification check: re-read the
cash at any time without having data on the source document and
to deal with a human teller. (b) double-check what was typed on the
American Airlines: self-service check- screen.
in kiosks at many airports in the ITQ13 (a) Consistency: Flight/vessel
Caribbean. These allow passengers name should be consistent with a list
to scan their passport and print of flight numbers received from the
their own boarding pass. (c) Digicel airport traffic department. (b) Data
has an Automatic Top Up service, type: For item 2, ensure that all data is
which lets users schedule future Top character type, for item 6 ensure data is
Ups that will automatically be sent a date. (c) Range: Dates should be in the
to a specified phone number at a range of 1 day to 100 years in the past
designated time and date. from current date. (d) Reasonableness:
ITQ5 Your answer may include any Names are reasonably expected to be at
three of the following: Visitor log from least two characters long.
the security post; daily class attendance ITQ14 (a) Shoe sizes: use a range
register; school fee payment vouchers; check to ensure sizes are between 4.5
103
and 12.5. (b) Stock codes: use a data (b) Sequential access; the buses come
type check that conforms to the data past in the order dictated by the
type of the stock code. (c) Quantity timetable you have to wait for the
of shoes sold to a customer: a range correct bus. (c) Direct access; you go
check could be used to check if the the direct route to room P12.
value is one as customers do not ITQ16 (a) Index in the back of a
usually purchase multiple pairs of the book that helps you quickly find the
same shoes. page on which a specific word occurs.
ITQ15 (a) Direct access; you go (b) Index cards in a library that help
straight to the book you require. you quickly locate a book.
Group activities research this exclusively. All members of the group

must also research one of the remaining types,
The following activity is suitable for groups of 3-5 persons. independent of each other.
You will need access to the Internet in order to conduct
The research should gather information on:
research.
a named examples of the types of information
1 Using Table 7.4, make a list of SIX types of information system in the country in which you are located
systems, ONE from EACH of the six forms listed. b the form(s) of file organisation used
a Automation e Scientific data processing c the sources of data
b Process control f Information retrieval and d the data validation and verification methods used
c Commercial management. e the method(s) of file access.
d Industrial 3 The group should meet and discuss the research
2 Each group member should be assigned to ONE of findings and collaborate to produce a presentation
the types of information system listed in (1) and will using PowerPoint for presentation to the class.
Multiple-choice questions
(C) It always occurs in a hard copy format
(D) It is sometimes both human-readable and
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question
machine-readable
carefully then select the most suitable response.
1 Consider the electricity bill in Figure 7.3. Which of the
MEMBER REGISTRATION FORM
following do NOT represent data?
(A) The cost for each kilowatt of electricity Title: Ms Miss Mrs Mr
(B) The date on which an electricity meter was read
(C) The amount of electricity used during the Firstname:
current month Lastname:
(D) The amount of money to be paid for electricity
this month Sex: Male Female
2 Which one of the following modes of information Date of Birth:

processing safely and effectively manage a range of
Age last birthday:
complex activities that run simultaneously and result
in the creation of an end product?
(A) automation
(B) process control 4 Which type of validation check may be used to ensure
(C) scientific data processing that valid data, such as age and sex, is entered on the
(D) information retrieval and management membership registration form shown above?
3 Which one of the following statements about source (A) range
documents is TRUE? (C) consistency
(A) It is always human-readable (B) data type
(B) It is always machine-readable (D) reasonableness
104
5 Double entry is a type of 8 Which of these refers to typing a word with missing
(A) range check (C) consistency check letters?
(B) verification check (D) reasonableness check (A) syntax error (C) typographical error
(B) semantic error (D) transposition error
6 Which of the following is true?
9 When we want to find individual records of different
(A) Sequential access files must be stored on a
length efficiently the best file access method is
sequential storage media.
(B) Direct access files can be stored on sequential or (A) index sequential (C) direct access
direct access storage media. (B) serial (D) sequential
(C) Index sequential files must be stored on direct 10 If records are the same length and the key field
access storage media. contains small integer values, which is the most
(D) Serial access files cannot be stored on a suitable file access method?
sequential storage media. (A) serial access (C) index sequential access
(B) sequential access (D) direct access
7 Direct access files are suitable when records are the
same length and 11 A payroll system results in two files, one containing
the employee’s details and another smaller file
(A) there is no unique key field
contains the hours worked this week. Which file type
(B) the key field is Boolean
is most suitable for processing the payroll?
(C) the key field is character
(D) the key field is an integer (A) serial access (C) index sequential access
(B) sequential access (D) direct access
1 Suggest an appropriate method of file organisation for used as the storage media. Another suggestion is that
storing and retrieving records related to: magnetic hard disks be used.
a a collection of books in a home library [1] a Suggest the best file organisation method for
b a collection of books in a school library [1] storing the data on each of the media
c a collection of books, journals and suggested. Give reasons for your choice. [4]
newspapers in a national archive. [1] b State ONE similarity and ONE difference
2 When creating a user-friendly program validation between sequential file access and indexed-
techniques can be used to ensure that only correct sequential file access. [2]
data is input to the system. Suggest the most c Describe how data is stored and accessed
appropriate type of validation test for the following efficiently in a direct access file. [2]
scenarios. 5 Provide answers to the following questions.
a Inputting a day of the week. [1] a Clearly differentiate between direct access and
b Inputting the number of days in a month. [1] sequential access as they relate to file access. [2]
c Inputting the age of a person applying for a b A stock control system is arranged as a sequential
licence to sell alcohol. [1] access file system.
d Inputting the number of oranges purchased. [1] Describe how the master file, containing details
3 Double-entry verification and visual verification are of all items stocked, and the transaction file,
two methods that can be employed to ensure that containing the number of each item sold this
there is no transposition or typographical errors when week, can be used to create a new master file. [3]
inputting data. c Suggest one reason why this company might
a What is a transposition error? [1] be using magnetic tapes instead of hard disk
b What is a typographical error? [1] drives to store their stock system. [1]
c State ONE advantage and ONE disadvantage of 6 Consider the following forms and documents that are
using double-entry verification when compared used to order stationery for an office.
with visual verification. [2] Step 1: The receptionist in the attorney’s office
d With the aid of an example, explain a problem submits request on a stationery request form
that may occur if validation and verification (W) to the admin manager.
checks are not present. [3] Step 2: The admin manager collates the request
4 An organisation is responsible for storing the large and creates a document called a request
amount of census information of the Caribbean island for quotation (X) which is sent as an e-mail
of St Luago. It is suggested that magnetic tapes be attachment to an office supplies dealer.
105
Step 3: The office supplies dealer, using data from the 8 Consider the illustration shown in the following figure.
attachment, creates a file for the attorney’s 95 Berry, Garlin
office on his computer hard drive and prints 96 Penn, Redd
Index Highest
and sends a copy of a document called a 97 Rosem, Darlene
Key
quotation (Y). 101 Jones, Marsha
1 100 102 Augustine, Sue
Step 4: This quotation is returned by bearer to the
2 200 104 Wood, Alan
admin manager.
3 300 223 Guiness, Jenn
Step 5: The admin manager reviews the quotation, 225 Cox, Suetania
4 400 300 Preglagass, Lyrita
signs the quotation and returns the signed
quotation (Z) to the supplies dealer. The index file 301 Campbell, Alicia
302 Harris, Duane
a Using the letters W, X, Y or Z above, identify 305 Jones, Terique
THREE forms or documents that are in hard The sequential file
copy format [3]
a State the type of file access that is illustrated in
b Using the letters W, X, Y or Z above, identify ONE
the diagram.
document that is an example of a:
b Write the index and keys that are used to locate
i source document [1]
EACH of the following:
ii soft copy document [1]
i Wood, Alan iv Penn, Redd
iii turnaround document [1]
ii Harris, Duane iv Penn, Redd
c Give ONE example of a piece of data found on:
iii Augustine, Sue v Berry, Garlin
i Document W but NOT form Y [1]
9 The St Luago Department of Statistics conducted
ii Documents X, Y and Z [1]
their national census, during which data was
iii Document X but NOT Z [1]
collected on paper forms by interviewers. Data
from the forms are then captured by data entry
7 The data from an IT test done by students were stored
personnel using a custom-built application. Data
on two devices. The table below show the scores
from the files will be used to produce a range of
obtained:
reports for the Minister of Health.
Device A: 87 73 94 28 20 67 98 a Identify ONE error that can occur during the data
Device B: 20 28 67 73 87 94 98 collection phase.
b Identify one error that can occur during the data
a State which of the devices has the test data capture phase and describe a method that may be
ordered sequentially, and explain your choice. [2] used to minimise the occurrence of this type of error.
b Name the type of media most suitable for c The software system is designed to perform
storing data sequentially. [1] validation checks as data is entered. State the
c You have just scored another test which has a meaning of the term ‘data validation’.
score of 46. Rewrite the two lists showing the d Name and describe ANY TWO checks that may be
result after saving this test to both devices. [2] used to perform this data validation.
10 The document in the following image was received in the mail by a customer of the St Luago Utility Service.
Rate RT 10 Customer # - Premises #

Parish Office KSA North Total Amount Due: $11,175.70
SEQ # 21790
Due Date: 28-May-2012
Status Active Account
S/H Code BC3A Amount Enclosed:
Invoice # 10/9324/343755/11052012
St. Luago Utility Service

12 Main Street
Luago Bay
Service Name/Address:
St. Luago
St. Luago Utility Service Ms Lyrita Preglagass
Electricity provider 33 Luago Court
St. Luago
since 1939
a Identify the type of document.

b Explain the purpose of the document.
c Is the document machine-readable or human-readable or both?
d Suggest what items of data are likely to be encoded in the bar codes shown.
106
8 Data security
By the end of identify common threats to the security of data

this chapter
identify common threats to the integrity of data
you should
be able to:
outline ways by which information can be misused
describe measures to secure data
describe measures to maintain data integrity.
Concept map
Data
subject to may be protected using
misuse:
computer fraud laws software restrictions: hardware access procedures:
credit card fraud encryption restrictions: archiving
electronic eavesdropping firewall biometric systems backup and recovery
identity theft overwrite protection guards disaster recovery mechanisms
industrial espionage passwords locks
propaganda read-only access fire/waterproof cabinets
software piracy restricted access
storage of inaccurate information virus protection
surveillance
violation of privacy
Introduction to data security

Why is there a need for data security?
Existing manual systems are often computerised to improve the efficiency
of an organisation. As the system becomes operational, data is captured,
processed, stored and disseminated. Organisations and their customers – other
organisations and individuals – become dependent on computer systems and
the information they provide. There are some drawbacks to computerisation.
These include:
• data theft or loss
• loss of data integrity
• increased exposure of data and information to misuse
data security ❯ Data security is all about identifying and assessing computer security risks.
8 • Data security
computer security risk ❯ A computer security risk is any event, action or situation – intentional or
not – that could lead to the loss of computer systems and the data they contain.
Data security allows individuals and organisations to assess the risks
to which their computer systems and data is exposed, and determine and
implement suitable countermeasures. It is important that an organisation
protects its data adequately. Data that is damaged, lost, stolen or misused can
cost the business money, its reputation or even the life of the business itself.
The business may eventually have to close!
What are the main elements of data security?

Element Meaning Example # 1 Example # 2
ABC Pharmacy Customer Jan Doyle
Vulnerability Exposure to the possibility of being Computer system is connected to a wide Customer fills prescriptions at the
attacked or harmed area network. It is also used to access pharmacy and makes payments using
their insurance company’s extranet. credit and debit cards.
Threat A statement of an intention to inflict Data may be intercepted as it transmitted Credit card data and personal data may be
damage from the pharmacy to the insurance accessed by an unauthorised person.
company.
Attack Actual action that causes damage Credit card data stolen over a period of Unauthorised purchases made with credit
weeks by an eavesdropper. card.
Countermeasure An action taken to prevent an attack or Encrypt data before transmission. Use a credit or debit card with chip-and-
minimise its effect pin technology.
Table 8.1 Main elements of data security.
What kind of data is at risk?

Data in every format and at every stage of the processing cycle is vulnerable.
• Data being captured
• Data collected and awaiting processing
• Data being processed
• Data stored on removable media
• Data stored on networks
• Data in file libraries
• Data being transmitted over a communications network
Figure 8.1 A credit card with a microchip • Data that has been backed up
may help to prevent credit card fraud. • Data that has been archived
How are data security and integrity related?

Data security and data integrity are two different concepts. Whereas data security
data integrity ❯ is concerned with identifying and assessing risk, data integrity is concerned with
ensuring the accuracy, completeness and internal consistency of the data stored in
a database.
ITQ1 Data security plays a key role in maintaining data integrity as it provides the
Briefly describe THREE situations that mechanism to safeguard files from corruption and unauthorised access.
may result in the damage, loss, theft Consider the following scenario.
or misuse of data that is stored on the An accountant creates an electronic spreadsheet containing the credit card
hard disk of a computer system. details of 500 customers and saves this file on the desktop of his computer. He
leaves his desk for a few hours to attend to company business. In his absence,
an accounting clerk seizes the opportunity to use the computer to complete
a school assignment. She creates a few files in the process and saves them
on the desktop. When she is finished, she copies the assignment files, and
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8 • Data security
others, to her USB flash drive. Later that day, she hands over her flash drive
to a lab attendant to get her files printed. The attendant opens the folder and a
particular file catches his attention.
ITQ2
ITQ1 Similar scenarios happen daily. A series of activities and events, some
(a) Suggest, with reasons, which file accidental, others deliberate, may break the integrity of a file in a filing system.
may have caught the lab attendant’s The scenario above could also have played out in the following ways:
eye. • The accounting clerk opens the file with the credit card details and copies
(b) Describe how the file ended up on some of the data to a piece of paper.
the USB flash drive.
• The accounting clerk accidentally deletes the file with the credit card details.
(c) Suggest, with reasons, whether the
action described in part (b) was • Someone could have slipped in when the office was empty, opened the file,
deliberate. changed some of the numbers, saved the file and slipped out unnoticed.
There are many possibilities, all of which have the same consequence – the
loss of the data’s integrity. In some cases, the integrity breach may be noticed.
In other cases, data that has had its integrity breached may be used and may
have disastrous consequences.
Common vulnerabilities and threats

Data may become damaged, lost, stolen or have its integrity breached through
accidental or deliberate acts.
ITQ3
ITQ1 Accidental Deliberate
State THREE threats to which data are Accidents Hacking
exposed.
Hardware malfunction/failure Malware
Power-related problems Fraud and theft
Natural disasters Revenge
Fire
Environmental factors
Table 8.2 Accidental and deliberate causes of data loss.
Accidental
Accidents
Accidental damage can be caused by events as simple as:
• an inexperienced office attendant unplugging a computer to plug in a
vacuum cleaner;
• liquid, such as coffee, spilling on a laptop computer;
• an external hard drive falling from a desk.
Hardware malfunction/failure
ITQ4
ITQ
Hardware failure is another common cause of loss of data. We saw earlier how
Suggest TWO other accidents that may hard disk drives work so it should come as no surprise that they sometimes
result in data loss. fail. Hard disk drives fail; it is not a question of if they will fail it is a question of
when they will fail. Removable storage such as CD-ROMs, floppy diskettes and
magnetic tapes are also prone to failure. In some cases, devices like floppy disk
drives and magnetic tape drives may damage the media.
ITQ5
ITQ1 Power-related problems
Allison is making some final changes to Power surges, which are often caused by weather conditions, power
the last page of her 30-page document outages and fluctuations in electrical current can destroy sensitive electrical
when the power goes. Suggest TWO components. Motherboards, memory, hard drives and communication
possible outcomes. equipment are often affected.
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8 • Data security
Natural disasters
In the Caribbean, tropical storms and hurricanes occur every year. In some
cases, these natural disasters cause wind and water damage. In some cases,
flooding occurs whereas in others, equipment is damaged from water that has
leaked through roofs.
Fire
Computer systems are frequently lost due to fires. Fires can damage electronic
equipment and storage media. Additionally, equipment and media that was
spared by the fire is often damaged by water being used to put out the fire.
Environmental factors
Excessive heat, direct sunlight and humidity may damage magnetic storage
media.
Deliberate
Hacking
Hacking is a process during which a person or persons with an advanced
understanding of computers and computer networks finds out weaknesses in
a computer or computer network and exploit them for reasons such as profit,
protest, or challenge.
Malware: Viruses, worms, spyware and Trojans

Figure 8.2 Stay safe online.
Malware (malicious software) is a category of programs that are designed to
infiltrate or harm computer systems. Malware include viruses, worms, spyware
and Trojans. Malware is used to commit fraud, send spam or steal data.
virus ❯ A virus is a malicious program that is capable of reproducing itself and can
corrupt or delete data on a computer system.
Infected storage
media Computer 1 Computer 2
V V
V V
Infected
ITQ6
ITQ1 computer
What is (a) a worm (b) spyware

(c) a Trojan? Computer 3 Computer 4
V
V
Figure 8.3 How a virus is spread.
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8 • Data security
Viruses normally try to infect systems by attaching themselves to files.

ITQ7
ITQ1
Files attached to e-mail messages are a common method that hackers use to
Differentiate between a virus and a infect unprotected computer systems with viruses. Once an e-mail virus has
Trojan. infected a system, it will try to infect all the e-mail messages sent out using
that computer. E-mail viruses can spread over a local area network in minutes.
Another common way that viruses can infect a computer system is via an
infected flash drive. A virus on an infected removable media will copy itself
onto the hard disk drive of the computer system when the media is accessed.
From then on any other flash drive inserted into the computer will be infected
as the virus copies itself from the hard disk to the uninfected media.
trojan horse ❯ A Trojan horse, or Trojan, is a stand-alone malicious file or program that
does not attempt to inject itself into other files unlike a computer virus and
often masquerades as a legitimate file or program. Trojan horses can make
copies of themselves, steal information, or harm their host computer systems.
Trojans are often used by hackers to steal data such as usernames, password
and credit card information.
Computer fraud/theft
computer fraud ❯ Wherever there are computers there is likely to be computer fraud. Computer
fraud is the use of computers to illegally obtain money, goods or services.
Some examples of computer fraud:
• Breaking into a bank’s network to gain access to funds.
• An employee that creates fictitious transactions and benefits from the
proceeds.
• An e-commerce website that advertises goods/services, collects payment and
fails to deliver as promised.
Revenge
A disgruntled employee or personnel from a rival business who would benefit
if the computer system was to fail, might physically damage the computer.
Figure 8.4 Scan to read the story of the

original Trojan horse.
Data misuse
Data may be misused or may lose its integrity in wide variety of ways. Data
misuse may affect an individual, an organisation, or both.
Threat to data Individuals Organisations

Credit card fraud Yes
Identity theft Yes
Violation of privacy Yes
Storage of inaccurate information Yes
Surveillance Yes
Computer fraud Yes
Electronic eavesdropping Yes
Industrial espionage Yes
Propaganda Yes
Software piracy Yes
Table 8.3 Common ways in which data is misused.
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8 • Data security
Credit card fraud

Credit card fraud occurs when criminals illegally use someone else’s credit card
details to obtain goods or services.
• In the Caribbean, authorities theorise that unscrupulous pump attendants
ITQ8
ITQ1 (at petrol stations) steal customers’ credit card information by swiping them
Using an example, show the on a copying device before duplicating them on to fictitious or old credit
relationship between identity theft and cards. The criminals then ‘max out’ the fake cards after this is done.
credit card fraud. • The increased popularity of e-commerce to purchase goods and services
over the Internet has led to an increase in credit card fraud. The fraudsters
use stolen credit card details to obtain goods using e-commerce websites.
Credit card fraud is very closely related to identity theft.
Identity theft
identity theft ❯ Identity theft is when criminals obtain and use someone else’s personal
details to impersonate them.
Criminals target computers that store personal records because these can
contain the information required for identity theft deception. As more personal
data is being stored on computers, computer-related identity theft is increasing.
They can also do this by targeting garbage and discarded material with personal
information on it.
Violation of privacy
In 1928, US Supreme court Judge Justice Louis Brandeis defined privacy as
‘the right to be left alone’. Privacy refers to an individual’s ability to restrict or
eliminate the collection, use, and sale of confidential personal information.
ITQ9 In many countries:
Suggest how an extreme case of • it is illegal to store personal information about individuals on a computer
violation of privacy could lead to without their explicit permission;
identity theft. • it is a legal requirement that personal data kept in electronic format must be
kept confidential;
• data can only be used for the purpose for which it was collected;
• any computer system containing sensitive personal data such as medical
records, credit history or criminal records must ensure the privacy of this
information is adequately protected.
With the increasing popularity of social media, hundreds of millions of users
provide websites with personal data on a daily basis. The Terms of Service
agreed to on sign-up contains the details of what rights the user is granting to
the website operator. In most cases, the user simply clicks the ‘I Agree’ button
without reading the lengthy legal agreement. On one very popular social
network, users ‘click away’ their rights for the website operators to use their
name, likeness and image for any purpose, including advertising. Consider
the situation in which it is alleged that a user’s 2-year-old daughter’s picture
was downloaded and used (without permission) in an advertisement. Is this a
violation of the user’s privacy?
Storage of inaccurate information

ITQ10 The storage of inaccurate personal data can have a serious impact on an
Give THREE piece of advice you might individual. For example, if a person is incorrectly recorded as having an
offer to someone who intends to buy outstanding debt then that person will find it difficult to obtain a loan. To
items using the Internet? counteract this, many countries have introduced laws that allow individuals
to see and, if necessary, correct any information held about them on computer
systems, often known as the Data Protection Act.
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8 • Data security
Surveillance and electronic eavesdropping

surveillance ❯ Surveillance is a computer fraud that involves electronically observing
a user’s activity on the computer. Criminals can install special key logging
software on computers that record every key pressed. By using surveillance
techniques such as key logging criminals are able to steal usernames and
passwords, bank and credit card details.
electronic eavesdropping ❯ Electronic eavesdropping is illegally intercepting electronic messages as
they are being transmitted over a computer network.
It is the computer equivalent to intercepting and reading someone’s
letters. Electronic eavesdropping and surveillance are both techniques used in
conducting industrial espionage.
Activity 8.1 Consider the statement ‘Electronic eavesdropping is legally hard for the
government, but technically easy’. Do you agree? Conduct research on the Web
and write an expository essay.
Propaganda
propaganda ❯ Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the
attitude of a community towards some cause or position.
Propaganda is usually repeated and dispersed over a wide variety of media
in order to create the desired result in audience attitudes. The Internet, the
World Wide Web, electronic mail and services such as YouTube, Facebook,
Twitter and BlackBerry Messenger has made it easy for this form of
communication to spread rapidly.
Software piracy
According to the business Software Alliance, voice of the world’s commercial
software industry, ‘more than 1 of every 3 copies of software installed
software piracy ❯ worldwide is pirated. Software piracy is not only a crime, but it can harm
those who use it’.
Software piracy involves the following:
• Unauthorised copying or distribution of copyrighted software.
• Purchasing one single copy of software and installing it on multiple
computers.
• Copying, downloading, sharing, selling or installing multiple copies onto
personal or business computers is software theft.
Copyright Laws exist to protect the owners of proprietary software from
piracy and other abuses.
Risk Description of risk

Legal action Using illegally obtained and pirated software can often result in
significant legal consequences and fines.
Viral attacks Pirated software may contain Trojans, viruses, and other forms of
malware, because the pirates will often modify the downloadable files
with malicious code.
No technical support Software developers will rarely support users of pirated software, so
those users will not have access to product support or bug fixes.
Table 8.4 Risks to persons who use pirated software.
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8 • Data security
Protecting your computer system

Data may be secured through the use of appropriate countermeasures. The
measures must match the threat. A wide range of mechanisms provide suitable
countermeasures:
1 Avoiding scams online, many of which takes the form of offers too good to
be true.
2 Controlling access to physical hardware, software and data.
3 Use of equipment to safeguard equipment and data in the event of flood or
fire.
4 Day-to-day operational procedures such as backing up.
5 Use of power protection equipment such as an uninterruptible power
supply (UPS) or surge protector.
A combination of countermeasures is likely to be more effective than a
single measure alone. For example, imposing physical access restrictions, using
usernames and passwords, encrypting files before transmission, establishing a
firewall and the use of antivirus software all help to keep a computer system
and its data safe.
In the next sections, we will focus on items (2), (3) and (4) from the list above.
Physical access restrictions

The first level of protection is physically securing the computer system and
all related storage devices and media. Physical access restrictions can prevent
accidental or deliberate damage and theft. The idea is to:
ITQ11 1 control access to the locations containing the equipment;
State FIVE physical ways to protect 2 control the movement of equipment and media;
computer systems. 3 reduce the chances of equipment damage from fire and water.
A good physical access restriction policy will include most or all of the
following:
• Locked entrance doors. Use locks and keys, whether manual or electronic.
This measure will keep unauthorised persons out. See Figure 8.4(a).
• A good location. Situate sensitive computer equipment in locations that
are out of the way. A room on the top floor of a building or at the end of a
passage is likely to be more secure than a room on the ground floor near the
main entrance. Notice the location of the door in Figure 8.4(b).
• Controlled access to sensitive areas. Security may be used to physically
prevent persons from going to the area containing computer equipment.
Biometric systems are much more effective than security guards as they do
not exercise discretion. See Figure 8.4(c).
• Secured ceilings, floors, air conditioned ducts and windows. If unauthorised
persons, such as skilled burglars are kept out then it is likely that computer
equipment can be kept in. See Figure 8.4(d).
Activity 8.2 Exploring physical security issues

1 Carefully examine the summary of physical access restrictions in Table 8.5.
2 Carefully observe the security access restrictions that are in place at school or
at an office that you have access to and make a note of the restrictions in place.
3 Evaluate whether the measures that are in place are adequate in relation to the
risks.
4 Write a brief report on your findings, complete with recommendations.
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8 • Data security
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 8.5 Some data centres are protected by many layers of physical security. (a) Starting right at the front door, card key access is required
to enter the building. (b)The second layer of security is inside the building, the first door of the ‘man trap’ leading to the data centre floor. This door
requires card key access and must be closed before the next door can be opened. (c)The second door leading to the data centre floor is equipped
with a hand scanner and cannot be opened until the previous door is securely closed. (d)The fourth layer of physical security is the locked cage
surrounding all of the equipment. This cage requires card key access.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 8.6 (a) A security slot on the side of a netbook; (b) a security cable; (c) a security cable attached to the security slot on a laptop.
ITQ12
Measure Example
Examine the photographs in figures
8.5(a)–(d). Explain the likely operation Security guards All visitors must report to the security guard on duty. The security guards
of the ‘man trap’ mentioned in Figure exchanges the visitor’s identification card (driver’s license or national
8.5(b). ID) for a colour-coded visitor badge that provides electronic access to a
designated area. See Figure 8.9
Electronic access All doors are fitted with electronic access systems that use a proximity
systems also known card (a plastic card with an embedded radio frequency transmitter). An
as key card access authorised person will simply wave the card near to the reader to gain
access. The system records details of the access: who, where and when.
Biometric systems Entrance doors to sensitive areas are fitted with a fingerprint reader which
is one type of biometric system. An authorised person will gain access only
after placing their finger on the reader and the system confirms that the
person should be granted access.
Equipment locks All computer systems and their associated peripheral equipment are locked
in place on the computer desk. The computer desks are bolted to the floor.
Fireproof cabinets All disks, tapes and optical media (CDs and DVDs) are kept in a fireproof
cabinet.
Table 8.5 Summary of physical access restrictions.
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8 • Data security
(a) • Equipment locks. System units, external hard drives and other removable
media should be secured using an appropriate locking system. Most
peripherals are manufactured with a security slot (see Figure 8.6(a) that
allows the equipment to be securely fastened to an item that cannot be
easily moved.
• Fireproof and waterproof storage. Filing cabinets that are both fireproof and
waterproof are used to store disks, tapes and optical media (CDs and DVDs)
that constitute a set of backup files.
Many companies have installed proximity card readers to control access

to certain sensitive areas. Unlike keypads and swipe cards, proximity card
usage may be tracked to particular individuals. This automated record-keeping
system enhances the security of the facility.
(b)
(a) (b)
Figure 8.7 (a) A fireproof cabinet; (b) a

fireproof safe.
Figure 8.8 (a) A proximity card reader; (b) proximity cards are widely used.
Software restrictions
A desktop computer equipped with a CD writer or a DVD burner is a rare sight
St. Luago National Bank
039 in most companies. A much larger security threat is posed by the open USB
AUTHORISED ports where mischievous office workers can just plug in a flash drive, external
VISITOR hard disk or their music player and transfer corporate data or even copy
licensed software to their storage media in seconds.
ESCORT REQUIRED Also, in addition to being a popular way to sneak data out from companies,
USB devices may be used by unhappy employees to deliver Trojans or spyware
Figure 8.9 Visitor badges similar to into the company networks. Luckily, operating systems may be configured in
the one shown here are usually issued at such a way that USB ports are disabled.
a security post manned by one or more Most general-purpose software applications like word processors,
security officers. spreadsheets and databases have built-in security that can prevent
unauthorised users from viewing protected data. Specialised software and off-
the-shelf packages usually have built-in software restrictions as well.
Activity 8.3 Open a document on your USB flash drive and:

a add a password to it;
b make it read-only.
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8 • Data security
ITQ13 Measure Description

In a very simple encryption code, letters Encryption Data that is being transmitted ‘over the wire’ from one location to another may
are replaced by numbers. What does be protected using encryption. For example, when we buy something online our
7-18-5-14-1-4-1 represent in such an credit card data is encrypted as it travels between the local machine and the web
encryption scheme? server. The encryption is usually built into software that transfers data using public
telecommunications facilities such as the Internet so that the end users do not need
to do anything.
Overwrite This measure prevents data from being written in an area where data is already
protection stored, thereby destroying the original data. Storage media such as floppy disks
utilise this mechanism.
Password Even within the company, some data needs to be restricted to higher levels of
management. For example, salary information is confidential and must be restricted
to the designated payroll officer and any other authorised person.
A password may also be used to protect a file that will be encrypted before
transmission. If the file is intercepted, it is still protected because only the intended
recipient has the password needed to gain access.
Read-only In an office, it is customary for employees to share resources. In some cases,
access multiple persons are required to reference a particular document. To protect its
integrity, the owner of the file can make the file ‘read-only’. This will prevent other
users from making any changes.
Restricted When shared, files or folders are more vulnerable to a range of threats such as
access viral attacks and accidental deletion. This is why antivirus protection and read-only
access are used alongside restricted access to maintain file integrity.
Virus A virus is a potentially harmful piece of software. Left undetected, it may damage
protection data on the host computer. It may also harm data on other computers that are in
communication with the infected computer. To safeguard files from viral attacks, an
antivirus program should be installed, configured and used on a regular basis. Most
antivirus programs can be configured to scan files on access and automatically
remove any threat suspected.
Table 8.6 Software access restrictions.
Firewall
firewall ❯ A fi rewall is a program that restricts access to a computer from a network.
The firewall acts as a barrier between an outside network and the local
ITQ14 computer or network. It allows you to select which network services you want
Discuss the difference between to use on your computer and, perhaps more importantly, those that you want
antivirus and firewall software. to bar from accessing your computer. A firewall helps to protect a network
from certain threats.
Internet
Corporate
your organisations PCs
network
firewall
Figure 8.10 A firewall helps to protect

a network from threats originating from
outside.
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8 • Data security
Activity 8.4 Log on to FirstCaribbean International bank’s website at www.cibcfcib.com, then

search for ‘Improving your own security’. Read some of the important steps that
you can take to protect yourself online.
Sign in to Online Banking
User ID:
Password:
Sign In >
Figure 8.12 Passwords are a sequence of letters, numbers and special characters that must
be supplied to access a resource. Passwords and usernames can be used so that only authorised
users can log on to the system. In a secure system each individual user or group of users will be
allocated privilege to access only the files and resources they need to perform their jobs.
Operational procedures
Figure 8.11 Windows Firewall is
implemented as a software-only file security
Backing up data
mechanism and is a component of the It is unwise to rely on a single storage device for storing important data.
operating system. The device and the data it contains may fall prey to one of the accidental or
deliberate actions or events mentioned earlier. To safeguard data, it is good
ITQ15 practice to copy data to another storage device or media.
List THREE potential threats to a backup Adopting a regular backup system such as the Grandfather-Father-Son
media? System means that if disaster should strike the organisation can recover almost
all of its data quickly and business can continue as usual. It is important to
keep each generation of backup separate from the rest. The son can be kept
in the computer room, the father in a fireproof cabinet and the grandfather
A backup is a safety copy of files that can be
in another building. For a fast-moving business backups may be taken every
used to recover data in case of an event that
causes data damage or loss. day rather than every week. If a hard disk drive fails the most recent backup,
the son, can be used to restore the data. In the event of a fire in the computer
room destroying the son backup and the computer system, the father backup
can be used to restore the company data. In the worst case, a whole building
may be flooded but the grandfather backup can still be used to restore the data.
(a) (b)
Figure 8.13 (a) The Backup or Restore tool is one of the Windows operating system accessories. (b) A user may choose what to back up and also
what device to store the data on.
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8 • Data security
Grandfather, father and son.

Grandfather: backup of the system from 2 weeks ago
Father: last week’s backup
Son: this week’s backup.
Next week all the backups are older so the father becomes the grandfather, the son becomes
the father, and a new son backup is created.
Archiving data
archive ❯ An archive comprises the files created or received by an institution or
organisation during the course of routine business that are stored because of
their value.
Depending on the nature of the data, some companies may archive data
monthly, others quarterly or annually. These files are usually stored on
removable media such as DVDs or magnetic tapes and kept in a secure location.
Files in an archive will be kept for a period of time and then destroyed.
Summary
• Data security is all about identifying and assessing computer security risks.
• A computer security risk is any event, action or situation – intentional or not – that could lead to the loss of
computer systems and the data they contain.
• Data integrity is concerned with ensuring the accuracy, completeness and internal consistency of the data stored in
a database.
• Physical access restrictions can prevent unauthorised personnel from damaging the computer hardware.
• Access to IT systems can be restricted by requiring all legitimate users to input a valid username and password
before being able to gain access to the system.
• A firewall acts as a barrier between a computer system and an external network.
• Encryption, overwrite protection, password, and making a file read-only access are mechanisms that may be used
to help maintain file integrity.
• Individual files can be protected using encryption techniques that require the reader to have a correct password to
decrypt the file.
• Viruses, Trojans and worms are malicious program that may infect and do harm to a computer system and its data;
up-to-date antivirus software can protect computer systems from virus attacks.
• Computer fraud involves the use of computers to illegally obtain money, goods or services. There are many types
of computer fraud including identity theft, credit card fraud, electronic eavesdropping and surveillance.
• Backups are copies of files that can be restored in the event that the original files are lost through hardware failure,
accidental deletion or computer fraud whereas an archive comprises the files created, received and accumulated
over time and retained for historical use.
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 The following are SOME ITQ2 (a) The file containing
possible situations: (a) hard disk the credit card details OR the file
failure caused by intermittent power containing the student’s assignment.
outages causes partial data loss; (b) (b) The file with credit card details
hard disk failure caused by a power may have been accidentally selected
surge causes total data loss; (c) laptop and copied to the USB drive; the file
containing the data is stolen from a with the assignment may have been
parked motor vehicle; (d) the file with intentionally copied to the USB flash
the data is copied by an unauthorised drive by the accounting clerk. (c) Any
person without the knowledge of the reasonable explanation consistent
owner; (e) an employee copies data with the answer in (b).
from the file for his/her personal use.
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8 • Data security
ITQ3 ANY THREE: (i) corruption; identity theft may be a consequence.

(ii) loss; (iii) misuse; (iv) theft. The thief, armed with the person’s
ITQ4 (a) accidentally reformatting personal information, may proceed to
a removable storage medium; (b) assume that person’s identity.
accidentally overwriting a file. ITQ10 Your advice might include:
ITQ5 Any two of the following: (a) only conduct business with
(a) the document may have recently companies that you trust; (b) always
been AutoSaved and nothing was lost; check that you have typed the correct
(b) all the changes made since the last web page address; (c) never send
time the document was saved was cash; (d) when inputting financial
lost; (c) the document reported an details make sure that you are on a
error when it was being opened. secure site: HTTPS.
ITQ6 (a) A worm is a stand-alone ITQ11 Locks on doors, guards, bars
computer program that replicates on windows, biometric access, e.g.
itself in order to spread to other fingerprint reader, flood protection
computers. (b) Spyware is a type system, smoke/fire alarms, backup
of malware installed on computers generator and uninterruptable power
that collects information about users supply.
without their knowledge. (c) A Trojan ITQ12 The third door will remain
horse, or Trojan, is a stand-alone closed as long as the person is unable
malicious file or program that does to authenticate his fingerprints. Since
not attempt to inject itself into other the second door would have already
files unlike a computer virus and been closed the person would have
often masquerades as a legitimate file been trapped.
or program. ITQ13 Grenada. 1 is a, 2 is b, 3 is c,
ITQ7 A virus infects other computer etc.
systems whereas a Trojan does not. ITQ14 The firewall is like the walls
ITQ8 A legitimate credit card holder of a castle that keep the viruses on the
may be presented by their bank with outside. Like the castle the firewall
a statement for transactions that has openings to allow legitimate
were not done by the card holder. traffic to enter. Antivirus is like
On investigation, it was revealed that the guards at the gates; they check
another person with full access to the traffic passing into the system and
cardholder’s information (name, date destroy any viruses trying to enter.
of birth, address, credit limit, mother’s The firewall helps to prevent viruses
maiden name, and credit card security getting onto a computer system, an
code) was able to purchases goods antivirus program helps to identify
and services by pretending to be the and remove viruses that have infected
legitimate cardholder when shopping the computer system.
online or over the telephone. ITQ15 Any THREE: flood, fire,
ITQ9 Where all the information magnetic corruption, dust, excessive
on a person is accessed to the point heat, theft, physical damage or
where even that person is prevented damage by the device reading the
from accessing the information then media.
120
8 • Data security
IT portfolio
1 Visit a computer store or look on the Internet and list 5 different anti-virus software packages in your portfolio.
2 Watch a film such as Net 2.0, Firewall or Hackers for examples of computer fraud, espionage, identity theft, electronic
eavesdropping or surveillance. Discuss these elements of the film with your friends. Record your ideas in your
portfolio.
3 In December 2013, Target, the third-largest US retailer, said the theft of a vendor’s credentials helped cyber criminals
steal about 40 million credit and debit card records and 70 million other records with customer information such
as addresses and telephone numbers. The Target data theft is the second-largest credit card breach in US history,
exceeded only by a scam that began in 2005 involving retailer TJX Cos. That incident affected at least 45.7 million
card users. The companies and federal investigators are still trying to figure out how hackers stole the data. Experts
testified that the malware used in the massive thefts was so complex and customised that common network security
systems could not detect it.
a Use the Web to research the Target data security breach.
b Construct a timeline of the activities commencing with the date the theft may have taken place.
c Create an electronic document in your portfolio that contains the hyperlinks to all the sources that you have
used.
Group activities
Each of the following activities is suitable for groups of 3–4 students.
1 Do students, teachers and personnel in administrative offices use similar mechanisms to safeguard their files?
a Investigate how each of the following individuals protect the files on their computer systems to maintain their
integrity and to keep them secure:
i a classmate;
ii a teacher;
iii a staff member in the school’s Bursary;
iv a staff member in the school’s students records office.
b Describe the measures used by the individual selected.
c Collaborate on the preparation of a report that compares the mechanisms used and how the mechanisms are
implemented. Ensure that any differences are clearly highlighted.
2 Each group member should carry out web-based research to determine a mechanism to create a strong password.
As a group, develop a set of guidelines that employees in the school’s administrative office could use to create strong
passwords. The guidelines should include at least three items that MUST be done as well as three that MUST NOT be
done.
121
8 • Data security
Multiple-choice questions 6 All the following are mechanisms to safeguard the

Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested integrity of a file EXCEPT ____________.
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question (A) overwrite protection
carefully then select the most suitable response. (B) passwords
(C) read-only access
1 Which of the following is the most memorable and
(D) restricted access
secure password for someone living at 72 Cork Street,
Kingstown, St Vincent and Grenadines with a dog 7 Making a file read-only is a file ____________
called Rover? mechanism.
(A) Rover (A) integrity
(B) Vincent (B) security
(C) TOwn72Kings (C) sharing
(D) 123456 (D) protection
2 Which of the following measures is NOT a physical 8 All of the following are mechanisms to secure files
access restriction? EXCEPT ____________.
(A) guards (A) use of passwords
(B) firewalls (B) use of firewalls
(C) fireproof cabinets (C) use of fireproof storage
(D) biometric systems (D) use of fire extinguishers
3 When users purchase software, a single-user license 9 Which of the following mechanisms relate to the
agreement permits them to do any of the following integrity of files?
EXCEPT: i Backup systems
(A) install the software on only one computer ii Encryption
(B) make one copy of the software as backup iii Restricted access
(C) rent or lease the software iv Use of passwords
(D) give or sell the software to another individual v Virus protection
if the software is removed from the user’s (A) I, III and V only
computer first (B) II, III and V only
(C) I, II, III and IV only
4 The process of securing data by enciphering data
(D) II, III, IV and V only
prior to its transmission to a remote location is called:
10 Archiving relates to the ____________ of files.
(A) archiving
(B) backup (A) security
(C) restore (B) integrity
(D) encryption (C) retention
(D) traceability
5 The main purpose of a firewall is to:
(A) prevent fire from damaging a computer system
(B) prevent fire from damaging backup media such
as magnetic tape
(C) prevent threats from an external network
entering an internal network
(D) detect and destroy viruses on a computer system
122
8 • Data security
1 Jaimie has just started an online business. She is b Describe TWO problems that may occur when
very conscious about the security of transactions legitimate users in other departments copy
done online with her suppliers and fearful of being the data onto their own computers. [4]
subject of electronic eavesdropping. She often sends c Suggest two software solutions for protecting
password-protected encrypted files via e-mail. a computer connected to the Internet. [2]
a Explain the term ‘electronic eavesdropping’. [2] d State ONE advantage and ONE disadvantage
b In the case of an encrypted file, what is the of this government department relying on
purpose of a password? [1] computer systems to store data in this way. [2]
2 The Government of St Luago has recently announced 7 The Bridge View Hotel offers free transportation or
new policies governing the backing up and archiving a transportation allowance to its 40 employees. The
of data in all government offices. Human Resources Department has access to a list of
names and addresses of the employees which it uses
a Explain the difference between ‘backing up’
to determine the areas to which the company bus will
and ‘archiving’. [2]
travel. Staff living in areas not served by the bus will
b Suggest ONE reason why EACH of the
be given transportation vouchers.
operations is important in the daily operations
of the Government. [2] a In addition to names and addresses, suggest
ONE other item of information that might be
3 Computer systems are vulnerable to a wide range
desirable in this case. [1]
of threats.
b Explain ONE way in which the information
a Describe THREE ways to protect a computer collected here might be misused. [2]
system’s hardware components. [3]
8 A rural community college keeps all student records
b Describe THREE ways to protect the data
on a computerised database. The building housing
stored in a computer system. [6]
the college is destroyed by fire, along with all
c Explain the importance of making regular
computerised records.
backups. [2]
d Describe a backup regime to ensure that a a Suggest TWO methods that might have been
system can always be restored in case of used to allow access to student records
data loss. [3] immediately after the fire. [2]
b Briefly explain how ANY ONE of the methods
4 The St Luago Statistical Department has recently
would work. [2]
collected a large amount of vital and sensitive
information. Describe THREE steps that should be 9 A private secondary school has installed a computer
taken to protect the data against deliberate theft or in each classroom which is used by both teacher and
corruption. [6] students.
a Suggest TWO threats to the data stored on the
5 Computer viruses are very common in secondary
computer. [2]
schools, especially around the time when school-
b Describe TWO measures which should be
based assessments are being prepared.
taken to lessen the chances of the threats
a What is a computer virus? [1] identified in (a) being realised. [4]
b Suggest TWO possible negative impacts of a
10 An insurance company gathers medical data on its
viral infection. [2]
clients from the computer systems of some of its
c State THREE measures a lab technician could
participating providers (pharmacies, doctors and
take to ensure that the computer systems in a
dentists). The insurance company increases the cost
computer lab are protected from viruses. [3]
of insurance premiums according to the number of
6 A government department stores confidential visits. State with reasons, whether this involves:
information about businesses operating on its
a Electronic eavesdropping [2]
territory. This information is made available to other
b Electronic surveillance [2]
departments via the Internet; anyone with a computer
c Computer fraud. [2]
and a modem can potentially access this data.
a State TWO methods that can be used to
prevent unauthorised users from accessing the
confidential information. [2]
123
9 The impact of ICT
on jobs, skills and
careers
By the end of discuss how computerisation affects people’s jobs
this chapter
list common IT skills useful to office employees
you should
be able to:
describe the role of computer professionals
list jobs available in industries that support Information Technology
discuss the use of computers in a wide range of application areas.
Concept map
Information Technology
has created a range of computer-related impacts computer impacts employees in a

professions such as skills used by range of ways
computer engineers engineers loss of jobs

computer technicians law enforcement personnel need for retraining
database administrators mass media personnel working from home via telecommuting
file librarians medical personnel
IT managers movie industry
multimedia artists musicians
network administrators office employees
programmers teachers
software engineers
software testers
software trainer
systems analysts and designers
system programmers
web-developer
webmaster
We have seen that computers are used in a vast range of application areas.
This has changed how we prepare for jobs, apply for jobs and even perform
these jobs. In this chapter, we will explore a wide range of computer-related
professions including systems analysts and web designers. We will explore the
ITQ1
impact of Information Technology on the computer skills used by workers in a
Select any ONE of the following range of jobs and occupational areas. Finally, we will examine a range of ways
professions: how information technology impacts employees.
• Engineers
• Medicine The impact of Information Technology on jobs
• Teaching
For the profession selected: The introduction of computers has led to a change in the way people work.
Describe ONE positive and ONE negative Being able to use the computer has become an indispensable skill.
impact that Information Technology has • In offices, typists have had to retrain to become skilled word processing
had on that profession. clerks.
9 • The impact of ICT on jobs, skills and careers
• In education, teachers and lecturers need skills similar to office personnel

to access student records, produce test papers and maintain electronic mark
books.
• Medical personnel need to access patient records, produce documents,
plot charts and graphs of patients’ progress and operate computerised life-
support systems.
• Musicians now use the computer as a creative tool to create, mix and
distribute their music.
ITQ2
ITQ1 • Mass media personnel also use computers in a creative way. Newspaper
Select any ONE of the following publishers must be skilled in desktop publishing to layout their magazines
occupational groups: and papers. Photo-editing skills are also needed to enhance pictures ready
• Office employers for publication. In the visual mass media such as television the ability to
• Musicians create animations, charts and graphs are skills that must be mastered.
• Mass media personnel • Law enforcement officers require computer literacy skills of word processing
For the group selected: to fill in crime reports, database skills to access criminal records and
Write the name of ONE example of a specialist skills to operate a variety of software such as fingerprint matching
hardware device or type of software and photo-fit picture software.
that is used in the occupational area. • In the movie industry, staff must be able to exploit the power of computers,
particularly when editing the movie and in the production of special effects,
animation and computer modelling.
In some cases, the introduction of computer technology has resulted
in some job losses as the business becomes more efficient. The nature of
the remaining jobs changes in a positive way as they become more varied,
interesting and challenging and require higher levels of skill. Consequently,
there is a need for retraining and continuing education.
Activity 9.1 Over the past 10 years, computer technology has increasingly impacted the job
skills and careers of many Caribbean nationals. Conduct research to determine how
EACH of the following technological changes has impacted a named occupational
area. For example, for item (a), you may choose to discuss how mobile Internet
access has changed the way that mass media personnel carry out their jobs.
a Mobile Internet access
b Electronic banking
c Online learning
d Paperless offices
e Internet telephony (for example, Skype)
Computer-related professions
Some organisations base their business on their computer systems: for
example, banks, online retailers and insurance companies. These organisations
have large dedicated IT departments employing hundreds of staff. Table 9.1 on
page 126 summarises the types of staff found in a typical IT department.
Career opportunities for hardware support

professionals
ITQ3
ITQ1 In the past decade, the number of computer systems and peripheral devices
List THREE common IT skills useful to has increased enormously. This has led to an increase in career opportunities
office employees. in planning, installing, testing, maintaining, upgrading and repairing computer
125
Job title Role

Computer operators Keep the computers running by making backups, adding paper and collecting
printouts.
Data entry and control clerks Prepare data for processing by the computer.
Database administrator Responsible for designing and maintaining the organisation’s database system.
IT manager Has responsibility for running the department to include people and computer system.
File librarian Usually only found in very large computer operations. Responsible for the storage and
supervision of the offline media such as backup tapes.
Network administrator Responsible for the networking of the computers using a LAN and WAN.
Software engineer Writes programs based on specifications, prepares documentation, and maintains
existing software.
Software tester Ensures that programs work correctly before they are put into general use within an
organisation.
Software trainer Trains users to use particular software systems.
Systems analyst Oversees activities related to the design and development of new information
systems.
Systems programmers Responsible for writing systems programs and maintaining large-scale operating
systems.
Table 9.1 Staff in a typical IT department.
equipment. As computer systems become obsolete, there are also opportunities

in recycling and disposal of equipment that has come to the end of its useful
life. Computer systems contain potential pollutants and must be disposed of in
an environmentally responsible way.
Computer technicians are involved in the installation, maintenance and
repair of IT systems. Large organisations, such as a modern school, are likely
to have a computer technician. Experienced technicians may further their
careers by becoming computer engineers. Computer engineers plan, design and
install complex IT systems. Computer engineers work with clients and systems
analysts to ensure that suitable hardware for an IT system is acquired, installed
and working. The computer technicians will work with the engineers to ensure
all the hardware is working properly.
Activity 9.2 Occupational Standards define the knowledge, skills and attitudes required for
effective workplace performance. They specify what a person should know and do
in order to effectively carry out the functions of a particular job in the context of the
work environment. The Occupational Standards used for the award of Caribbean
Vocational Qualifications (CVQs) are agreed on by The Caribbean Association of
National Training Agencies.
a Visit the website of The Caribbean Association of National Training Agencies at
http://cantaonline.org/
b Navigate to the section of the home page titled ‘Occupational Standards’.
c Make a list of all the Regional Occupational Standards available in the
Information Technology category.
d Carry out further research to determine what skills an employee must possess to
be certified as competent in Data Operations Level 1.
126
Career opportunities related to the Internet

web developers ❯ Web developers create websites, often using a powerful web-authoring
package. In more complicated websites, such as e-commerce sites, the web
developer may have to create interactive web pages.
multimedia artists ❯ Multimedia artists work with text, still images, moving images and
sound. Multimedia artists provide creative input into the process of creating
effective web pages. They work with the more technical web developers to
create images, video clips, animations and sounds. The artist will use drawing
tools, photo-editing packages, animation software and music-mixing programs
to create content for the web pages.
web master ❯ A web master is responsible for maintaining and updating existing
websites. When a website is completed the web master takes responsibility for
• updating the content on web pages;
• identifying and repairing failed hyperlinks;
E-lancing, sometimes referred to as e-labour, • responding to problems reported by viewers.
refers to the recent trend of commending
and taking freelance work through e-lancing In fast-paced organisations, such as a newspaper, the information displayed
websites. Check out the websites of e-lancing on the website may need to be updated on a daily basis. The role of web master
pioneers Fiver and ODesk. becomes a full-time job.
Career opportunities in IT-related industries

As the number of IT systems in use increases, persons in the workforce
are impacted in many positive ways. For many years, the demand for IT
professionals with the appropriate skills has outstripped supply worldwide.
Many people are retraining to take advantage of the job opportunities that IT
offers.
1 In addition to the skilled jobs directly created in organisations, a whole
range of support service jobs are also created. These include entry-level
clerical jobs at computer suppliers, Internet service providers (ISPs),
telephone companies, computer maintenance and repair companies,
stationery suppliers.
2 Specialist companies like software houses, and web-authoring companies all
require skilled IT staff.
Reel Rock GSW (www.gswanimation.com), one 3 Roles for graphic designers and digital artists are opening up in large
of the first end-to-end animation production quantities in the animation, gaming and entertainment industries.
companies in the Caribbean, has found early
success in the growing field of animation and
4 With the increase in the use of mobile devices such as smartphones
employs trained and highly skilled illustrators and tablets, the demand for mobile apps has also increased. Mobile app
and animators. developers can find success designing custom applications for smart
phones for use on popular platforms such as Android, Blackberry, iOS and
Microsoft.
Computer applications in business and industry

Business is usually concerned with buying and selling or financial dealings.
Supermarkets, importers/exporters and banks are commercial businesses.
Industry is usually concerned with producing items. Many industries rely
heavily on computer systems.
Electronic point-of-sales
Supermarkets have specialised EPOS (electronic point-of-sales) hardware
and software. EPOS is a combination of hardware and software used in retail
outlets to improve service to customers and to control stock.
127
An EPOS terminal in a supermarket consists of the cash register, magnetic

stripe reader for credit card payments, barcode reader, mini monitor, mini
printer, computer-controlled weighing scales and keyboard. All the EPOS
terminals in the store are connected to the supermarket’s main computer
system. The software is based on a database that stores the description of all
items available in the shop, their barcode number, their price, the number left
in stock and other associated information. This database is continually and
automatically updated as items are sold and as new items arrive from suppliers.
When new stock deliveries are made they are recorded on the database
system; the computer system. Having access to up-to-date stock information
about how well different products are selling allows management to make
Figure 9.1 Magnetic strip point-of-sale tactical decisions about what stock needs to be re-ordered.
equipment. Summary information about daily sales is collected from all the branches
in the supermarket chain and fed to the head office so that strategic long-term
decisions can be made by the executives of the organisation.
Computerisation has revolutionised the way supermarkets and other
commercial businesses operate at all levels, from the workforce to the top
management.
Activity 9.3 1 Find and visit an online retail store and browse through the pages on their website.
2 Make a list of the different industries and the categories of products that the
company serves.
3 Assuming that you have US$2,000, make a list of the items that you would
purchase to use at the checkout counter of a coffee shop that is located on the
waterfront in your country.
Computer-aided design
In computer-aided design, CAD, computers are used to help design and draw
plans for new products.
Buildings, roads, bridges, cars, cookers, rockets and radios are all designed
with the help of CAD software. Draughtspersons no longer work with pencils
Go to the Airbus Video Gallery and set squares to produce drawings, instead they use computer systems and
(http://videos.airbus.com) and search for ‘wind plotters. CAD programs include the functionality required to manipulate
tunnel test’. View the video that shows how wind technical drawings, for example, we often add a dimension to line to indicate
tunnels and computers are used in the aircraft
design and certification programme. to the engineer the exact length of an object. If we modify the length of the
line in a CAD package the dimension line is automatically updated.
One of the main advantages of using CAD, compared with pencil and drawing
board, is that the final drawing is perfect because all errors can be corrected
before printing. Another advantage is the ability to easily reuse designs or parts
of a design. For example, an architect designing a new house may choose to use
the same design of doors and windows from an earlier house design.
Computer-aided manufacture, CAM, is closely related to CAD. In suitable
cases the output of the CAD design stage can be automatically fed into the
CAM stage.
Modern motor manufacturers design their cars using computer-aided design
(CAD) software. Stylists and engineers use powerful computers equipped with
graphics tablets and a high-resolution monitors to design cars.
A computer model of the new design is tested and refined without the need
to build prototypes to be tested in expensive wind tunnels.
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) machines can automatically produce
Figure 9.2 A computer-controlled cutter many of the parts that are needed and take the design from the CAD software
operating from a design created by a CAD to produce the finished items with little need for human intervention. The
system. individual parts are then assembled by robots.
128
Robots
Robots are computer-controlled machines that are accurate, strong and
reliable; they never get tired and never make mistakes. Robots assemble
better cars than human workers ever could and are used in the heavy work of
welding body parts together when even the strongest human would soon tire.
With the computerisation of the manufacturing process, factories can
now build cars to order. The showroom has a computer terminal and special
software that allows the customer to customise their new car choosing style,
colour, internal trim, accessories, etc. and then to view a model on the screen
before placing their order.
Computers in science and technology

Science and research organisations are often at the cutting edge of technology.
The study and prediction of weather is the science of meteorology.
Meteorologists use computers at all stages in predicting the weather. The raw
Figure 9.3 Robotic arm welding in a car input data needed for the prediction is collected from instruments at weather
assembly plant. stations that measure air temperature, wind speed, humidity, pressure, rainfall,
etc. Because weather stations are often situated in remote locations, at the top
of mountains or out at sea, and require round-the-clock monitoring they are
well suited for being controlled by computers. Data is fed back to the central
laboratory via a wide area network.
Back in the laboratory, supercomputers model the way the atmosphere
behaves. When the data from the weather stations are fed into the model it
is possible to predict weather conditions around the globe. These predictions
are often displayed pictorially so that they can be used on television or in
newspapers.
The accurate prediction of the weather can have a huge impact on people’s
lives. For example, the path of a hurricane can be monitored and its course
predicted so that the Caribbean islands in its path can be warned and measures
taken to minimise the damage caused, or maybe you just want to know
whether it will rain during this afternoon’s BBQ.
Expert systems
expert systems ❯ Expert systems are application programs that perform tasks usually
undertaken by human specialists. Expert system programs are at the forefront
ITQ4
ITQ1 of developments when computers are used in science and technology
List THREE categories of problem areas organisations.
that make extensive use of expert Tasks performed by expert systems include:
systems. • advising on the diagnosis of medical systems
• analysing geological data to predict the most favourable locations to drill
when exploring for oil
• playing chess (through a computer system called Deep Blue).
Groups of human experts in a specialist field collaborate to create a set of
WebMD (www.webmd.com) is an expert complex rules about their subject. All these rules are then entered into the
system that provides a web-based health expert system so the system actually contains more knowledge than any of the
service as well as a mobile app that allows individual experts.
users to check their symptoms and determine
what might be ailing them. The main advantage for using expert systems is that they apply their
knowledge and rules to large amounts of data very quickly.
129
Natural language processing

natural language processing ❯ Natural language processing uses grammar and semantic rules to improve
the accuracy of speech data entry systems.
Speech recognition programs try to identify individual words spoken into
a microphone connected to the computer. To be effective a speech recognition
program requires users to train the application to recognise their particular
voice. This can take considerable time but when completed the speech
recognition program can be used effectively but only in a quiet room and when
the user speaks clearly and slowly into the microphone.
Natural language processing aims to improve the accuracy of speech
recognition systems by applying the grammar and semantic rules of the
language. For example, the speech recognition system may not be able to
distinguish between the two words ‘please’ and ‘cheese’ which sound very
Figure 9.4 A headset is useful when you similar. However, the natural language processing part of the system is able to
frequently use speech recognition to send select the correct word by considering the surrounding words, e.g. in ‘Julie ate
messages, schedule meetings and to place the sandwich’.
phone calls. It won’t be very long before we can talk directly to computers in the same
way as we talk to each other.
ITQ5
ITQ1
In addition to a smartphone, name Computers in education
TWO other electronic devices that Schools and universities of all types now have computers. In school, the office
utilise natural language processing administrators maintain all the school records, students’ attendance registers,
technology. course details and test results on the computer system. They also keep the staff
records, calculate salaries, and maintain an inventory of the equipment owned
by the school.
However, it is in the classroom that computers are having the largest
impact. The multimedia facilities of a modern computer make it an ideal
computer-aided instruction ❯ teaching aid. When computers are used in this way it is known as computer-
computer-aided learning ❯ aided instruction (CAI) or computer-aided learning (CAL). Interactive
computer-based training packages allow students to work at their own pace
and at a time that is convenient to them. Modern training packages regularly
test the student and progress through the course at different speeds depending
ITQ6
ITQ1 on how well the student is scoring in the tests.
List THREE ways of how computers are CAL and CAI and are closely related and involve the use of computer
now used in classrooms at your school multimedia facilities to help students learn.
in the teaching/learning process. If students live in remote areas, distance learning may be appropriate. In
distance learning the tutor and the students are in different locations. Students
use CAI packages and they communicate with their tutors via WWW forums
and Internet relay chat. They use e-mail to submit assignments and receive
ITQ7
ITQ1 feedback.
Suggest one innovative way in which Students sometimes want to undertake individual projects, in which case
computer technology could be used in a the Internet and electronic encyclopaedias are excellent research tools for
primary school classroom. finding out information about all sorts of topics.
In schools, applications found in the classroom will certainly include word
processing to create documents for projects and school-based assessments.
Spreadsheets might be used by teachers to automatically calculate students’
average marks and sort them into rank order. Presentation packages allow
university lecturers to prepare slides for a topic that can be displayed from a
laptop computer onto a large screen using a projector, allowing a large number
of students to attend lectures. A desktop publishing application would be used
to create a school’s newsletter or posters advertising the drama department’s
latest show.
Computers are certainly widely used in all aspects of education.
130
Computer applications in recreation and

entertainment
Computers appear in a great variety of recreation and entertainment situations.
In the home, computer games are often more enjoyable with a plug-in steering
wheel, joystick, or laser gun to reproduce arcade game effects. Internet games
such as Words with Friends can be played with opponents on other computers
connected to the Internet. Specialist gaming hardware is used in game stations
such as PlayStation, Xbox and Wii.
In modern recording studios, musicians work with computers to create
complex electronic music.
On the tennis court, the computer acts as a line judge. When the ball
bounces close to the electronic line markings, it can be called ‘in’ or ‘out’
by the computer system. The computer also keeps track of the scores in the
match. In the Olympic swimming pool, where a fraction of a second can be
the difference between gold and silver medals, pressure pads connected to a
computer detect exactly when each swimmer touches home.
It is now common to book airline seats and hotels over the Internet. Some
people organise their entire holiday using the Internet. They find and book the
cheapest flight and hotel on the WWW, they arrange a taxi to pick them up at
the airport by e-mail and buy books and sunscreen from online retailers before
they leave.
Telework – telecommuting and telemarketing

Over the past two decades, the increased penetration of telecommunication
networks has allowed individuals to work using the telephone as their main
tool, making telework, in the form of telecommuting and telemarketing, a
major game changer in the workplace.
In some cases, companies allow certain groups of employees to work from
home under an arrangement called telecommuting. These employees stay at
home, but work over the telephone lines. They use their computers, internet
service and special system software to establish a secure connection between
the company’s computer system and their own. By doing this, they have
access to the range of software and data on the computer system they have at
home, enabling them to work just as productively from home.
In other cases, companies set up call centres to handle outbound telephone
calls. These call centres are used for the purpose of transmitting large volumes
of telephone calls, or telemarketing. The employees usually sit at workstations
equipped with computers systems, headsets and specialised software that
automatically dials numbers for calls to be placed. These employees typically
speak from prepared scripts while they sell products or services to the people
they are calling. In addition to telemarketing, outbound call centres are
operated for solicitation of charitable or political donations, debt collection and
market research.
131
Summary
• Office productivity tools: word processors, spreadsheets and databases, have affected the way many people work. Teachers,
lecturers, doctors, nurses, journalists and policemen all regularly use office productivity tools in their everyday activities.
• Specialist applications such as CAD, photo-editing, music consoles and desktop publishing are used in professions from
architects to photographers.
• Using IT systems usually means retraining for staff and leads to efficiency gains. Jobs become more highly skilled, interesting
and better paid.
• Large organisations may have dedicated IT departments with hundreds of specialist professionals.
• Some of the career opportunities available in an IT department are: IT manager, systems analyst, applications programmer,
operations manager, systems programmer, computer operator and data entry clerk.
• There are an increasing number of career opportunities related to the Internet including web developers, web masters and
multimedia artists.
• Specialist IT staff include database administrators, computer engineers and network engineers.
• The IT industry has spawned many support industries: computer sales, stationery suppliers, Internet service providers (ISPs) and
telephone companies all require staff.
• Electronic point-of-sales (EPOS) systems are used by retailers such as supermarkets to improve the service to their customers
and also to control their stock effectively.
• Computers take a large role in production environments. Many motor manufacturers use computer-aided design (CAD) systems to
design and test new models. Computer-aided manufacture (CAM) is the use of computer-controlled robots to assemble and test
vehicles to a very high standard.
• Expert systems are complex computer programs that embed the knowledge of many human specialists. In well-defined areas
such as prospecting for oil these systems can perform better than their human counterparts.
• Computers have been able to recognise individual spoken words for several years but the emphasis is now on adding natural
language processing abilities so that systems can be developed to recognise sequences of words spoken in a natural way.
• Computer-aided learning (CAL) is helping students master a range of skills. The multimedia features of the computer system
make CAL a better tool for learning than simply reading a book.
• Computers are now widely used in leisure, entertainment and sport. E-commerce makes booking tickets for flights easy.
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 Responses will vary. a document, save a document to a

ITQ2 Office employers – Hardware: specified place, conduct a basic search
printer, scanner; Software: for information.
productivity software, web browsers. ITQ4 Any three of: interpretation,
Musicians – Hardware: microphone, prediction, diagnosis, design,
headsets, voice recorders; Software: planning, monitoring, debugging,
media players, sound editing software. repair, instruction and control.
Mass media personnel – Hardware: ITQ5 Any two of the following:
smartphones, voice recorders, digital lights, home automation system,
cameras; Software: word processors, home theatre, television set, computer
sound editing software. system, audio recorders. Additional
ITQ3 Any three of: create a items may also be listed.
document, send and retrieve ITQ6 Responses will vary.
e-mail, send attachments with an
ITQ7 Responses will vary.
e-mail, retrieve a document, print
132
IT portfolio
1 Try to interview workers from the categories discussed 5 When you are out, keep your eyes open for computers
in the chapter. List in your portfolio all the types of in action. For each computer you see, ensure that you
software that they use while at work. find out what it is being used for. Does its use fall into
the four categories given here?
2 Interview someone you know who uses a computer.
Identify all the hardware and the software that they used a computer applications in commerce
during a typical working day. List them in your portfolio. b industry
c education
3 Try to visit a large computer installation. Interview as d recreation and entertainment
many of the staff as you can. Record the results of the
Write these headings in your portfolio and try to
interviews in your portfolio.
find at least one example for each category. Briefly
4 Next time you are in a big supermarket take some record where each computer was seen and what it
time to watch shoppers process their items at the was being used for.
checkout. Record your observations in your portfolio.
Multiple-choice questions 6 A computer system based on knowledge collected

Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested from many human specialists is best identified as:
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question (A) a software system
carefully then select the most suitable response. (B) an information processing system
(C) an expert system
1 People whose main role is to type are known as:
(D) a data processing system
(A) computer operators
7 A system that assists an architect in producing the
(B) database administrators
plans for a new building is known as:
(C) programmers
(D) data entry clerks (A) CAL (C) CAI
(B) CAD (D) CAM
2 Which of the following programs is least likely to be
used by a policeman? 8 An EPOS system is most likely to be found in a:
(A) word-processing software (A) supermarket
(B) database management software (B) scientific laboratory
(C) computer-aided design software (C) bank
(D) biometric software (D) industrial factory
3 Which of the following personnel is best trained to 9 The records of Caribbean criminals are most likely to
replace toner cartridge in a printer? be stored in:
(A) computer operator (A) a spreadsheet on a personal computer
(B) system analyst (B) a file on a supercomputer
(C) software engineer (C) a database on a mainframe computer
(D) IT manager (D) custom-written software on a PDA
4 Photo-editing software, desktop publishing, e-mail 10 Which of the following is NOT an advantage of using
and word-processing software is most likely to be computer-controlled robots in a factory making
used by: shoes?
(A) law enforcement officers (A) Robots are flexible and can quickly move on to
(B) musicians other tasks.
(C) mass media personnel (B) Robots can accurately cut the leather into the
(D) medical personnel correct shape.
(C) Robots work for long periods without the need
5 Having gained several years’ experience a computer
for breaks.
technician would be well placed to advance their
(D) Robots can safely work with the chemical glues
career by becoming a:
needed when assembling shoes.
(A) data entry clerk (C) systems programmer
(B) librarian (D) computer engineer
133
1 Computers are often used in schools and universities 6 A factory designing and building cars claims to use
and usually requires specialist support staff. CAD, CAM and robots.
a List FIVE ways that computers could be used a What do CAD and CAM stand for? [2]
in a school or university. [5] b State THREE advantages of using robots to
b A large university will require IT support staff. build cars. [3]
Name FOUR job titles that you will likely find c The company is going to introduce a new model
in a university IT department. [1] of car and is thinking of developing an expert
2 A data processing department employs a wide system to assist in this task.
variety of personnel. For each of the following, briefly i What is an expert system? [2]
describe their role within the department. ii Discuss the limitations of trying to use an
a systems analyst [2] expert system to design a car. [3]
b web master [2] 7 The table below lists titles of computer professionals
c computer operator [2] and tasks. Write the job titles of the computer
d network manager [2] professionals in your book. Identify and write the task
e computer engineer [2] performed by EACH professional next to the correct
3 An IT consultant has recommend that a St Luago Hotel job title. You may use a task once or none at all. [7]
computerise their booking, advertising, payment and Computer Professional Task
payroll operations. Explain the following statements Job Title
that were included in the consultant’s report. a systems programmers Tests network access
a Retraining of receptionists may be required to b computer technicians Write XHTML code
avoid job losses. [2] c web developer Sets access rights to data
b The finance manager may have the opportunity d software trainer Debugs programs
to telecommute on quiet midweek days. [2] e software testers Corrects hardware malfunction
c You will need a DTP package to create f file librarians Manages collection of programs
brochures. [2] and data on removable storage
d Initially, a web developer will be needed to media
take charge of the online components. [2] g database administrators Develop end-user documentation
4 Supermarkets often use electronic point-of-sale Write program code for utility
(EPOS) systems to serve customers better. software
a Name the components that make up an 8 The table below lists types of technology and
electronic point-of-sale station. [2] professions.
b Describe what happens when an item is
a Write the professions in your book. Identify and
scanned by the system. [2]
write the technology MOST CLOSELY associated
c State THREE advantages to the supermarket
with EACH profession next to the correct
of operating an EPOS system. [3]
profession in your book. [6]
5 A university conducts research on Caribbean weather
patterns at remote weather stations. They have Profession Technology
developed complex computer models to simulate the i mass media CAM
environment and will present a paper at an upcoming ii teaching intranet
conference.
iii medicine CAI
a Suggest THREE sensors that might be used at
iv musicians CAE
the weather stations. [3]
b Explain how the remote weather stations v engineers multimedia
might be connected to the university. [2] vi law enforcement robots
c The university has developed a complex extranets
model to simulate the atmosphere. What type
b Justify EACH of the selections made in (a). [6]
of computer is most suitable for large-scale
modelling of this type? [1]
d A researcher is preparing the results of his
research for an upcoming conference. Identify
TWO office applications that may be use for
this task. Justify your choices. [4]
134
10 Problem-solving and
program design
By the end of outline the steps in problem-solving

this chapter
decompose a simple problem into its significant parts
you should
be able to:
distinguish between variables and constants
use appropriate data types
explain the concept of algorithms
identify ways of representing algorithms
develop algorithms to solve simple problems
test algorithms for correctness
use the top-down design approach to problem-solving.
Concept map
Problem-solving
is a produces an commences with
five-step process: algorithm problem

definition of the problem decomposition
propose and evaluate solutions
determination of the most efficient solution
develop and represent algorithm represented as uses has decomposes a
test and validate the solution problem into
different data types: different operators: significant parts:

integers arithmetic input
pseudocode flowchart characters logical process
floating point relational storage
uses uses output
for data stored in
characteristics:
English-like statements: graphical symbols finite number of steps
read to represent: precise
input input/output variables constants unambiguous,
store process flow of control from one process
write decision to another (eventually) terminates
output directional arrows
display
If-then
if-then-else
repeat loop
while loop
10 • Problem-solving and program design
We have already been using programs and we know that there are a wide
range of application programs available. However, sometimes we just cannot
find an application that can solve a particular problem. In this situation we
need to write our own program.
Introduction to problem-solving
In some cases, problems are just opportunities for organisations to perform
tasks more efficiently. This is often the driving force when a company
introduces computers to replace their manual data processing systems.
problem ❯ A problem is a discrepancy between what is required and what exists.
Problems can range from simple to complex. A simple problem usually involves
only one main task such as computing the tax on an item. As the number of
tasks to be done increases, so too does the complexity of the problem.
Simple problems More complex problems

• Finding the average of a set of integers • Performing a linear search (for example,
• Calculating tax payable searching for an ID number in a list of ID
• Computing surface area and perimeter numbers)
• Computing tax and discounts • Determining which persons qualify for
• Generating a list of prime numbers something based on a particular set of criteria
(for example, determine if a person qualifies
to receive a housing benefit based on their
income and expenses)
• Determining the winning candidate for a
constituency in the national elections
Table 10.1 Examples of problems to be solved.
solution ❯ A solution is a procedure consisting of a set of instructions that, if followed

in order, will achieve the desired result.
problem-solving ❯ Problem-solving is the thought process that requires a critical analysis
of the situation (the problem) and careful consideration of possible ways of
overcoming the problem.
I have an idea… I am going to

make a program to solve my
problem!
PROBLEM
SOLUTION
LREAM SOLV
M -DEVELOPIN
MEG
NTPPR
RB
PO OG ROOCC
HER
TP ESES
E
SS
TH
Figure 10.1 The problem-solving process starts with a problem and ends with a solution.
136
ITQ1 Steps in problem-solving

Sequence the following list of terms as A typical problem-solving process involves five steps.
they appear naturally in the problem-
solving process: 1 Define the problem
(a) program, problem, solution. 2 Propose and analyse solutions
(b) proposed solutions, flowchart, test 3 Determine the most efficient solution
data, I-P-O chart. 4 Develop and represent the algorithm
5 Test and validate the solution
Step Outline of activities

Define the problem • Aim is to understand the problem
• Starts with a description of the problem in narrative form
• An I-P-O chart is used to break problem down into its component parts
• What needs to be done to solve the problem is determined during this step
Propose and • Considers alternative solutions to the problem
analyse solutions • Analyses each proposed solution
Determine the This step evaluates the solutions developed in the previous step and
most efficient determines which one is most efficient
solution
Develop and • Algorithm may be developed using a combination of sequential, conditional
represent the and looping statements
algorithm • Algorithm may be represented using pseudocode or a flowchart
Test and validate • Final step in the program design process
the solution • Pseudocode/flowchart is tested for correctness using a trace table
• If the algorithm produces correct results for a set of carefully selected test
data then the design is deemed valid and program implementation may
commence
Table 10.2
BVI Boat Hire

In this chapter, a real-live scenario is used to give you an opportunity to
Input Processing Output develop your knowledge and skills in problem-solving. The Virgin Islands,
commonly known as the British Virgin Islands (BVI), is a British overseas
number of Set price per hour total cost territory located in the Caribbean to the east of Puerto Rico. The BVI are
hours known as one of the world’s greatest sailing destinations, and charter sailboats
Read in the
number of hours are a very popular way to explore this area.
Calculate the total Description of the problem

cost
Susan owns and runs ‘BVI Boat Hire’ that specialises in renting out boats.
Print out the total She needs a program that reads in the number of hours that a boat is rented,
cost calculates the total cost and prints out the total cost.
Table 10.3 I-P-O chart for BVI Boat Hire.
Problem partitioning (Creating an I-P-O chart)
I-P-O chart ❯ An I-P-O chart is a table that shows the inputs, the processing steps and the
outputs related to a particular problem.
An I-P-O (input–process–output) chart is also known as a defining diagram,
and, in its simplest form, is presented using a 3-column table. This allows
ITQ2 the problem solver to focus on the main components of the problem: inputs,
Name the FOUR significant parts of a processing and outputs. There is no column for storage. Storage is represented
problem. by the names of the variables that are stated in the input and output columns.
137
Activity 10.1 Draw I-P-O charts for EACH of the following problems
1 Read three numbers and compute and output their average.
2 Convert pounds to kilograms. Assume 1 pound = 0.4536 kilogram.
3 Read two numbers and compute and output their sum, product and difference.
4 Read an employee’s hourly pay rate as well as the number of hours worked and
Input Processing Output compute and output the employee’s pay.
What is ALL the The expected
given instructions that results
must be executed For further practice, complete Question 1 on page 166.
to transform what
is given into the Constants and variables
expected results
A recipe is an everyday example of a program design. It has ingredients,
Table 10.4 A 3-column input–process– a method and expected results, similar to the inputs, processing tasks and
output (I-P-O) table is used to decompose a expected outputs that are in the I-P-O chart. Recall that we can break down a
problem into its significant parts. problem into its significant parts: input, process and output.
Look carefully at the I-P-O chart below (Table 10.5). Note that the
ingredients are shown as inputs.
Input Processing Output

flour
Prepare yeast and mix ingredients
water
Form the dough into a ball and let rise
yeast bread
Form dough into a loaf, place into the loaf pans
salt
Bake in oven at 350 degrees F until loaf is golden brown
margarine
Table 10.5 I-P-O Chart for baking bread.

Recall that:
• A computer is a digital data processor that accepts data in a digital format,
processes that data and then outputs the result.
• Data and program instructions are stored in main memory (RAM).
Programs use variables and constants as containers for storing data in RAM.
Each of these containers must be provided with:
• an indication as to whether the container will store a value that is fixed (a
constant) or one that will change (a variable);
• a name (called an identifier);
• a data type.
Each of the inputs (flour, water, yeast, salt and margarine) was stored in
a container prior to being placed in the mixing bowl. Consider though, how
different the containers that store flour, water and yeast actually are! Whereas
flour is purchased in a plastic or paper bag, it is often transferred to a plastic or
glass container to keep it fresh. Water is usually stored in a capped bottle and
yeast in a can or jar.
Literals
In some cases, programmers literally write the values required in the programs
without storing them in containers. These values are called literals.
literal ❯ A literal is a notation for representing a fixed value in source code.
138
Identifiers
identifier ❯ An identifier is the name given to variable or a constant by the programmer.
It is good practice to develop a system for creating identifiers. In this book:
• each identifier provides the reader with a very good idea of what data is
being stored
• all identifiers begin with a lowercase letter
• no underscores are used, instead of total_cost we write totalCost.
Activity 10.2 Suggest suitable identifiers for the data items identified in the program narrative
below.
Susan owns and runs ‘BVI Boat Hire’ that specialises in renting out boats. She
needs a program that reads in the number of hours that a boat is rented, calculates
the total cost and prints out the cost.
For further practice, complete Question 2 on page 166.
Constants
constant ❯ A constant is a named location in memory whose value remains the same
during program execution.
Constants are useful when storing:
• conversion rates
• tax rates
• discount rates
Before a constant can be used in a program it must be declared. To declare a
constant, the programmer must provide:
• an identifier
• a value
There is no need to provide a data type for a constant as the program
language translator will automatically determine the data type.
Activity 10.3 Look back at the I-P-O chart for BVI Boat Hire (Table 10.4) and suggest a suitable
identifier for the constant that will store a value for price per hour.
Variables
variable ❯ A variable is a named location in memory whose contents can be changed.
Variables are needed for storing:
• All data that will be provided by the user
• All computations that take place during processing
Before a variable can be used in a program it must be declared. To declare a
ITQ3 variable, the programmer must provide:
State ONE major difference between a • an identifier
variable and a constant. • a data type
139
Data type Possible values that can be taken Examples

Integer Any whole number 0
–27
540
Real Any decimal number 13.5
3.1472
ITQ4
–8.0
Suggest the most appropriate data type
to store values related to EACH of the Character A single value from the ASCII character set ‘D’
following: ‘k’
(a) A person’s age ‘#’
(b) The weight of a piggy bank String Multiple characters ‘Frank’
(c) The number of coins in a piggy ‘Ruth’
bank ‘925–0000’
(d) The total value of the coins in a
piggy bank Boolean Two possible values True/false
(e) The number of items purchased. Yes/no
Table 10.6 Common data types.
Activity 10.4 Our BVI Boat Hire example uses two variables to store number of hours that a boat is
rented and the total cost of the rental.
1 Copy the following table into your notebook.
Description of data being stored Identifier Data type
Number of hours that a boat is rented
Total cost
2 Complete the table with the identifiers you created in Activity 10.2 as well as the
data types for each variable.
Data types
data type ❯ A data type is a classification or category of various types of data that states
the possible values that can be taken, how they are stored, and what range of
operations are allowed on them.
The three main data types that are used for writing simple programs are:
• Integers: whole numbers such as 0, 5, 10, 1,024 and –50 (negative 50)
• floating point (real): numbers with a decimal point such as 0.2, 1.5 and
–50.4 (negative 50.4)
• characters: units of data such including letters, numbers and symbols such
as A, a, 9, $ and @.
The concept of an algorithm

So far in the problem-solving process we have explored steps one through
three. To recap,
• Step 1 determines WHAT is to be done to achieve a solution;
• Step 2 explores the steps that could be taken to arrive at a solution;
• Step 3 selects which steps will be taken to arrive at the solution.
140
input processing output
Ingredients Method The finished product:

• 1½ cups all-purpose flour • Preheat oven to 400 degrees F Banana muffins
(200 degrees C). Grease muffin
• ¾ cup white sugar
cups or line with muffin liners.
• ½ teaspoon salt
• Combine 1½ cups flour, ¾ cup
• 2 teaspoons baking powder sugar, salt & baking powder.
• 1
/3 cup vegetable oil • Place vegetable oil into a 1-cup
• 1 egg measuring cup; add the egg and
enough milk to fill the cup.
• 1
/3 cup milk
• Mix this with flour mixture.
• 1 cup mashed bananas
• Fold in bananas.
• ½ cup white sugar
• Fill muffin cups right to the top,
• 1
/3 cup all-purpose flour and sprinkle with crumb topping
• ¼ cup butter, cubed mixture.
• 1½ teaspoons ground cinnamon • Bake for 20 to 25 minutes in the
preheated oven, or until done.
Figure 10.2 A recipe to make banana muffins is an example of an algorithm.
Step 4 develops and represents the algorithm, and will plan the journey in
detail. It will create and document the step-by-step road map that will lead to
the solution. This road map is an algorithm.
algorithm ❯ An algorithm is a set of instruction that if followed in sequence will lead to
a solution for the problem.
All algorithms
ITQ5 1 have a set number of steps,
State ONE key difference between a 2 are precise,
program and an algorithm. 3 are unambiguous,
4 have instructions that pass the flow of control from one process to another,
5 eventually terminate.
An algorithm is precise when it is strictly defined and accurately stated. It is
ambiguous when it is open to multiple interpretations or is vague and unclear.
An algorithm must be expressed very precisely. An ambiguous algorithm, if
misinterpreted, might be ineffective at solving the problem for which it was
designed.
Ways of representing algorithms

Psuedocode and flowcharts are two ways of representing algorithms:
ITQ6 • Written using pseudocode
State ONE difference between • Drawn as a flowchart.
pseudocode and flowcharts.
Pseudocode
pseudocode ❯ Pseudocode is a way of documenting an algorithm using text, numbers and
special symbols to document an algorithm.
Table 10.7 summarises the verbs and control structures used when writing
pseudocode.
141
What do you want to do Verb/construct to use How to use it

Input data INPUT name
INPUT or READ
READ name
Initialise a variable STORE 0 TO age
STORE
Assign a new value to a variable STORE age + 1 TO age
Output data & information OUTPUT ‘Please enter a number’
OUTPUT,
PRINT ‘End of processing’
PRINT or
OUTPUT total
WRITE
WRITE ‘The total is ’, total
Make a decision IF x > 5 THEN
IF…THEN PRINT x
ENDIF
IF passMark > 50 THEN
PRINT ‘Pass’
IF…THEN…ELSE ELSE
PRINT ‘Fail’
ENDIF
Repeat a statement or set of FOR x = 1 to 5 DO
FOR…DO
statements a fixed number of OUTPUT x
times ENDFOR
Repeat a statement or set of WHILE x > 5 DO
statements based on a condition OUTPUT score
WHILE…DO
that is tested before loop entry STORE x + 1 TO x
ENDWHILE
Repeat a statement or set of REPEAT
statements based on a condition OUTPUT score
REPEAT…UNTIL
that is tested before loop entry STORE score + 1 TO score
UNTIL score = 20
Table 10.7 Verbs and their usage in pseudocode.
Flowcharts
flowchart ❯ A flowchart is a pictorial way of representing an algorithm using a set of
standard symbols.
Flowcharts use different symbols (geometric shapes) to represent input,
processing and output operations. Operations are connected with arrows which
ITQ7 serve as flow lines.
Which is the only flowchart symbol
which MUST be used at least twice in
Correct use of symbols
every flowchart? Flowcharts are usually drawn from top to bottom or left to right. It is important
that the symbols are used as intended so that the completed flowchart conveys
the intended meaning. Examples of correct and incorrect usage of the five
standard flowchart symbols are shown in Figures 10.4 to 10.7.
Terminal symbols
Each flowchart should have only two terminal symbols. The first one should
be labelled either ‘Begin’ or ‘Start’ and the other labelled either ‘End’ or ‘Stop’.
‘Begin’ and ‘End’ will be used in all flowcharts in this chapter. This will help to
easily convert the algorithms to program code later.
142
ITQ8 Process Symbol Description

Three of the following flowchart Terminal • Terminators show the start and stop points in a process.
symbols contain labelling errors. • Use only TWO terminator for EACH flowchart.
Identify the errors and suggest how • Label the first terminator BEGIN and the second one END.
they may be corrected.
Input/Output • The data symbol indicates inputs to and outputs from a
process.
No vote • The symbol must be labelled with either INPUT or
(a) OUTPUT.
Process • Program instruction(s) that transforms input(s) into
output output(s) are recorded here
You can • Each symbol MUST be labelled with an operation that
vote (b) includes the assignment operator (←).
output Decision • Indicates a question or branch in the process flow; for

You can example x > 0?
vote (c) • No need to write the words ‘IF…THEN’ in the symbol.
• Label one branch with Yes and the other No.
Flowlines • Flowline connectors show the direction that the process
if flows.
No
age > 21
then
Table 10.8 Flowchart symbols and their meaning and usage.
Yes (d)
A flowchart should never have two or more terminal symbols labelled ‘End’.
This is incorrect because a flowchart can only have one end. Multiple flow
lines may converge, but only one should lead to a single terminal symbol.
a
Begin
b
input Begin
name, age
input
name, age
Yes No
age > 21?
No Yes
output age > 21 ?
You can output
vote No vote
output output
No vote You can
vote
End End End
Figure 10.3 (a) A flowchart showing the correct usage of the symbols. (b) A flowchart showing
incorrectly used symbols; a flowchart should have only one symbol labelled ‘End’.
Input/output
The input/output symbol is used to document data that is coming in or going
out of the program. If multiple data items are being inputted or outputted one
after the other, then it is okay to include them in the same symbol. The correct
usage of this is shown in Figure 10.4a.
143
(a) (b) (c)
output writeIn
name, age name, age
(name, age)
Figure 10.4 (a) A data (input/output) symbol must be labelled with either input or output as well
as the literal and/or variable. (b) Do not label a data symbol with a keyword used by a programming
language. (c) The label ‘input’ or ‘output’ must be included.
Process symbol
Process symbols are used to show variables being initialised to starting values
as well as variables being assigned new values provided by an arithmetic
operation. The following are all valid labels:
STORE 1 TO X
X=1
X←1
We will use the arrow as our assignment symbol in all our flowcharts.
count ← 0 count ← sum ← sum + average ←

sum ← 0 sum + 1 number sum/count
initialising variables adding 1 to a accumulating a division operation

counter value in a total
Figure 10.5 Correct labelling of the process symbol. Note that each symbol has only one flow line
entering and one leaving.
Whilst there is no very firm rules governing the labelling of the symbols,
good practice suggest that you should label the:
ITQ9 • decision symbol with the question being posed rather than if…then
List THREE keywords (verbs) that may considering that the symbol itself already represents if…then,
be used as instructions for outputting • left branch of a decision symbol with ‘No’ and the right branch ‘Yes’ (since
information when writing pseudocode. we read from left to right, we will naturally read the question in the symbol
then process what is on the right as ‘Yes’).
(a) (b)
No Yes No if age > Yes

age > 21 ?
21 then
(c)
age > 21 ?
Figure 10.6 (a) A correctly drawn decision symbol is labelled with a question and has two labelled
arrows leaving it. The task sequence flows to the right if the decision is no, or down if the decision is
yes. (b) It is redundant to label a decision with ‘if…then’. (c) The flow lines leaving the symbol must
be labelled, one with ‘Yes’ and the other with ‘No’.
144
Developing algorithms to solve simple problems

Designing the logic for complex programs can be extremely challenging, not
to mention time consuming. In the mid-1960s, mathematicians proved that
any program, regardless of complexity, could be constructed using only three
program flow control structures (constructs): sequence, selection (or decision)
and iteration (or looping).
Sequence
Instructions are executed one after the other, in sequence. In pseudocode, we
represent this structure as a set of statements, written one after the other, in a
top to bottom fashion.
Example 10.1 Basic input/output Begin

Each instruction will be executed once and in the
order that it appears. An instruction may be given
to carry out either an input, processing or output output
please enter your name
operation.
output
‘Hello’,
name
Figure 10.7 The input/output operations are drawn one after

End
the other from top to bottom.
Developing algorithms involving computations

Programs convert inputs to outputs by carrying out arithmetic and logical
computations. These arithmetic computations include:
• Adding two values, for example, num1 + num2
• Subtracting one value from another, for example, num1 – num2
• Multiplying one value by another, for example, num1 * num2
• Dividing one value by another
✓ When dividing real numbers, use the / operator
✓ When dividing integers, use the DIV and MOD operators
Arithmetic operator Arithmetic expression What the expression means

+ (addition) newValue ← num1 + num2 Add the values num1 and num2 and
place the resulting value in the variable
newValue.
– (Subtraction) newValue ← num1 – num2 Subtract the value stored in num2 from
the value stored in num1 and place the
resulting value in the variable newValue.
* (multiplication) newValue ← num1 * num2 Multiply the values num1 and num2 and
place the resulting value in the variable
newValue.
/ (real number division) newValue ← num1 / num2 Divide num1 by the divisor num2 and
place the result in newValue.
Table 10.9 Arithmetic expressions and examples of their usage.
145
Example 10.2 Adding two integer values

Begin
Develop an algorithm to input two numbers, add them and output the result.
BEGIN
input num1, num2 INPUT num1
INPUT num2
STORE num1 + num2 TO sum
sum ← num1 + num2
OUTPUT sum
END
Arithmetic computations using constants and variables

output sum
Recall that a constant is a value that does not change for the life of the
program. Constants are useful when developing algorithms that will:
End • do conversions such as changing a measurement from imperial measure
(such as feet and inches) to metric measure (such as centimetre)
Figure 10.8 Flowchart for adding two
• compute quantities based on a fixed value such as a tax rate, discount rate
integers.
or an arithmetic constant, for example pi.
Example 10.3 Arithmetic computations using constants and variables

Develop an algorithm to prompt for and accept a measurement in centimetres
and convert it to inches. Output the measurement in both inches and
ITQ10
centimetres. Recall that 1 inch = 2.54 cm.
What is accomplished by the algorithm BEGIN
in Example 10.2. STORE 2.54 to conversionFactor
INPUT measurement
STORE measurement * conversionFactor TO inchMeasure
ITQ11 OUTPUT inchMeasure, measurement
Develop an algorithm using pseudocode END
to input two numbers. Compute their
difference and product and output the Begin
result.
conversionFactor ← 2.54
ITQ12
Identify ONE constant and ONE variable
in Example 10.3. input measurement
inchMeasure ← measurement
* conversionFactor
output measurement,
inchMeasure
End
Figure 10.9 Flowchart to convert measurement.
Activity 10.5 Develop an algorithm for BVI Boat Hire. Document it using both pseudocode and a
flowchart.
146
Arithmetic computations including area and perimeter

In mathematics, physics, woodwork, metal work and many other subjects,
there is a need to compute area, perimeter and other similar measures. Recall
from mathematics that certain operations take precedence in an arithmetic
operation, so remember to use your parentheses (brackets) where necessary.
Example 10.4 Computations including area and perimeter

Develop an algorithm to prompt for and accept values for the length and width
of a football field. The algorithm should computer the area and output the
results with a suitable label.
BEGIN
OUTPUT ‘Please enter the length and width of football field’
INPUT length, width
STORE length * width TO area
OUTPUT ‘The area is ’, area
END
Begin
ITQ13
Develop an algorithm to compute the
area, A, of the geometric shape shown output
‘Please enter length and
below. width of football field’
a
c h d input length, width
b area ← length * width
Area A = (a + b) h or A = 1 (a + b) h
2 2
output
‘The area is ’, area
End
Figure 10.10 Flowchart to compute the area of a rectangular object.
Activity 10.6 Each boat rented by BVI Boat Hire may be fitted with a radar system that has a
circular surface. Radar systems are available in a range of surface areas. However,
they are rented based on their radius.
Develop an algorithm to compute the area A, of a radar system, given its radius.
Recall that the value of A = πr 2 and the value of π is 3.142.
Computing averages
An average is the result obtained by adding several amounts together and then
dividing this total by the number of amounts. As a student, you should be
familiar with averages, especially when it comes to the end of the school term,
semester or school year.
147
Example 10.5 Computing averages

Begin
Develop an algorithm to input three prices,
compute their average, and output the result.
ITQ14 BEGIN input
INPUT price1, price2, price3 price1, price2, price3
What data type is needed for the
STORE (price1 + price2 + price3)/3 TO AVERAGE
variable ‘average’? Justify your choice.
OUTPUT ‘The average is ’, average average ←
END (price1 + price2 + price3) / 3
output
‘The average is ’, average
End
Figure 10.11 Flowchart to compute average (Example 10.5).
Activity 10.7 Susan, the owner of BVI Boat Hire, is reviewing the performance of her business
over the past month. She needs to know the average dollar value of the weekly
rentals over the past month. Develop an algorithm that will accept the total hours
rented for each of four weeks and compute the average amount earned per month.
ITQ15
Research whether any THREE Caribbean
countries of your choice currently Computing taxes and discounts
collect any of the following taxes. Taxes and discounts are very common in the retail trade. Tax is an additional
(a) Hotel Guest Tax amount of money that is usually computed as a percentage of the total
(b) Hotel (bed per night/room) Tax transaction amount.
(c) Restaurant and Catering Services Tax A discount, on the other hand, is an amount of money that is subtracted
(d) Passenger Departure Tax from the total transaction amount.
(e) Telecommunication Tax. The governments of most Caribbean countries collect a sales tax each time
a consumer purchases goods or services. The name of this tax varies from
country to country; common names include sales tax, consumption tax and
Begin
value-added tax.
Example 10.6 Computing discount and tax

taxRate ← 10% Develop an algorithm to perform the following tasks:
i set a tax rate to 10%
ii read an item price
input itemPrice
iii compute the tax payable on the item
iv output the item price after tax is added
taxPayable ← BEGIN
(itemPrice * taxRate)
STORE 10% TO taxRate
INPUT itemPrice
STORE itemPrice * taxRate TO taxpayable
afterTaxPrice ← STORE itemPrice + taxpayable TO afterTaxPrice
itemPrice + taxPayable
OUTPUT afterTaxPrice
END
output
afterTaxPrice
End
Figure 10.12 Flowchart to compute average (Example 10.6).
148
Activity 10.8 BVI Boat Hire is having a March Madness Sale. They are offering a 50% discount
on all boat hires for the month of March.
1 Develop an algorithm that will accept the number of hours that a boat is rented
and compute the discount offered as well as the final price.
2 BVI Boat Hire collects an Environment Tax of 2% on all its rentals. Modify the
algorithm developed in Activity 10.5 to show the tax charged on the final price of
the rental as well as the final price after tax.
Integer division using the DIV and MOD operators

DIV ❯ DIV is the integer division operator which discards the fractional part
(remainder) of the result; 5 DIV 2 therefore produces 2 since the remainder,
which is 1, is discarded.
This is called integer division and is usually written using the slash sign.
MOD ❯ MOD is the integer remainder operator which gives the fractional part
(remainder) of the result; 5 DIV 2 therefore produces 1 since this is the
remainder.
These two integer operators are very useful when developing algorithms
ITQ16 that deal with odd and even numbers.
Rebecca sent 23 text messages on Integer operation Explanation of results
Monday, 25 on Tuesday and 40 on
Wednesday. Develop an algorithm to 5 DIV 2 = 2 We get a result of 2 since the DIV operation discards the remainder 1
accept the number of text messages 5 MOD 2 = 1 We get a result of 1 since the MOD operation is only interested in the
sent EACH day and compute and print remainder portion of the results
the average number of text messages
sent. Remember that a fraction of a text 4 MOD 2 = 2 We get a result of 2 since the DIV operation discards the remainder 0
message cannot be sent. 9 MOD 3 = 0 We get a result of 0 since the MOD operation is only interested in the
remainder portion of the results
Table 10.10 Examples of integer division operations and their results.

Begin
ITQ17
Example 10.7 Integer division using the
Write the result of EACH of the following DIV and MOD operators
division operations:
Develop algorithm to prompt for, and accept conversionFactor ← 60
(a) 9/3
(b) 9/2 a time in, hours and convert it to minutes.
(c) 9 DIV 3 BEGIN
(d) 9 MOD 3 STORE 60 TO conversionFactor input timeInHours
INPUT timeInHours
STORE timeInHours DIV conversionFactor TO
numHours numHours ←
timeInHours DIV
STORE timeInHours MOD conversionFactor
conversionFactor
TO numMinutes
OUTPUT ‘Hours ‘, numHours, ‘Minutes: ‘, numMinutes
END numMinutes ←
timeInHours MOD
conversionFactor
output
‘Hours:’, numHours,
‘Minutes:’, numMinutes
Figure 10.13 Flowchart to perform a conversion using

End
integer divisions (Example 10.7).
149
Activity 10.9 BVI Boat Hire has listened to its customers and is planning on introducing a new
system where it will start charging by the half hour. A customer can therefore hire a
boat for 1½, 2, 2½, 3 hours and so on. The hourly rate will remain unchanged.
Develop an algorithm for BVI Boat Hire that will accept the number of hours a boat
is rented as a decimal and compute the total cost of the rental. Recall that
60 minutes = 1 hour.
For further practice, complete Questions 8 and 9 on page 166.
Exchanging values in variables

It is sometimes necessary to exchange (swap) the values that are stored in two
variables. For reference, the algorithm is presented using both pseudocode and
a flowchart.
Example 10.8 Exchanging values in variables

BEGIN
Begin
OUTPUT ‘Enter two numbers’
INPUT numX, numY
output temp ← numX
‘Enter two numX ← numY
numbers’
numY ← temp
END
input numX, numY For further practice, complete Question 10 on page 166.
Selection
temp ← numX
The selection construct is used to evaluate a condition (ask a question) and
carry out one or more actions based on the result of the outcome. It is also
called the decision construct.
numX ← numY
In pseudocode, we represent this structure as a question followed by one or
two alternate actions:
There are two types of decision controls structures:
numY ← temp
1 null IF – has no alternate action to do if the condition is false;
2 IF…THEN…ELSE – has an alternate action to do if the condition is false.
output The table below shows you how to structure your decision statements.
numX, numY
The NULL IF IF…THEN…ELSE

End IF condition is true THEN IF condition is true THEN
Figure 10.14 Flowchart to perform a swap Statement 1 (action to do if condition is true) Statement 1 (action to do if condition is true)
(Example 10.8). ENDIF ELSE
Statement 2 (action to do if condition is false)
ENDIF
Table 10.11 The syntax of the two forms of the IF…THEN statement.
Note that the verbs IF, THEN, ELSE and ENDIF are used. Look closely at
the indentation. Note that the statements are indented. Using indentation
appropriately will help you easily identify errors in the logic or the flow of your
algorithm.
150
(a) (b)
Begin Begin
input score input score
score > 50 ? score > 50 ?

Yes No Yes
No output pass output Fail output Pass
output
score passed
End End
Figure 10.15 Two types of decision constructs: (a) the null IF decision construct has only one
branch of the decision symbol in use; (b) the IF…THEN…ELSE has two branches of the decision
symbol in use.
In flowcharts, we use the decision symbol to represent the condition. Of

course, we still have to use the other symbols to represent the action that has
to be done.
In order for a decision to be made, a question must be asked. These
questions will take the form of conditional statements that include a condition.
These statements will be written using text as well as relational and Boolean
operators.
Relational (logical) operators

Recall that the microprocessor that has an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) as
one of its components. The function of the logic unit is to carry out comparison
operations. When developing algorithms, programmers use relational operators
to instruct the processor what to do.
relational operator ❯ A relational operator is a symbol used to compare two values.
condition ❯ A condition is an expression that includes a relational operator and the
two operands on which it operates.
operand ❯ An operand is a data value that is provided as a part of a processing
operation and may be a literal value, a variable or a constant.
Based on our definitions above, the conditions illustrated in Figure 10.16
are:
i 17 > 21 relational/logical operators
Symbol Meaning ii Num1 = 17

iii num1 < num2
> greater than 17 > 21 variable
>= greater than or equal to num1 num2
= equal to
operands num1 = 17 value
<> not equal to
< less than num1 < num2 variable
<= less than or equal to

condition
Table 10.12 Relational operators Figure 10.16 Relational operators, operands and logical expressions.
151
39 45 45
Box 1 Box 2 Box 3
Based on the values shown in Box1, Box 2 and Box3, the statement:
ITQ18
i ‘Box1 = 39’ is TRUE
Based on the values shown in Box1 ii ‘Box 1 < Box 2’ is TRUE
and Box2, state whether EACH of the iii ‘Box1 = Box2’ is FALSE
following statements is TRUE or FALSE. iv ‘Box 2 = Box 3’ is TRUE
v ‘Box2 <> Box3’ is FALSE
vi ‘Box2 > Box1’ is TRUE
17 21 vii ‘Box2 <= 60’ is TRUE
Box 1 Box 2 For further practice, complete Questions 11 and 12 on page 166.
(a) Box1 = 17 Identifying conditions in problem statements
(b) Box1 <= 18
(c) Box2 > Box1 A very important skill that you will need to develop is being able to correctly
(d) Box1 < Box2 identify a condition in a problem statement. The table below lists five steps you
(e) Box1 = Box2 can take to formulate a condition. An example has been included based on the
(f) Box1 <> Box2 following problem narrative:
(g) Box2 < 50 A certain night club has a strict ‘18 years and over’ admittance policy.
Develop an algorithm to prompt for, and accept, the age of a person and, if
the age is under 18, print ‘sorry – no admittance’.
Step 1 Identify keywords such as equal to, The keyword ‘IF’ has been identified, it appears
greater than, less than, if, then, until in italics.
and while.
Step 2 Identify variables and values that The variable age of a person and the value 18
appear close to the keywords identified all appear. Both appear close to the keyword.
in step 1.
Step 3 Formulate a condition. You may want The condition formulated is Is the person’s age
to state it as a question. less than 18?
Step 4 Read the condition (out loud) and listen You should now read the condition (shown in
if it makes sense. italics above) out aloud.
Step 5 Write down the condition; ensure that Write the condition as personsAge < 18?
you have used the correct relational
operator.
Table 10.13 Step-by-step ‘how to’ to formulate a condition.
Activity 10.10 Susan, the owner at BVI Boat Hire, is offering a 10% discount on all boat hire
longer than 5 hours. Write the condition that will form the logic of the decision
statement to be used in the algorithm.
Boolean operators
Boolean operator ❯ A Boolean operator is a word used to operate on the truth value of one or
more conditions.
The Boolean operators are AND, NOT and OR.
152
Boolean expression ❯ A Boolean expression is an expression that includes a Boolean operator

and that evaluates to either true or false.
A Boolean expression is formed when a Boolean operator is placed:
• before another expression in the case of the NOT operator;
• between two relational expressions as in the case of the AND and OR
operators.
The use of a Boolean operator turns a simple relational expression into a
compound one.
• Simple expressions:
✓ x=5
✓ y>7
✓ z=8
• Compound expressions:
✓ (x = 5) AND (y = 7)
✓ (y = 7) OR (z = 8)
✓ NOT (z = 8)
ITQ19 A truth table is helpful in determining whether a statement involving a

Boolean is true or false.
Which Boolean operator will give a A truth table is a diagram in rows and columns showing how the truth or
result of TRUE for a pair of inputs, one falsity of a statement varies with that of its components.
of which is false, the other true? A truth table shows all possible truth values for an expression, derived from
the truth values of its components. Examine the truth tables shown in Tables
10.6, 10.7 and 10.8.
A B A OR B A B A AND B
TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE A NOT A
FALSE TRUE TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE
FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE
Table 10.14 Truth table Table 10.15 Truth table Table 10.16 Truth table for
for the OR operator. for the AND operator. the NOT operator.
Based on the values shown in Box1, Box2 and Box3 on page 152, the statement:
i (Box1 = 39) AND (Box2 = 45) is TRUE (since both conditions are true; look
at row 1 in Table 10.14)
ii (Box2 = Box3) OR (Box2 = 45) is TRUE (since both conditions are true;
look at row 1 in Table 10.15)
iii NOT (Box1 > 100) is TRUE (since the expression was originally false; look at
row 2 in Table 10.16)
iv (Box2 < 45) AND (Box3 = 45) is FALSE (first expression is false and second
expression is true; Table 10.15, row 3)
Activity 10.11 BVI Boat Hire has modified its discount policy and will now offer a 10% discount
on rentals longer than 5 hours AND the customer is a repeat customer.
Construct the truth table to reflect the new discount policy.
For further practice, complete Questions 14 and 15 on pages 166–7.
153
Example 10.9 IF…THEN with no ELSE

Begin
Develop an algorithm to accept the price of two items. If the price of both items
is more than $500 then print the price after a 5% discount is applied.
discRate ← 5% BEGIN
STORE 5% to discRate
INPUT price1, price2
input price1, price2 STORE price1+price2 TO total
IF total > 500 THEN
STORE total * discRate TO discount
STORE total – discount TO total
total ← price1 + price2
ENDIF
OUTPUT total
END
No
total > 500 ?
Yes
discount ← total * discRate
total ← total – discount
output totalPrice
End
Figure 10.17
Activity 10.12 BVI Boat Hire offers a 10% discount on all boat hires longer than 5 hours.
Develop an algorithm to show the logic involved. Review the work you have done
in the previous activities as this may help. Document your algorithm using both
pseudocode and a flowchart.
Begin
For further practice, complete Questions 16 and 17 on page 167.

output Enter two
unequal numbers
Example 10.10 IF…THEN…ELSE
1 Write a program to read two numbers and print the larger value.
BEGIN
input num1, num2 OUTPUT ‘Enter two unequal numbers’
INPUT num1, num2
IF num1 > num2 THEN
No num1 > STORE num1 to larger
num2 ? ELSE
STORE num2 to larger
Yes ENDIF
OUTPUT larger
larger ← num2 larger ← num1
END
2 Develop an algorithm to prompt for and accept three test scores and to
output larger
compute and print the average store if it is greater than 80%.
Figure 10.18 Flowchart solution for Example 10.10 that compares and displays the larger of two
End
values.
154
Activity 10.13 BVI Boat Hire is having a summer sale. They are offering a 25% discount on all
boat hire if the rental period if 6 hours or more and 15% otherwise. Develop an
algorithm that will accept the number of hours that a boat is rented and compute
the discount offered as well as the final price.
ITQ20 For further practice, complete Questions 18 and 19 on page 167.

Draw a flowchart for the following
algorithm. Example 10.11 IF…THEN…ELSE with compound conditions
BEGIN Develop an algorithm to demonstrate
INPUT a, b the following logic: a student will pass Begin
STORE a * b TO c Information Technology if they pass the
IF (c >= 200) THEN SBA component of the course and they
OUTPUT c also pass the exam. The pass mark is 50 output
for both components. The algorithm Enter SBA & exam scores
ELSE
STORE c * 0.9 TO d should accept an exam score and a
OUTPUT d SBA score from the user and
END determine and display whether the input sba, exam
student has passed or failed the course.
BEGIN
OUTPUT ‘Enter SBA & exam scores’ No Yes
sba > 50 ?
INPUT sba, exam
IF sba > 50 THEN
IF Exam > 50 THEN No
exam > 50 ?
OUTPUT ‘Pass’
ENDIF
Yes
ELSE
OUTPUT ‘Fail’ output Fail output Pass
ENDIF
END
End
Figure 10.19 Flowchart solution for Example 10.11.
Iteration (or looping)

A computer can be instructed to repeat a statement or group of statements.
The loop control structure is used to give this instruction. The number of times
the program loops can be either preset (count-controlled) or determined by a
condition (condition-controlled).
Count-controlled (FOR…DO) loops

A count-controlled loop is a control structure that uses a self-incrementing
counter to control the looping mechanism through a set of statements a known
number of times. Many popular programming languages use a FOR…DO loop
to implement this type of loop.
ITQ21 Syntax Example 10.12
Using a count-controlled loop, modify
the algorithm shown in Example 10.12
FOR loopCounter = startingValue to endingValue DO FOR counter ← 1 TO 10 DO
statement(s) INPUT score
to compute the average of the 10
END FOR END FOR
scores entered by the user.
Table 10.17 Syntax and example for a count-controlled loop.
155
Begin
counter ← 1
counter Yes counter ←

input score
< = 10 ? counter + 1
No
output
All scores accepted
End
Figure 10.20 FOR…DO loop that accepts 10 scores.
Activity 10.14 The summer period is very busy for BVI Boat Hire as they usually have to process
up to 10 customers each day. Develop an algorithm that will accept the number of
hours that a boat is rented and compute final price for 10 customers. The price per
hour is $100.00. Output the details in a table form, similar to the format below:
Customer # No. hours Final price
1 5 $500.00
2 4.5 $450.00
For further practice, complete Questions 21–23 on page 167.
Condition-controlled loops
There are two types of condition-controlled loops: pre-test (WHILE…DO) and
post-test (REPEAT…UNTIL).
The WHILE…DO loop is a pre-test loop because it evaluates the condition
ITQ22 before the loop entry. The loop will not be entered if the condition is false.
Using a condition-controlled loop, Loops require that:
modify the algorithm shown in Example 1 the value being read is included in the condition that controls the loop
10.12 to compute the average of the 10 2 you read this value for the first time immediately before the loop entry
scores entered by the user. 3 you read this value again immediately before the loop exit.
Syntax Example 10.13

ITQ23
Develop an algorithm to read a set of WHILE condition is true DO INPUT score
positive integers (terminated by 0) statement(s) WHILE score <> –99 DO
and print their average as well as the END WHILE INPUT score
largest integer entered. ENDWHILE
Table 10.18 Syntax and example for a pre-test loop.
Activity 10.15 Rewrite the algorithm developed for Activity 10.14 by using a WHILE…DO loop.
The loop should terminate when the phrase ‘LAST CUSTOMER’ is entered.
156
Begin
input score
Yes output
score <> –99 ? input
‘Please enter
next score’ score
Begin
No
output ‘All
counter ← 0 scores accepted’
End
input score
Figure 10.21 WHILE…DO loop that accepts 10 scores.
No
counter ← counter + 1 For further practice, complete Question 24 on page 167.
The REPEAT … UNTIL loop is a post-test loop because it evaluates the
condition after the loop entry. The loop will always be executed once and will
be terminated as soon as the condition becomes true.
counter = 10
?
Syntax Example 10.14
Yes
REPEAT counter ← 0
output statement(s) REPEAT
‘All scores accepted’
UNTIL condition becomes true INPUT score
counter ← counter +1
End
UNTIL counter =10
Figure 10.22 REPEAT…UNTIL loop that Table 10.19 Syntax and example for a post-test loop.
accepts 10 scores.
Activity 10.16 Rewrite the algorithm developed for Activity 10.14 by using a REPEAT…UNTIL
loop. The loop should terminate when the phrase ‘LAST CUSTOMER’ is entered.

ITQ24
Write a structured algorithm to prompt Test algorithms for correctness
the user to input two values, which are
Before implementing the program, it is wise to make a ‘dry run’ through the
then stored in numX and numY where
algorithm to make sure that it operates in the expected way. During the dry
numY > 0. The algorithm must keep
run, the algorithm is tested by taking on the role of the CPU, executing each
prompting for the second number as
instruction one at a time.
long as the user enters 0 (ZERO) for the
During the dry run, the algorithm is examined one step at a time. When
second number. The algorithm must
performing a dry run on a program, values for which we already know the
divide numX by numY and print the
correct answer will normally be inputted.
result.
These values are called test data. A trace table is used to arrange the test
data as the dry run is carried out.
A dry run is similar to a trace. A trace is a program debugging technique
used to observe the program flow and its impact on variables. We will discuss a
trace when we get to the program implementation stage.
dry run ❯ A dry run is a way to demonstrate that the algorithm works with a given
set of input data.
157
trace ❯ A trace is a testing technique used to observe the program flow and its
impact on variable values.
trace table ❯ A trace table is a grid used to record the variables, test data and results
obtained during the dry run or testing.
test data ❯ Test data is a set of carefully selected data values used to determine
whether an algorithm or program works as intended.
Constructing a trace table.
Step 1 Count the number of variables that are to be tested. This will determine
the number of columns.
Step 2 Draw a table with the number of columns identified in Step 1 and
three rows. Always give yourself plenty of room for the trace table to
expand downwards.
Step 3 Label the first row of your table with the names of the variables
Example 10.15 Constructing a trace table for BVI Boat Hire

We will construct a trace table for the algorithm shown below.
BEGIN
STORE 25 TO pricePerHour
INPUT numOfHours
STORE numOfHours * pricePerHour TO totalCost
OUTPUT totalCost
END
Step 1 Identify the variables as pricePerHour, numOfHours and totalCost.
Step 2 Draw a column for each variable and label the column headings with
the variable names as shown below.
pricePerHour numOfHours totalCost
Table 10.20 A trace table with column headings.

Step 3 Using the test value numOfHours = 5, we will step through the program,
executing the algorithm just as the processor will. The new value for
the variables will be recorded in the table in the order indicated by the
symbols ➊ ➋ ➌. This corresponds to the dry run of the algorithm line
by line, starting with line 1.
The values shown in the table above tells us the values that will be contained
in the variables when the algorithm terminates.
pricePerHour numOfHours totalCost

25➊ 5➋ 125➌
Table 10.21 A trace table with recorded variable entries.
Example 10.16 Another trace table

In ITQ 21, you were asked to modify an existing count-controlled loop so
that it would produce the average of a set of 10 scores. We will now test
this algorithm with the scores 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20. The
algorithm is shown below.
158
BEGIN
STORE 0 TO total
INPUT score
WHILE score <> –99 DO
total ← total + score
INPUT value
ENDWHILE
average ← total/10
OUTPUT average
END
total score Score <>-99 average

➊
0
11➍ 11➋ Yes➌
23➐ 12➎ Yes➏
36 13 Yes
50 14 Yes
65 15 Yes
81 16 Yes
98 17 Yes
116 18 Yes
135 19 Yes
155 20 Yes
-99 No 15.5
ITQ25
Table 10.22 When constructing a trace table, ensure that you insert a value in the trace table only
What is the benefit of doing a dry run at the point the value changes. The symbols ➊–➐ have been used to give you an idea of the order
on an algorithm? in which the values were inserted in this trace table.
ITQ26 For further practice, complete Questions 26 and 27 on page 167.

Why might it be necessary to dry run The top-down design approach to problem-solving
an algorithm with more than one set of
test data? The process of repeatedly breaking down a complex problem into a set of
simple sub-problems, for which we can identify at least one solution, is called
top-down stepwise refinement ❯ top-down stepwise refinement.
Another way to look at top-down stepwise refinement is as decomposing a
ITQ27 problem into its component parts. For a computer program, these component
What is the relationship between a parts often:
trace table and a dry run? 1 get the inputs (what is given)
2 perform the processing (execute the instructions that must be performed to
convert what is given into what is expected)
3 display the output (the expected results)
Example 10.17 Caribbean Cellular

Caribbean Cellular is a St Vincent-based mobile phone provider with
operations in Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and most of
the Eastern Caribbean. For the first 1,000 credit top ups received they have a
special introductory offer in which customers get 20% more credit with every
top up over $100, 30% more credit with every top up over $200 and 40% with
credit over $500.
159
Thinking about the problem, the complete diagram would be:
Input Processing Output

phone number 1 Compute the bonus phone number
credit account 2 Add the bonus to the credit total credit
amount
But there is more work to be done in this case. We need to breakdown the
tasks into simpler sub-problems.
Step 1
For 1000 customers, process credit top up.
Step 2 Sub-divide each problem into a set of sub-problems
For 1000 customers:
a Get phone number and credit amount.
b Compute total credit.
c Display phone number and total credit amount.
Step 3 Further sub-divide each sub-problem into simpler sub-problems or
actionable items.
For 1000 customers:
i Get customer phone number.
ii Get credit amount.
i Compute the bonus.
ii Add the bonus to the credit amount.
c Display information message.
i Display customer phone number.
ii Display credit including bonus.
Some of the above steps need no further refinement as they each represent a
single actionable item but we can refine the problem further.
For 1000 customers:
i Get customer phone number.
ii Get credit amount.
i Compute the bonus
1 Compute bonus if amount is less than $100.
2 Compute bonus if amount is $100 or more but less than $200.
3 Compute bonus if amount is $200 or more but less than $500.
4 Compute bonus if amount is more than $500.
ii Add the bonus to the credit amount.
c Display information message.
i Display customer phone number.
ii Display credit including bonus.
The above steps need no further refinement as they each represent a single
actionable item. We have broken the problem down into actionable items.
Remember that an actionable item is when we can see at least one solution to
the problem.
Using a combination of decomposition diagram and top-down stepwise
refinement, we now have a clear understanding of the problem – the inputs,
the outputs and the intermediate goals that must be met in order to achieve
the required result. We also have clear idea as to the procedures to be executed
to achieve each intermediate goal, a solution for each sub-problem. The result
of this step, ‘define the problem’, is the problem statement.
160
For Caribbean Cellular the problem statement is:

Caribbean Cellular is a St Vincent based mobile phone provider with operations
in Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and most of the Eastern
Caribbean. For the first 1,000 credit top ups received they have a special
introductory offer in which customers get 20% more credit with every top up
over $100, 30% more credit with every top up over $200 and 40% with credit
over $500.
Observe that the problem statement describes:
• the nature of the problem or task
• the inputs to the program
• the expected outputs from the program (results)
• the requirements for the processing of the inputs (data) to produce the
outputs (result).
SUMMARY
• A problem is a discrepancy between what is expected and what exists.
• A program is a sequence of coded instructions that a computer can interpret and execute.
• A solution is developed for a particular problem by engaging in a five-step problem-solving process.
• Problems may be partitioned into their component parts (input, process, output, storage) using an I-P-O chart.
• Variables and constants provide storage for program data: the value held by a variable can be changed whereas the
value held by a constant remains fixed for the life of the program.
• A variable has both a name and a data type.
• Integer, real and character are data types.
• Pseudocode is a method of documenting algorithms using simple structured instructions.
• Flowcharts are a pictorial way of representing algorithms using a standard set of symbols.
• Flowcharts symbols: parallelogram – input/output, rectangle – processing, diamond – decisions and ellipse – start/
end.
• The keywords READ, INPUT and GET are used to accept data, WRITE, PRINT and DISPLAY to output results.
• Algorithms may be designed using a combination of three flow control structures (constructs): sequence, selection
and iteration.
• Boolean expressions facilitate decision-making capabilities. Two simple conditions may be combined to form a
compound condition.
• The IF…THEN…ELSE control structure implements decision-making logic.
• Iteration (looping) is implemented in various ways: counting-controlled loops, pre-test condition loops and post-test
condition loops.
• The FOR…DO control structure implements count-controlled loops.
• The WHILE…DO control structure implements pre-test loops.
• The REPEAT…UNTIL control structure implements post-test loops.
• It is important to test an algorithm thoroughly.
• Construct a trace table and identify the variables in the pseudocode as the column headings.
• Dry run an algorithm by playing the part of the processor and executing the sequence of instructions given by the
algorithm and recording interim results in the trace table.
• Select appropriate data to ensure that all paths through the algorithm are tested.
• Top-down design is a methodology for solving a problem.
• Stepwise refinement refers to the systematic breaking down of tasks into sub-tasks.
161
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 (a) Problem, program, messages sent on Tuesday’

solution; (b) I-P-O chart, proposed INPUT msgTues
solutions, flowchart, test data. OUTPUT ‘Enter the number of
ITQ2 Input, processing, output, messages sent on Wednesday’
storage. INPUT msgWed
avgMsgSent = (msgMon + MsgTues +
ITQ3 Variable may store different
MsgWed) DIV 3
values at different times, constant
OUTPUT ‘Average messages sent is ’,
stores a value that will not change.
avgMsgSent
ITQ4 (a) Integer; (b) real;
ITQ17 (a) 3.0; (b) 4.5; (c) 3; (d) 0.
(c) integer; (d) real; (e) integer.
ITQ18 (a) TRUE; (b) TRUE;
ITQ5 A program is executable
(c) TRUE; (d) TRUE; (e) FALSE;
whereas an algorithm is not.
(f) TRUE; (g) TRUE.
ITQ6 Pseudocode represents an
ITQ19 The OR operator.
algorithm using text, whereas a
flowchart uses graphic symbols. ITQ20
ITQ7 The terminator; used to Begin
represent start and end.
ITQ8 (a) Symbol not properly
labelled; should have either input or input a, b
output; (b) incorrect symbol used for
an output operation; (d) label should
not include ‘if…then’. c←a*b
ITQ9 WRITE, OUTPUT, and
DISPLAY.
ITQ10 The algorithm adds the Yes
c > 200 ?
values stored in num1 and num2 and
stores the result in the variable sum.
No
ITQ11
BEGIN output c d ← c * 0.9
INPUT num1, num2
STORE num1 – num2 TO difference
STORE num1 * num2 TO product output Fail
OUTPUT difference, product
END
ITQ12 Constant: conversionFactor; End
variable: measurement or
inchMeasure.
ITQ21
ITQ13 STORE 0 TO total
BEGIN FOR counter ← 1 TO 10 DO
INPUT a, b, h INPUT score
STORE ((a+b)*h)/2 TO A total ← total + score
OUTPUT A END FOR
END average ← total/score
ITQ14 Real. The data produced will OUTPUT average
have a fractional portion since the
ITQ22
real number arithmetic operator is
STORE 0 TO total
being used.
INPUT score
ITQ15 Answers will vary. WHILE value <> -99 DO
ITQ16 total ← total + score
OUTPUT ‘Enter the number of INPUT score
messages sent on Monday’ ENDWHILE
INPUT msgMon average ← total/10
OUTPUT ‘Enter the number of OUTPUT average
162
ITQ23 REPEAT
SET loopCounter TO 0 OUTPUT ‘Please enter the
SET runningTotal TO 0 denominator, B’
SET largestNumberSoFar TO 0 INPUT B
Read in the first number, num UNTIL (B > 0
Start of while (num not equal to 0) result ← A/B
loop OUTPUT ‘The result of A/B is ’, result
Add the number to the ITQ25 Any logic errors that may
runningTotal have existed would have been
Add 1 TO the loopCounter identified in the set of test data.
IF num is greater than Expected values will be available to
largestNumberSoFar THEN test the program when implemented.
SET the largestNumberSoFar to this
ITQ26 If the algorithm includes
number, num
conditional statements, then multiple
End of while loop
test values will be required to test all
Calculate the average equal
the branches of the algorithm.
runningTotal/loopCounter
Print the average ITQ27 A trace table is used to
organise the test data used during a
ITQ24
dry run, and it also records the test
OUTPUT ‘Please enter the numerator,
results obtained.
A’
INPUT A
IT portfolio
1 Ask your parent/guardian for a telephone, electricity, water or cable bill. Considering that these bills were produced
using computer programs:
a Identify at least two items of each type of program data (constants, literals and variables).
b Suggest suitable names for the constants and variables.
c Paste the bill in your portfolio and label the program data items appropriately.
2 Draw a flowchart in your portfolio to determine the action a driver should take when arriving at a set of traffic lights
for each of the possible colours: green, amber and red.
3 You solve problems all the time – the problem of how to get to school for example. How did you get from inside your
house to inside school today? Would this have been different if it had been raining? As you encounter problems
today, use top-down stepwise refinement to solve them. What are you going to do tonight? How will you achieve
this? Record your results in your portfolio.
4 We often use a dry run in real-life situations. Surgeons dry run complex surgical procedures before they start
working on the patient. When giving a presentation we may first rehearse it in front of a mirror. It is important to step
through our instructions to make sure they work. In your portfolio, describe four more situations when we might use
a dry run.
Group activity
This activity is ideal for groups of three students and should be completed over a 1-week period. Each group member
should identify one problem that exists in his or her school environment (classroom, cafeteria, club or society). The
group should select one of the three problems and:
a Develop a problem statement.
b Decompose the problem using stepwise refinement.
c Identify all program data items requiring storage. Decide whether these data items will be variables or constants.
Provide each of these variables (and constants) with appropriate names and data types.
d Present your work to your fellow group members and have them comment on your work.
e Place all the documents in your portfolio after you have made the necessary corrections.
163
Multiple-choice questions (Problem-solving) Multiple-choice questions (Program design)

Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question
carefully then select the most suitable response. carefully then select the most suitable response.
1 Sequence the following list of items as they are used/ 1 An algorithm is a sequence of ____________
produced in the problem-solving process: problem instructions for solving a problem in a finite amount of
definition, flowchart, solution, stepwise refinement. time.
(A) problem definition, flowchart, stepwise (A) finite, ambiguous
refinement, solution (B) finite, unambiguous
(B) problem definition, stepwise refinement, (C) infinite, ambiguous
flowchart, solution (D) infinite, unambiguous
(C) problem definition, flowchart, solution, stepwise 2 A flowchart is a ____________ method of representing
refinement algorithms.
(D) problem definition, solution, flowchart, stepwise
(A) graphical (C) verbal
refinement
(B) textual (D) visual
2 Top-down stepwise refinement is a technique used to:
3 Which of the following statements is UNTRUE about
(A) determine the most efficient solution flowcharts?
(B) identify a problem that has two or more parts
(A) More concise than pseudocode
(C) identify which part of a problem can be solved
(B) Gives a good view of the structure of the logic
(D) decompose a problem into its component parts
(C) Logic easier to follow than that of pseudocode
3 A ____________ is a named location in memory that (D) Easier to visualise connections between
stores a value that does not change for the life of the statements
program.
4 In flowcharting, a parallelogram is used to represent
(A) constant which basic operation(s)?
(B) literal
(A) decision
(C) sentinel
(B) input/output
(D) variable
(C) process/assignment
4 Which data type is MOST appropriate for storing a (D) storage
value representing a person’s age?
5 An algorithm that states ‘roll the dice a few times’ is
(A) character BEST described as:
(B) integer
(A) exact (C) unambiguous
(C) real
(B) precise (D) vague
(D) Boolean
6 Algorithms need to be thoroughly tested. Which is the
5 Which data type is MOST appropriate for storing a
most important reason for testing algorithms?
telephone number?
(A) Test results have to be included in the program
(A) character
documentation.
(B) integer
(B) Without testing the resulting program will not
(C) real
work.
(D) string
(C) Errors in the algorithm can be eliminated before
6 Which of the following is NOT a step in the problem- the program is written.
solving process? (D) It is impossible to write a correct working
(A) problem definition algorithm without testing.
(B) stepwise refinement 7 A trace table is best described as:
(C) test and validate solution
(A) the table on which we work when testing an
(D) propose and evaluate possible solutions
algorithm
7 Which of the following is NOT a simple data type? (B) a structured grid used to test an algorithm
(A) character (C) a structured grid in which we write the
(B) integer pseudocode statements
(C) real (D) a tabular layout used when we document an
(D) string algorithm using pseudocode
164
1 Briefly outline what happens at each of the steps of 7 The author of this book believes that exam success
the problem-solving process. [10] will happen if an exam candidate has or possess
knowledge of the relevant syllabus, has mastered
2 Consider the following program:
exam-writing skills and has a good attitude.
Line 1 STORE 1.00 to pricePerMinute
Line 2 OUTPUT ‘Please enter phone card price’ a Copy and complete the following table where 1
Line 3 INPUT phoneCardPrice represents ‘Possess the’ and 0 represents ‘Does
Line 4 STORE phoneCardPrice DIV pricePerMinute not possess the’. [8]
TO talkTime Knowledge Skill Knowledge Attitude Knowledge
Line 5 OUTPUT talktime AND AND
a Identify ONE example of EACH of the following: Skill Skill
i A variable iii An output statement AND
ii A constant iv An input statement [4] Attitude
b Explain what is accomplished by line 4 of the 1 1 1
program. 1 0 1
3 A program is needed to read in the current year and 0 1 0
your year of birth and calculate and display your age. 0 0 0
a Propose suitable names for any variables and b In the column for ‘Attitude’ explain what
constants needed. [3] the ‘0’ represents. [2]
b Suggest the data type for any variables 8 A programmer wrote the following code segment
identified. [1] to operate a device that automatically opened and
c Develop an algorithm and document it using closed a gate:
pseudocode. [5] IF X>Y
d What will be the output of the algorithm if the THEN G = X – Y
following data is entered: current year = 2015; ELSE R = Y – X
year of birth = 1984? [2]
a Draw a flowchart to illustrate the code
4 Consider the types of looping structures described segment shown above. [5]
below:
b Copy and complete the following table based
TYPE 1 Execute its statement(s) a fixed number of on the code above. [4]
times
X Y X > Y? G R
TYPE 2 Execute its statement(s) at least once
(Y or N)
TYPE 3 May never execute its statement(s) at all
1 1
a Identify EACH type of loop described above. [3]
b Using pseudocode, illustrate how each type may 1 0
be used to sum values from 1 to 10 inclusive. [15] 0 1
5 The IF statement comes in two forms IF…THEN and
0 0
IF…THEN…ELSE.
a Draw flowcharts to demonstrate both forms 9 Consider the following algorithm.
of IF statement. [10] READ a
b Tabatha is a mobile chiropodist who visits clients READ b
in their own home in Rodney Bay. Tabatha c=a*b
usually charges EC$20 per visit but clients over IF (c >= 200) THEN WRITE c
the age of 60 receive a 10% discount. Tabatha ELSE
needs an algorithm to help automatically calculate d = c * 0.9
how much to charge. Create a flowchart solution WRITE d
for this problem. [6] ENDIF
6 The OLYMPUS EXPO cinema in Christ Church, a Dry run the algorithm with the following test data
Barbados charges admission as follows: i a = 50; b = 5 [4]
Adults $15.00 ii a = 50; b = 3 [4]
Seniors 65 and over $12.50 b Explain why at least two different sets of test
Kids 12 and under $8.00 values are needed to test this algorithm. [3]
Represent the logic expressed above using a
flowchart as well as pseudocode. [10]
165
10 • Problem-solving and program designing
Further practice 8 If x = 5 and y = 2, state whether the following

1 Draw I-P-O charts for each of the following problems. expressions are TRUE or FALSE.
a Calculate the simple interest on a loan principal a x MOD y = 1 c x DIV = 1
with a given principal and interest rate. The b x MOD y = 0 d x DIV y = 1
output must show the principal, interest rate and 9 Farmer Brown has one hectare of oranges under
interest. cultivation. Each week he picks a couple hundred
b The price of a widget will be discounted by 25%. oranges and packages the oranges in bags of 12 for
The original price and the discount rate must be resale. Develop an algorithm to accept the number
entered into the computer and the discount and of oranges that he picked, and determine how many
the discounted price of the widget calculated and bags he will be able to package this week.
displayed along with suitable labels.
10 A teacher mistakenly entered the test score for Anna
2 Suggest suitable identifiers for the data items (testScoreA) under Bianca’s name (testScoreB).
identified in EACH narrative below. Develop an algorithm to swap both test scores.
a Julie teaches a class of 10 students and needs a Output the scores immediately before they are
program to read in 10 grades, calculate and print swapped as well as after swapping is complete.
out the average.
11 Given that a variable score contains the value 79%
b Caribbean Cellular gives each of their customers
and attendance contains 85%, for each of the
20% more credit with every top up over $100.
following conditions, state whether the statement is
3 Suggest the most appropriate data type to store the TRUE or FALSE.
data described below.
a score = 80% d attendance < 10%
a The number of passengers on an aircraft. b score > 80% e attendance <= 10%
b Data to indicate if a customer is male or female. c score >= 75% f attendance <> 10%
c The weight of fish, meat and vegetables being sold
12 Using any TWO of the numbers 11, 17 and 20, write
in a supermarket.
ONE example for EACH of the following relational
d A symbol that is used to indicate which arithmetic
operators and state whether the result is TRUE or
operation is to be performed.
FALSE.
e A code to indicate whether a seat on an aircraft is
a window or aisle seat. a < d =
f The code used at the start of the following dialling b > e >=
sequences: *120, *121 and *128. c <> f <=
4 Develop an algorithm to prompt for, and accept, a 13 Identify AT LEAST ONE condition in each of the
weight in pounds and convert it to kilograms. Recall following problem statements.
that 1 pound = 0.453 kilograms. a An algorithm is required to accept TWO numbers,
numX and numY. The second is to be subtracted
5 Develop an algorithm to accept the measurements
from the first and the result placed in a variable
of a rectangular boat deck and compute and output
named difference. If the difference is equal
its perimeter. (A deck is the floor of a boat or ship,
to zero, display a message indicating that the
especially the upper, open level extending for the full
numbers are equal.
length of the vessel.)
b Write a structured algorithm to accept values in
6 Develop an algorithm to prompt for, and accept, three TWO variables, A and B. Print the product of these
test scores (score1, score2, score3) and compute and two variables if it is greater than or equal to 100,
print the average score. otherwise print ‘SORRY – product less than 100’.
7 A phone card wholesaler sells phone cards at a 10% 14 Students at Possibility High School are encouraged to
discount. Develop an algorithm to prompt for, and do well both academically and in sports.
accept, the quantity and value of phone cards being a Students graduate with an Honours Diploma
purchased. Compute and display: if their overall score is greater than 80% and
a the total value of the phone cards being attendance is 75% or better. Rihanna ended the
purchased; year with a score of 85% and attendance of 75%.
b the total discount received; Use the appropriate truth table to determine
c taxDue to be paid at a rate of 11%; whether Rihanna will graduate with honours.
d finalPrice to pay for the phone cards after the b Students qualify for the sports team if they run a
discount and tax have been applied. time of less than 25 seconds in either trial 1 or trial
2. Rihanna ran 25.5 seconds in trial 1 and 24.8 in
trial 2. Would Rhianna qualify for the sports team?
166
15 The Higher Heights Academy has established the portion of their monthly salary that is greater than
following rules for passing a course: $2000. Employees that earn more than $20,000 pay a
• Rule 1 Pass both tests: Awarded Grade P luxuryTax.
• Rule 2 Pass any one test: Awarded Grade F
Prompt for the name of an employee and his/her
• Rule 3 Fail both tests: Awarded Grade R
annual salary. Compute and print the employee’s
a Copy and complete the following table: name, their monthly salary and the amount(s)
Test 1 results Test 2 results Award deducted for tax.
Pass Fail 21 Savings accounts at the St Luago National Bank earn
Fail Pass compound interest on a yearly basis and have no
Fail Fail deposits or withdrawals. The balance after a year has
Pass Pass passed is given by the formula:
b State the TWO Boolean values that are used to This year’s balance = last year’s balance * (1 + interest
test the rules in part (a). rate)
c Write pseudocode to represent Rule 1 and Rule 3.
Where the interest rate is given as a decimal fraction
16 Develop an algorithm to prompt the user to enter a (for example, 25% must be entered as 0.25)
value which is stored as variable X. If the value entered
is greater than 100, subtract 20 from it and print the Develop an algorithm that prompts for, and accepts,
remainder. the interest rate as a decimal, the number of years
to compute interest for, and the starting balance. It
17 A nightclub has a strict ‘18 years and over’ admittance should compute and display the balance, including
policy. Develop an algorithm to prompt for and accept the interest, after N years have passed.
the age of a person. If the age is under 18 print
22 Big Driver Trucking Company charges clients based
‘SORRY – No admittance’.
on the volume of the cargo it transports from one point
18 Develop an algorithm to prompt for and accept two to another. A customer intends to move some goods,
test scores (testScoreA, testScoreB) and compare packed in a number of boxes given by S. Develop an
them. If both scores are equal, then a message should algorithm to find the total volume of a set of boxes, S.
be displayed to indicate this, otherwise the higher
You should prompt for and receive S. For EACH
score should be printed.
box, the algorithm should prompt for and receive
19 Write pseudocode to represent the logic shown in the the length, width and height of the box. Compute
flowchart below. and output the total volume of the set of boxes.
23 Develop an algorithm to print a list of all numbers
Begin between 1 and 1,000 that are divisible by BOTH 4 and
8.
24 The following data represents some sample score
input originalPrice
obtained by students in a test.
5, 4, 7, 10, 0, 6, 0, 1, 0, 9, 8, 999
Yes No 999 is the dummy value which terminates the data.

originalPrice
< 500 ? Develop an algorithm to read any data in the above
format and print the number of students scoring 0
discountPrice ← discountPrice ← and the number scoring 10.
originalPrice * 0.98 originalPrice * 0.95
25 Write a program to read a positive integer, N, and
find the average of all even numbers between, and
inclusive of 1 and N. Perform any necessary validation.
(Hint: this solution requires two different types of
output
loops.)
discountPrice
26 Construct a trace table for the algorithm developed in
Activity 10.14 with the following test data:
End
4, 6, 8, 10, 5, 7, 9, 5.5, 6.5 and 8.
20 Develop an algorithm based on the following: 27 Construct a trace table for the algorithm developed in
Activity 10.15 with the following test data:
Company ABC deducts tax from their employees at
a rate of 25% per month. Employees pay tax on the 4, 6, 8, 10, 5, 7, 9, 5.5, 6.5 and 8.
167
11
11 • Program implementation
Program
implementation
By the end of distinguish among the different generations of programming languages
this chapter
distinguish between low-level and high-level programming languages
you should
be able to:
explain the need for language translation
list the sequence of steps associated with implementing a program
write documented programs using Pascal
perform checks and tests on programs to verify correctness
explain the concept of an array
declare one-dimension arrays in Pascal
read and write to array elements
use the loop construct to access array elements
perform a linear search on data in arrays.
Concept map
Problem implementation
involves five processes
source code creation compilation linking execution program maintenance
using produces involves may result in required on
programming language source code testing run-time errors documentation
which may be using may be solved using namely

may contain includes
test data debugging techniques

low-level high-level syntax errors logic errors
(Machine or (Pascal, C)
Assembly) external: internal:
variables constants data in a list user manuals use of mnemonic names
use of comments
indentation
may be effective use of white spaces
control structures:
conditional branching manipulated:
(if-then, if-then-else) read from
written to
loops traversed
(while, repeat, for) searched
Recall that the Central Processing Unit (CPU) is a binary device that is capable
of fetching and executing binary instructions very quickly. In Chapter 10,
we created algorithms to solve problems. It is now time to consider how the
algorithm may be implemented as a computer program that can be run by the
CPU. Looking at the history of how programming languages have developed
will help us to understand how pseudocode can be turned into a working
program.
Generations of programming languages

There are a number of ways to classify programming languages. Two of these
language generation ❯ are language generation and language level. We will discuss language
language level ❯ generation in this section and language level in the next.
First generation (machine language)

Machine code is the first generation of computer languages. This is the
Operation Address language understood by computer systems and is considered their native
00101000 11001001 tongue. Early programmers (circa 1940s) wrote their programs using machine
00101000 11001010 code. Each instruction contained the operation to be executed and the memory
00000000 11001001 address of the data to be operated on, both held as a binary number.
Table 11.1 Example of machine code. Advantages Disadvantages

Does not need to be translated. Platform dependent – limited to one type of machine.
Program development is time-consuming and tedious.
Makes efficient use of memory and the Difficult to read, write and understand as operation
CPU. codes have to be remembered.
Executes faster than programs created in All memory addresses have to be assigned. Difficult
other generations. to debug.
Table 11.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine code.
Second generation (assembly language)

Because humans often made mistakes when using machine code to write
assembly language ❯ programs, the early computer scientists created assembly language, the
second generation of programming languages. Instead of using binary digits
for the operation code, they used short words, mnemonics, to represent the
operation to be performed and expressed the memory address of the data to be
ITQ1 operated on as decimal numbers instead of binary numbers.
Which generation of computer
languages uses only binary digits? Mnemonics What the mnemonics mean
RD ReaD a number from the keyboard and store in the given memory location
LD LoaD the number in the given memory location into the accumulator
AD ADd the number in the given memory location to the number in the accumulator
ST STore the number in the accumulator into the given memory location
PC Print the Contents of the given memory location on the monitor
Table 11.3 Assembly language mnemonics.
The introduction of assembly code and assembler programs to translate the

assembly code into machine code was a big step forward but writing programs
was still a very time consuming affair. Assembly code works well but it is very
detailed and programs are long and complex. This is because assembly code is
written using very simple instructions.
169
Third generation languages

To make programs shorter, simpler and more like English, computer scientists
high-level languages ❯ developed high-level languages (HLL). These languages, like Pascal and
Qbasic, are more like English and more like our pseudocode algorithm. These
are the third generation of computer programs. For this course, we will be
ITQ2 using Pascal to write programs.
List THREE third generation
programming languages? Fourth generation languages (4GL)
A 4GL is more like a programming environment and less like a program.
Fourth generation languages do not require the user to specify the procedures
to be carried out in order to implement a solution. Microsoft Excel may
be considered a 4GL; it allows solutions to be developed without having
to implement things such as functions and routines for sorting and data
extraction using filters.
Fourth generation languages are even more like English. For example, here
is a query in Microsoft Access which uses SQL (Standard Query Language):
SELECT TOURS.Destination, Sum(AGENTS.[Number In Group]) AS [SumOfNumber In Group]
FROM TOURS INNER JOIN AGENTS ON TOURS.Destination = AGENTS. Destination
GROUP BY TOURS.Destination
HAVING (TOURS.Destination = ‘Africa’);
Fifth generation
Fifth generation languages are still in the future and represent the possibility
that one day we will be able to specify the problem to the computer without
having to instruct the computer how to solve the problem.
ITQ3 Levels of programming languages

State the key difference between Language level is a very imprecise term – the meaning can vary depending
high-level languages and low-level on the speaker’s point of view. Its usefulness lies in comparing two or more
languages. languages rather than in characterising any single language.
Language level is a rough measure of the ratio of source code to machine
machine code ❯ code. This means how many lines of machine code will be needed to execute
an average line of source code written in a given programming language. There
low-level languages ❯ are two language levels: low-level languages and high-level languages.
In low-level-languages one line of source code creates one line of machine
code. In high-level languages one line of source code creates many lines of
machine code.
Source code is the sequence of statements Some common high-level languages are:
in a programming language. Source code is
written by a programmer, and can be read by • FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation) is particularly well suited to writing
human beings. It is processed by a compiler, scientific applications.
an assembler or an interpreter before being
executed.
• QBASIC (Quick Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is well
suited to student programmers but programs written in QBASIC are often
slow to execute because QBASIC is an interpreted language.
A low-level language is a machine-dependent
language whose source code is written in • Pascal is a well-structured programming language that is easy to use and is
machine code or assembly language. First and therefore often used as a teaching language.
second generation languages are low-level
languages.
• VISUAL BASIC is a very popular language for creating programs with a
Graphical User Interface.
• JAVA and C++ are object-oriented languages. In object-oriented languages
A high-level language is a machine-independent, the program and related data are packaged into objects. These objects can
problem-oriented language whose source code interact with each other.
is written in statements that closely resemble
English. Third, fourth and fifth generation Each of these languages has very strict rules, which must be obeyed if a
languages are high-level languages. program is going to be successfully converted into machine code.
170
Implementing a program: The five steps

There are five steps that a programmer will take when implementing a
program:
• Create a source code;
• Translate source code to object code;
• Link object code to library routines;
• Execute the program;
• Maintain the program.
Step 1: Creating source code

source code ❯ Source code is a computer program written in a programming language such
as Pascal, C or Java. The algorithm developed during the program design phase
is used to guide the source code creation activity. A text editor such as Notepad
or an integrated development environment (IDE) such as Turbo Pascal or
Bloodshed Pascal is used.
syntax ❯ Each language has its own syntax, that is the rules of the language.
A programmer must learn the rules of the language he or she is using
and as such a programmer will usually specialise in using just one or two
programming languages.
Pascal ❯ Pascal is a third generation language that supports structured programming
and algorithm concepts. The syntax is somewhat error prone and student
programmers have to be on guard and watch carefully for misplaced
punctuations such as semicolons.
ITQ4
State the difference between an Step 2: The need for language translation
interpreter and a compiler. Just as people are generally able to understand a single language, computers
similarly understand a single language: machine language. All programs
written in languages other than machine language must be translated.
translator ❯ A program is translated using a translator.
A compiler is a system program that processes all the lines of code in an
object code ❯ entire program and creates object code. This object code contains the machine
instructions for the executable program and is used to create the finished
executable program in another process called linking. Compiled programs run
significantly faster than interpreted programs because the program interacts
A translator is a systems program that converts a directly with the microprocessor and does not need to share memory space
program written in source code to machine code. with the interpreter. Pascal programs are translated using a compiler.
Compilers, assemblers and interpreters are all
translators. An interpreter is a translator for a high-level programming language
that translates and runs the program at the same time. If an error occurs,
program execution ❯ the interpreter halts program execution and shows the likely place (and
sometimes the cause) of the error.
Step 3: Linking
Because applications programs work closely with the operating system, our
program has to be linked to the operating system before it can be executed.
linking ❯ Linking is a process during which a system software component, a linker,
builds a complete executable program from component object programs. In
integrated development environments or programming platforms linking is
often combined with compilation into a single ‘compile & link’ operation.
Step 4: Executing a program

Once linked, a program is executable and can be loaded into memory and run.
An executable file will usually have a .exe extension.
171
ITQ5 Step 5: Maintaining a program

State the TWO steps between compiling Once a program is complete, the program enters a maintenance phase which
and executing a program? continues until the program is no longer needed. Maintenance is of two types:
corrective and adaptive. Corrective maintenance ensures that program bugs
or flaws that are identified are fixed. Adaptive maintenance is concerned with
the implementation of new features or changing the way a particular feature
works. Effective program maintenance is dependent on the availability of good
documentation.
Program documentation
When a program has been designed, written and tested it still needs to be
documented. There are two types of documentation: internal documentation
and external documentation.
internal documentation ❯ Internal documentation is a set of notes included within the source code
as comments. It is often combined with meaningful variable names with the
intention of providing potential future programmers a means of understanding
the workings of the code.
Some of the key features of internal documentation include:
ITQ6
• the use of mnemonic names;
Who is most likely to read the internal
• use of comments;
documentation?
• indentation;
• effective use of white spaces
external documentation ❯ External documentation is written text that accompanies computer
software. It either explains how it operates or how to use it, or may mean
different things to people in different roles.
Figure 11.1 An annotated program showing the features of internal documentation in use.
172
Writing programs in Pascal

When preparing to write a well-documented Pascal programs, there are three
key things you must know.
1 The structure of a Pascal program.
2 The punctuation marks and their usage.
3 The reserved words and their usage.
Program structure
Pascal programs are written in a structured way. They all follow the same basic
structure: 1) a name (or header), 2) one or more declarations, 3) the program
statements (or body) that does all the work.
Table 11.4 contains some important points about the three main sections of
a program.
Program • PROGRAM must be the first statement of the PROGRAM myProgramName;

header program.
• There can be only one PROGRAM statement
in a program.
• An identifier (name) created by the
programmer must be written after the word
PROGRAM.
Declaration • TYPES, CONSTANTS and VARIABLES are CONST myConstant = <value>;
section declared here.
• Most programs at this level will have VAR variable1, variable2 : type1
CONSTANTS and VARIABLE declarations only. variable3, variable4 : type2
Program Every PROGRAM must have: BEGIN
body • a BEGIN to mark where the Pascal <statements are inserted here>
statements that makes up the program END.
begins (there is no punctuation after BEGIN)
• an END as its last statement (the END of the
program must be punctuated with a period).
Table 11.4 Structure of a Pascal program.
The Four Sections of a Pascal program
1 Program header Program firstRun; Always use a meaningful

program name.
2 Uses clause uses crt;
‘crt’ is the name of a pre-
written Pascal program
3 Declaration section var name : string; that will be limked with
your program after
1 compilation is complete.
{ A comment can say anything } ‘clrscr’ is a sub-program
begin defined in crt that clears
the screen.
clrscr;
read(name); 2 The variable name is
4 Program body
write(‘Hello’, name) declared at 1 ,
end. 3 inputted at 2 , then
outputted at 3 .
{ Comment may appear anywhere }
Figure 11.2 Sample Pascal program showing the different program sections.
173
Punctuation marks and their usage

Knowing which punctuation marks to use when constructing a program will
help to keep them free of syntax errors. Table 11.5 describes where and how
the various punctuation marks may be used.
Section Name Symbol Purpose Example

Colon : ➊ Used within variable declaration statements to separate Example 11A
identifiers from data types. PROGRAM example1;
/* end of program header*/
Declaration section Comma , ➋ To separate identifiers of the same type in a declaration
statement.
VAR myAge, yourAge : INTEGER;➊
averageAge, weight : REAL;➋
Program body Comma , ➊ To separate identifiers of the same type in a declaration Example 11B
statement. PROGRAM example4;
➋ To separate variables in a function call, as when using READ /* end of program header*/
or WRITE.
➌ To separate variables from literals when using the WRITE or VAR x, y, z : REAL;➊
WRITELN function. /* end declaration section */
BEGIN
READ(x, y, z);➋
WRITE(x, y, z);
WRITELN(‘Value of x ’,x)➌
END.
All sections Semi-colon ; To terminate statements within a program, such as: Example 11C
➊ a program name PROGRAM example3;➊
➋ a variable declaration
➌ an input statements VAR myAge : INTEGER;➋
➍ an output statements
➎ conditional statements. BEGIN
READLN(myAge);➌
IF myAge > 18 THEN WRITE
(‘Can vote’);➍,➎
END.
Declaration section Equal sign = ➊ To provide a value for a constant being declared. Example 11D
and program body ➋ To test the equality of two operands in a conditional PROGRAM example5;
statement.
➌ Used alongside a colon to form the assignment operator. CONST WinValue = 100;➊
VAR x, count : INTEGER;
BEGIN
READ(x);
IF x = WinValue THEN➋
X := winValue *2;➌
END.
Program body Period . Used after the keyword END to indicate the end of the program. See last statement in Examples
11B, 11C and 11D.
Table 11.5 Punctuation marks and their usage in the Pascal language.
174
Reserved words Reserved words

and
array The syntax rules (or grammar) of Pascal define certain symbols to have unique
begin meaning within a Pascal program. These symbols, the reserved words, must
case not be used for any other purposes. All reserved words are written in lower
const
div
case. The reserved words of Pascal are listed in the margin.
do
downto
else Writing and reading
end
for The effectiveness of computer programs is heavily dependent on being able to
function provide output to the user, based on the processing activity that was used to
if transform one or more inputs provided by the user.
mod
not The following describes the usage of the WRITE, WRITELN and READLN
of reserved words.
or
procedure
program Word Explanatory notes Example of usage in a program
repeat
string WRITE • Tells the computer to write out Example 11.5
then
to
WRITELN information for the user to read. PROGRAM example6;
type • Syntax: WRITE(stuff to be written,
until separated by commas); CONST x = 5;
uses • No spacing is added to literal strings.
var
while
• Spaces are added to the left of number BEGIN
variables so that it is easy to print WRITE(‘The value of x is ’);
columns of numbers where the digits WRITE(x);
on the right line up. For WRITELN, a WRITELN;
carriage return is placed at the end of WRITELN(‘The value of x is ’,x)
the line. END.
READLN • Tells the computer to get information Example 11.6
and put it into storage locations. PROGRAM example7;
• Syntax: READLN(stuff to be written,
separated by commas); VAR num1, num2, num3: integer;
• There must be at least one variable
name in the parentheses. BEGIN
• If there is more than one variable name, WRITELN(‘Enter the first two numbers’);
they must be separated by commas. READLN(num1,num2);
• Nothing but variable names may appear WRITELN(‘Enter the third number’);
in the parentheses. READLN(num3)
• Displays a flashing cursor and waits END.
for the user to type in the appropriate
information and press the carriage
return.
• If there is more than one variable to
be inserted, the user must type one or
more spaces between each information
item to be stored.
Table 11.6 Using the WRITE, WRITELN and READLN reserved words.
The assignment statement

The assignment statement is the only statement in Pascal that does not have a
key word. It is recognised by the assignment operator ( := ). Its function is to
place a value in a storage location and allows calculations to be performed.
The READLN statement and the assignment statement are the only two
Pascal statements that can change the contents of a storage location.
175
Symbol Explanatory notes Examples of usage in a program

:= • Syntax: variable := expression; An expression can be:
• The only information allowed 1 assigning a constant value to a variable:
on the left side of the X := 5;
assignment operator is the
2 assigning the variable from one variable to another:
name of a storage location (the
biggerValue := num1;
variable name).
• No space is allowed between 3 an arithmetic calculation (four examples shown
the colon and the equal sign. below):
i sum := a + b;
ii total := total + 1;
iii average := ( x + y + z) / 3;
iv discount := originalPrice * discountRate;
Table 11.7 Using the assignment statement.

When converting from pseudocode to Pascal program code, statements that
include the word STORE must be converted to assignment statements.
From algorithm to program source code

You will now learn to write, compile, run and debug some Pascal programs.
First, download and install a Pascal compiler. Ask your teacher for some help
with this or use a search engine to locate the installation files for either Turbo
Pascal or Dev Pascal.
In Chapter 10, 14 algorithms were developed (Examples 10.1–10.14). These
solution algorithms were documented using both pseudocode and flowcharts.
These examples are summarised in Table 11.8 for easy reference.
You are encouraged to go back to the relevant pages and refresh your
memory as you look at the Pascal programs for each example.
Chapter 10 Chapter 11
Example Page Problem type Example Page
10.1 145 Basic input/output 11.1 177
10.2 146 Adding two integer values 11.2 177
10.3 147 Arithmetic computations using constants and variables 11.3 177
10.4 148 Arithmetic computations including area and perimeter 11.4 178
10.5 148 Computing averages 11.5 178
10.6 149 Computing discount and tax 11.6 179
10.7 150 Integer division using the DIV and MOD operators 11.7 179
10.8 154 Exchanging values in variables 11.8 180
10.9 154 IF…THEN with no ELSE 11.9 180
10.10 154 IF…THEN…ELSE 11.10 181
10.11 155 IF…THEN…ELSE with compound conditions 11.11 181
10.12 155 Count-controlled (FOR…DO) loop 11.12 182
10.13 156 Condition-controlled (WHILE…DO) loop 11.13 182
10.14 157 Condition-controlled (REPEAT…UNTIL) loop 11.14 183
Table 11.8 Summary of algorithms developed in Chapter 10 and their corresponding Chapter 11
programs.
176
Example 11.1 Basic input/output
Pseudocode Pascal code

START PROGRAM example11_1;
OUTPUT ‘Please enter your name’ { this program performs basic input and output }
INPUT name
OUTPUT ‘Hello’, name VAR name: string;
END
BEGIN
WRITELN(‘Please enter your name’);
READLN(name);
WRITELN(‘Hello’, name)
END.
Activity 11.1 Write a program to accept your first name, last name and age and output the
statement ‘Hi, my name is Firstname Lastname and my age is xx’.
Note that the variables to be outputted are underlined, so make sure your output
includes the data that was entered when the program was run.
Example 11.2 Adding two integer values

INPUT num1 { Computing the sum of two numbers }
INPUT num2
VAR num1, num2, sum: integer;
STORE num1 + num2 TO sum
OUTPUT sum BEGIN
END READLN(num1, num2);
sum := num1 + num2;
WRITELN(sum)
END.
Activity 11.2 Susan owns and runs BVI Boat Hire, which specialises in renting out boats at
US$50 per hour. She needs a program that reads the number of hours that a boat
is rented for, calculates the total cost and prints out the total cost of the rental, all
with suitable labels.
Example 11.3 Arithmetic computations using constants and variables

STORE 2.54 to conversionFactor { accept a measurement in cm and convert to inches }
INPUT measurement CONST conversionFactor = 2.54;
STORE measurement * conversionFactor TO inchMeasure
VAR measurement, inchMeasure : real;
OUTPUT inchMeasure, measurement
END BEGIN
READLN(measurement);
inchMeasure := measurement * conversionFactor;
WRITELN(measurement:1:0, ‘ cm’, ‘is equal to ’,
inchMeasure:1:0, ‘ inches’);
READLN
END.
177
Activity 11.3 A food distributor in St Luago imports rice pre-packaged in 1 lb., 2 lb. and 5 lb.
packages. The Ministry of Commerce has issued a directive that requires all labels
to display the weight of products in both pounds and kilograms.
Write a program that outputs a table showing the conversions. For example, the
first line of output should read: 1 lb. = 0.45 kg.
Example 11.4 Arithmetic computations including area and perimeter

OUTPUT ‘Please enter the length and width of { compute the area of a rectangular football
football field’ field }
INPUT length, width
VAR length, width, area : integer;
STORE length * width TO area
OUTPUT ‘The area is’, area BEGIN
END WRITE(‘Enter the length and width’);
READLN(length, width);
area := length * width;
WRITELN(‘The area is ’, area);
READLN
END.
Activity 11.4 1 Implement the program based on the algorithm developed in Activity 10.6.
2 Develop an algorithm and implement the program based on the narrative in
Further practice Question 1 on page 193.
Example 11.5 Computing averages

INPUT price1, price2, price3 { Compute the average of three values }
STORE (price1 + price2 + price3)/3 TO AVERAGE
VAR price1, price2, price3, average : real;
OUTPUT ‘The average is’, average
END BEGIN
WRITE(‘Enter three prices’);
READLN(price1, price2, price3);
average := (price1 + price2 + price3)/3;
WRITELN(‘The average is ’, average:1:2);
READLN
END.
Activity 11.5 1 Write a program to accept the age of three of your classmates and print the
average age. Perform all computations using the integer data type.
2 Implement the program based on the algorithm developed in Activity 10.7.
3 Implement the program for ITQ 16 in Chapter 10.
178
Example 11.6 Computing discount and tax

STORE 10% TO taxRate { Compute tax on an item }
INPUT itemPrice
CONST taxRate = 0.1;
STORE itemPrice * taxRate TO taxpayable
STORE itemPrice + taxpayable TO afterTaxPrice VAR itemPrice, taxPayable, afterTaxPrice : real;
OUTPUT afterTaxPrice BEGIN
END WRITE(‘Enter price of an item’);
READLN(itemPrice);
taxpayable := itemPrice * taxRate;
afterTaxPrice := itemPrice + taxpayable;
WRITELN(‘The original price is ’, itemPrice:1:2);
WRITELN(‘The tax payable is ’, taxPayable:1:2);
WRITELN(‘The price after tax is ’, afterTaxPrice:1:2);
READLN
END.
Activity 11.6 1 A company is having a sale on widgets. A discount of 25% is offered off the
regular sale price of $50 each. Write a program that:
a accepts the quantity of widgets being purchased
b computes the discount
c prints the original price, discount and discounted price with appropriate
labels.
2 Implement the program based on the algorithm developed in Activity 10.7.
Example 11.7 Integer division using the DIV and MOD operators
STORE 60 TO conversionFactor { Using integer division to display time in hours and
INPUT time minutes }
STORE time DIV conversionFactor TO numHours
CONST conversionFactor = 60;
STORE timeInHours MOD conversionFactor TO
numMinutes VAR minutes, hours : integer;
OUTPUT ‘Hours’, numHours, ‘Minutes: ’, BEGIN
numMinutes WRITE(‘Enter time in minutes’);
END READLN(minutes);
hours := minutes DIV conversionFactor;
WRITE(minutes, ‘minutes is equal to ’);
WRITE(hours, ‘hr and ’);
WRITE(minutes MOD conversionFactor, ‘min’);
READLN
END.
Activity 11.7 1 Implement the program based on the algorithm developed in Activity 10.9.
179
Example 11.8 Exchanging values in variables

OUTPUT ‘Enter two unequal numbers’ { swap two unequal numbers }
INPUT numX, numY
VAR numX, numY, temp : integer;
IF numX > numY THEN
STORE numX to temp BEGIN
STORE numY to numX WRITE(‘Enter two unequal numbers’);
STORE temp to numY READLN(numX, numY);
END temp := numX;
numX := numY;
numY:= temp;
WRITELN(‘The value of x is now ’, numX, ‘and the
value of y is ’, numY);
READLN
END.
Activity 11.8 Your Mathematics teacher made a mistake and he mistakenly swapped the scores
for three students: Tiffany, Alexia and Abbi. Tiffany has Alexia’s score, Alexia has
Abbi’s score and Abbi has Tiffany’s. Write a program to swap the scores so that the
scores display against the correct student name.
The conditional statement (IF…THEN…ELSE)

Pascal implements the conditional statement using the IF, THEN and
ELSE reserved words. Semi-colons should be used sparingly when writing
conditional statements as even one extra semi-colon will give either a syntax
error or logic error, or both.
Example 11.9 IF…THEN with no ELSE

IF creditAmount >= 100 THEN { Compute top up bonus if credit more than $100 }
STORE creditAmount * 10% TO topUpBonus
VAR topUpAmount, topUpBonusl: real;
ENDIF
END BEGIN
WRITE(‘Enter credit amount’);
READLN(creditAmount);
IF creditAmount >= 100 THEN
topUpbonus := creditAmount * 0.1;
WRITE(‘The top up bonus is $ ’,
topUpbonus:1:2);
READLN
END.
Activity 11.9 Susan, the owner at BVI Boat Hire, is offering a 10% discount on all boat hire
longer than 5 hours. Write the program that she will use to compute the discount,
if applicable, for anyone renting boats.
180
Example 11.10 IF…THEN…ELSE

STORE 5% to discRate { Computing a discount if a condition is met }
INPUT price1, price2
CONST discRate = 0.05;
STORE price1+price2 TO total
IF total > 500 THEN VAR price1, price2, discount, total : real;
STORE total * discRate TO discount BEGIN
ELSE WRITE(‘Enter two prices’);
STORE 0 TO discount READLN(price1, price2);
ENDIF total := price1+price2;
OUTPUT total – discount IF total > 500 THEN
END discount := total * discRate
ELSE
Discount := 0;
WRITE(‘The total is $ ’, total-discount:1:2);
READLN
END.
Activity 11.10 1 Develop an algorithm and implement the program based on the narrative in
Example 11.11 IF…THEN…ELSE with compound conditions

OUTPUT ‘Enter SBA & exam scores’ { Using a compound condition }
INPUT sba, exam
VAR sba, exam : integer;
IF sba > 50 THEN
IF Exam > 50 THEN BEGIN
OUTPUT ‘Pass’ WRITE(‘Enter SBA & exam scores’);
ENDIF READLN(sba, exam);
ELSE IF (sba > 50) AND (exam > 50) THEN
OUTPUT ‘Fail’ WRITE(‘Congratulations, you have passed’)
ENDIF ELSE
END WRITE(‘Sorry, you have failed’);
READLN
END.
Activity 11.11 Modify the program you wrote in Activity 11.9. Use the truth table created in
Activity 10.11 to provide the decision logic.
181
Loops
Pascal implements loops using three constructs:
1 FOR…DO
2 WHILE…DO
3 REPEAT…UNTIL
All three of these loops will be explored using the same problem: compute the
average score of a set of scores supplied by the user.
Example 11.12 Count-controlled (FOR…DO) loop

STORE 0 TO runningTotal { Compute average of a set of scores using a FOR…DO loop }
FOR count = 1 TO 10 DO
CONST numScores = 5;
INPUT mark
VAR count, score, runningTotal : integer;
STORE runningTotal + mark TO runningTotal
averageScore : real;
ENDFOR
STORE runningTotal/10 TO averageScore BEGIN
OUTPUT averageScore runningTotal := 0;
END FOR count := 1 TO numScores DO BEGIN
WRITE (‘Enter a score’);
READLN(score);
runningTotal := runningTotal + score;
END;
averageScore := runningTotal/numScores;
writeln(‘The average is ’, averageScore:2:1);
READLN
END.
Activity 11.12 Implement the program based on the algorithm developed in Activity 10.14.
Example 11.13 Condition-controlled (WHILE…DO) loop

SET numScores to 5 { Compute average of a set of scores using a WHILE…DO loop }
STORE 0 TO runningTotal
STORE 1 TO count
WHILE count <= numScores
INPUT score
STORE runningTotal + score TO runningTotal BEGIN
END WHILE runningTotal := 0;
STORE runningTotal/numScores TO averageScore count := 1;
OUTPUT averageScore WHILE count <= numScores DO BEGIN
END WRITE (‘Enter a score’);
READLN(score);
count := count +1
END;
READLN
END.
182
Example 11.14 Condition-controlled (REPEAT…UNTIL) loop

SET numScores to 5 { Compute average of a set of scores using a
STORE 0 TO runningTotal REPEAT…UNTIL loop }
STORE 0 TO count
REPEAT
STORE count + 1 TO count
INPUT score
STORE runningTotal + score TO BEGIN
runningTotal runningTotal := 0;
UNTIL count<= numScores count := 0;
STORE runningTotal/numScores TO REPEAT
averageScore count := count +1;
OUTPUT averageScore WRITE (‘Enter a score’);
END READLN(score);
UNTIL count = numScores;
READLN
END.
Testing and debugging techniques

A program will not execute if it contains a syntax error. Assuming that you
manage to rid your program of all syntax errors, then there is a possibility
that either a logic error or a run-time error may still be lurking somewhere.
Programmers have to carry out a range of checks and tests to verify the
correctness of their programs. Recall that during program design, the algorithm
was checked for errors using a trace table. Even with this initial check, logic
errors may still exist.
Type of code Filename

Source code test.pas Type of error When identified How identified
Object code test.obj Syntax During translation Error message generated by compiler or
interpreter
Executable test.exe
Logic During dry run Actual results and expected results differ
Table 11.9 The filename extensions Run-time During program execution Program terminates abnormally or actual results
associated with the source code, object code differ from test results
and executable code help programmers
keep track of the files. Table 11.10 Summary of error types indicating when and how identified.
183
Syntax errors
During program development, a complier checks through the source code
to ensure that it strictly obeys the rules of the programming language. It
syntax error ❯ will report any syntax error it finds, making it easy for the programmer to
correct the error. The programmer must correct the errors and re-compile the
Syntax errors are errors in the way we use the program. Only when the source code is completely free of syntax errors will
programming language.
object code be produced.
Syntax errors are easiest to understand by looking at examples in English.
Example in English Type of syntax error

‘kicked the ball the boy’ word order
‘The boy the ball’ an item (verb) is missing from the sentence
Incorrect syntax Type of syntax error ‘There wsa no one there’ spelling error
READ amount missing parentheses Table 11.11 Syntax errors.
total = total + 20 incorrect operator Programming languages have strict syntax rules that must be obeyed if the
compiler is to successfully produce object code. For example Table 11.11 shows
Amount WRITE wrong order of words some syntax rules in Pascal.
Table 11.12 Syntax rules. When our program compiles successfully we can be sure that we have
detected and corrected all the syntax errors. As we will discuss later, this
doesn’t mean that the program is correct as it still may have flaws that may
cause either a logic error or run-time error. ‘The ball kicked the boy’ is
syntactically correct but the meaning of the sentence is incorrect.
Logic errors
logic error ❯ Logic errors are easily corrected at the design stage but more difficult to
correct when the program has been written. Logic errors need to be detected
and eliminated as early in the development process as possible. That is why it
is important to dry run the algorithm using appropriate test data and then test
the program thoroughly.
A logic error is a mistake in the design of the program, such as a branch to
a wrong statement, or the use of an incorrect or inappropriate mathematical
formula. A logic error will be recognised because the program produces wrong
results or an incorrect display. It is unlikely to produce an error message
because the error is in the program design.
Activity 11.15 Identifying and correcting logic errors

1 Select appropriate test data for the program in Example 11.10.
2 Construct a trace table.
3 Repeat the process for the programs in Examples 11.11–11.15.
Run-time errors
run-time error ❯ A run-time error is a program flaw detected during program execution,
which may or may not cause the program to terminate abnormally. An attempt
to divide by zero will usually cause a run-time error.
Testing and debugging

Testing is important to ensure that our program works correctly in all
situations. Failure of our program to work in even one instance may have
disastrous results.
184
Run-time errors are detected during

execution and usually cause the
program to terminate abnormally. Input
data values an/or variable declarations
are usually the cause of run-time errors.
The source code may not need to be
changed, only the data.
R
Create
Compile Link Execute Maintain
source code
S L
Syntax errors are detected during
compilation. The programmer must Logic errors are detected during execution.
go back to the source code and Unlike syntax errors that cause the compilation
correct the statement containing the process to be aborted, a logic error has no
error before the process can continue such effect. The programmer will detect that
through to the end. a logic error exists when the program produces
results that are unexpected. He/she must go
back to the source code and locate and correct
the statement containing the error before the
process can continue through to the end.
Figure 11.3
Testing our program involves:
• selecting appropriate test data
• using the test data to conduct a dry run on the algorithm
• using the test data to test the program after it has been converted to an
executable form.
During testing, we may discover that we have a logic error or a run-time
error. Both of these can be corrected by debugging our program.
Debugging is the detection, location and Debugging our program starts at the design stage. We must try to eliminate
correction of faults (bugs) causing errors in a logic errors and introduce validation rules to make sure our programs are
program. The errors are detected by observing robust and user friendly.
error messages or by finding unexpected results
in test output. An example of a logic error is:
ITQ7 IF mark <= 40 THEN

PRINT ‘Pass’
What type of errors will be identified ELSE
during compilation? PRINT ‘Fail’
ENDIF
In this example using a test value of 0 would indicate a ‘Pass’, clearly an
error in the program.
What was really meant is that students pass with a mark of 40 or above.
This programmer has either mixed up his pass and fail or he is confused about
the meaning of <= (less than or equal to) and >= (greater than or equal to).
Arrays
What exactly is an array? To understand what an array is, consider a cup
holder. A cup holder is a container. It is a specialised container that is made
for holding cups. Recognise that the cup itself is a container whose purpose is
Figure 11.4 A cup holder in an example of to hold a beverage, whether hot or cold. A cup holder is therefore like a super
an array. container – a container that holds other containers.
size, type ❯ The holder has a size, 4 in this case. It has a type, in this case it is a soda
locations ❯ cup holder. It has multiple locations, each of which is identified by a unique
index ❯ number, called an index. The first index starts at one, and increases by one
until the index equals the size of the array.
A cup holder is an example of an array.
185
'H¿QLWLRQRIDQDUUD\
An array is a collection of data items of the same type.
'HVLJQLQJ\RXURZQDUUD\
In creating an array to hold data we need to know three things:
array name ❯ 1 what we are going to name it (array name);
size ❯ 2 how big it is going to be (size);
data type ❯ 3 what type of data it will store (data type).
Let us consider that you want an array to store the amount of money you
spent last week for lunch at school. Your array design would look something
Data items are stored in the locations like this:
1 name of array could be lunchMoney;
2 the size needs to be 5 as there are five school days in a week;
3 the type of data is real because we are storing money which has dollars and
cents.
1 2 3 4 Declaring an array in Pascal
To declare an array we have to tell the computer three things about the array:
1 the name or identifier;
Index used to specify particular locations
2 the size of the container;
Figure 11.5 An array has multiple 3 the data type of the container will hold.
locations which it uses to hold data items of
the same type. location
ARRAY lunchMoney: 10.50 9.50 10.50 8.50 values are of data type REAL
1 2 3 4
index
Figure 11.6 Make sure you have all the information needed about an array before you set out to
declare one.
The format of an array declaration in Pascal is:
Var arrayName : ARRAY[1..size] of dataType;
The declaration for our array named lunchMoney would be
Var lunchMoney: ARRAY[1..5] of REAL;
Example 11.15 You require an array to store the letter grade you received for
Mathematics, English and Information Technology on your report last year.
In designing our array, we will consider the usual three things:
1 the name or identifier – subjectGrades;
2 the size of the container – 3 as there are three subject grades to store;
3 the data type of the container will hold – type of data is character
because we are storing single letters such as ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’.
The declaration for our array named subjectGrades would be
VAR subjectGrades : ARRAY[1..3] OF CHAR;
186
Example 11.16 You have been asked to collect data from each member of
your IT class indicating the number of FaceBook friends that each person has.
In designing our array, we will consider the usual three things:
1 the name or identifier – faceBookFriends;
2 the size of the container – 25 as this the number of students in the class;
3 the type of data the container will hold – the type of data is integer
because we are storing a count of the number of friends that each person
has, whole numbers, such as 50, 515 and 1875.
The declaration for our array named faceBookFriends would be
VAR faceBookFriends : ARRAY[1..25] OF INTEGER;
Example 11.17 Declare an array to store the names of the days of the week.
1 the name or identifier – daysOfTheWeek;
2 the size of the container- 7 as there are seven days in the week;
3 the data type of the container will hold – type of data is string because
we are storing text such as ‘Thursday’.
The declaration for our array named daysOfTheWeek would be
daysOfTheWeek: ARRAY[1..7] OF STRING;
Activity 11.16 Write array declarations in Pascal for EACH of the

following scenarios:
1 The total daily rainfall for the one month of January.
2 The highest daily temperature for one year.
3 The number of public holidays observed by each country in the 15 CARICOM
members.
4 The average pass rate for CSEC Information Technology from 1995 to 2010.
5 The number of wheels on each of the following types of transportation: bicycle,
handcart, light aircraft, motor car, sports utility vehicle and luxury yacht.
6 The average weight of the following fully grown animals: elephant, horse, lion,
tiger, rhinoceros, sheep and goat.
7 The height in centimetre of each 35 students in Form 5 at your school.
8 The names of the month of the year
%DVLF2SHUDWLRQVRQ$UUD\V
Now that we are able to declare one-dimension arrays, let us explore some of
the basic operations we can do with them.
Storing data in a particular location

To store data in a particular location we simply need to identify the location
where we want the data to go and use the assignment operator :=.
• If we want to store the amount of money we spent on day 1 (Monday) in
our array lunchMoney, we simply need to identify that location as follows:
lunchMoney[1]
lunchMoney[1] := 10.50
• If we wanted to store data for day 2 (Tuesday), we would identify that

location as: lunchMoney[2]
lunchMoney[2] := 9.50
187
• Similarly, day 3 (Wednesday) would be identified as lunchMoney[3]

assignment operator ❯ To store a value to an array location use the assignment operator (:= or ï)
and the format:
NameOfArray[index] := value
Activity 11.17 Write a section of pseudocode that uses a 10-element array and a loop to initialise
the array so that the first element contains 1, the second element contains 2, the
third element contains 4, the fourth element 8, the fifth 16 and so on to the end of
the array. Each array element is double the value of the previous array element.
Reading data into a particular location

READLN ❯ To read data from the keyboard into an array use the verb READLN
READLN (NameOfArray[subscript])
Examples:
READLN (lunchMoney[2])
READLN(faceBookFriends[5])
READLN(subjectGrades[2])
Writing data from a particular location

To write data from an array location to an output device use the verb
WRITELN ❯ WRITELN
Syntax: WRITELN (NameOfArray[index])
WRITELN (lunchMoney[2])
Examples:
WRITELN (‘Amount of lunch money for today is ’, lunchMoney[2])
WRITELN(‘Number of friends on facebook is ’, faceBookFriends[5])
WRITELN(‘Grade is ’, subjectGrades[2])
Activity 11.18 Write a program, using a one-dimension array called dayNames, which accepts
an integer day and returns the name of the day. For example, if the number 5 is
entered, ‘Thursday’ should be printed. If an invalid value is entered for day, the
program should print the error message ‘Invalid day entered’.
Traversing an array
To traverse an array means to visit each array location and to carry out an
operation on the value stored there.
When we traverse an array, we travel through the array, visiting each
element from start through to end. A FOR…DO loop is ideally suited for
traversing an array because the counter in the loop can be used as the index to
access each array element.
188
Example:
To accomplish this, we will need to declare a loop counter variable that is the
same size as the upper bound of the array. Here is our array lunchMoney:
10.50 9.50 7.00 12.50 8.50
FOR counter := 1 TO 5 DO
WRITELN(lunchMoney[counter]);
Activity 11.19 A local book club has 10 members. It wants to keep a track of the number of books
read by each member. A program is required to read the name and number of
books read by each member into two one-dimension arrays. The program should
print out a list of members who have read more than 10 books.
Searching an array
Considering that an array is used to store a list of information, it is not a
surprise that there may be a need to search for an item in the list. For example,
an array may store a list of the names of all the persons in your class. We could
search the list for a classmate named Apryl and make a note of the position
that it occupies in the list.
A sequential search may be used to find an element in an array.
sequential search ❯ A sequential search is a method for finding a particular value in a list, that
consists of checking every one of its elements, one at a time and in sequence,
until the desired one is found.
To carry out a sequential search:
1 traverse the array (using a FOR…DO loop)
2 check the necessary condition(s) as the loop statement (using a IF…THEN)
Example:
Assuming that an array named LETTERS is already declared and initialised
with the 26 letters of the alphabet, the following code segment would search
the array and return the position of the letter ‘M’:
FOR index:= 1 TO 26 DO
IF LETTERS[index] = ‘M’ THEN
WRITELN(‘The letter M was found at position ’, index);
Example:
Write a program that searches the array lunchMoney for values greater than
10.00.
PROGRAM printBigValues;
VAR
lunchMoney: ARRAY[1..5] OF REAL;
counter: INTEGER;
BEGIN
lunchMoney[1] := 10.50;
IF (lunchMoney[counter] > 10) THEN
WRITELN(‘On day ’, counter, ’ you spent ’, lunchMoney[counter]);
189
Example:
Write a program that stores the values 1 to 100 inclusive in an array, and then
print out all the even numbers.
Program printEvenNumbers;
VAR
numStore: ARRAY[1..100] OF INTEGER;
counter: INTEGER;
/* Array traversed twice, the first time to write the value to the array, */
/* the second time to read the value and print the even numbers. */
BEGIN
numStore[counter] := counter;
IF (numStore[counter] MOD 2 = 0) THEN
WRITELN(numStore[counter]);
END.
Activity 11.20 Write a program that checks for a sequence of values within an array. For example,
given the word TOPOLOGY, the program should check whether the characters ‘LO’
are in the word and if so, should print the index number of the characters.
Summary
• There are five generations of programming languages.
• The binary machine code that the processor understands is the first generation.
• assembly language is the second generation.
• Pascal is an example of high-level third generation language.
• Fourth and fifth generation are languages that focus on specifying the problem rather than how it will be solved.
• A program is compiled by eliminating all the syntax errors so that the compiler can convert the high-level language
into machine code known as the object code.
• Linking the object code with the operating system features produces the executable code.
• Loading the program from backing storage, the hard disk drive, into memory is performed by the operating system.
• The processor then executes the program.
• Test data is selected to check the program produces correct result in all situations.
• Program documentation consists of internal documentation and external documentation.
• Internal documentation is used by other programmers who may need to understand the program.
• External documentation is used by end users of the program.
• An array is a collection of data items of the same type.
• Every array has a name, size and data type.
• Arrays are declared in Pascal: Var arrayName : ARRAY[1..size] of dataType.
• Element in an array can be accessed individually by using an integer index.
• In a program a FOR loop can be used to traverse through the elements of an array.
190
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 First generation machine code. and translate it into machine code but
ITQ2 Any THREE from: Fortran, a compiler does this only once and
ALGOL, COBOL, Pascal, C, C++, C#, produces object code. An interpreter
Java, BASIC and Delphi. translates the source code into
machine code every time the program
ITQ3 In a high-level language one
is run.
instruction is translated into many
machine code instructions, a low- ITQ5 Linking and loading.
level language one instruction is, ITQ6 Computer programmers who
or converts into, one machine code have debug, maintain or extend the
instruction. functionality of the program.
ITQ4 Both interpreters and ITQ7 Syntax errors will be
compilers take correct source code identified during compilation.
Multiple-choice questions 5 Which of the following is NOT a computer-based

Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested activity associated with program implementation?
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each (A) compilation
question carefully then select the most suitable (B) dry running
response. (C) linking
1 Programming languages such as Pascal, QBASIC and (D) source code creation
4C’ are best described as: 6 A 1-dimensional integer array ‘month’ contains 12
(A) first generation languages elements. Which of these pseudocode statements
(B) second generation languages best represent a correct action?
(C) third generation languages (A) month[4] = 31
(D) fourth generation languages (B) month[march] = 31
2 Which of the following are low-level languages? (C) month[3] = 31
(A) Pascal and 4C’ (D) march = 31
(B) assembly language and QBASIC 7 Which of the following structures can be represented
(C) FORTRAN and machine code as a 1-dimensional array?
(D) assembly language and machine code
(A) table
3 Which of the following correctly lists the sequence of (B) index of record cards
steps associated with program implementation? (C) list
(A) source code creation, compilation, linking, (D) grid of cells
execution
8 When every item in an array is accessed in order this
(B) compilation, source code creation, linking,
is known as:
execution
(C) linking, compilation, source code creation, (A) searching the array
execution (B) traversing the array
(D) source code creation, linking, compilation, (C) sorting the array
execution (D) initialising the array
4 When trying to debug a program a programmer is 9 Which of these pseudocode statements is most useful
most likely to look at: when dealing with arrays?
(A) the external documentation and source code (A) IF … THEN … ELSE statement
(B) the user manual and source code (B) relational operator
(C) the internal documentation and source code (C) FOR loop
(D) the source code only (D) assignment
191
10 Which of these statements about 1-dimensional arrays 13 Is the process of finding errors in pseudocode,
is true? understanding why they occurred, and correcting them.
(A) Elements in the array must all be of the same (A) compiling
type. (B) debugging
(B) Elements in the array must all be integer. (C) dry running
(C) Elements in the array must never contain 0. (D) testing
(D) Elements in the array can be of different types. 14 ____________ is the process of manually tracing
11 If age and rate are numeric variables and dept is a through an algorithm to check for logical correctness.
character variable, which of the following statements (A) compiling
is invalid? (B) debugging
(A) age = 23 (C) dry running
(B) dept = ‘A’ (D) testing
(C) dept = ‘Sales’ (E) running a program that converts pseudocode
(D) rate = age into a flowchart.
12 Which data type is MOST appropriate for storing a 15 The first row in a trace table contains:
value representing the weight of a bag of rice? (A) the names of the variables
(A) character (B) the name of the algorithm
(B) integer (C) the name of the author of the algorithm
(C) real (D) your name and today’s date
(D) Boolean
Structured Questions
1 There are five generations of programming languages. d Write the order of index numbers that would
For each generation, state TWO features that output the letters LUBE. [1]
distinguishes it from the others. [10] e Write a fragment of code to search the array
for the letter ‘U’, and return the index
2 Many problems can occur when writing a program.
location. [3]
a Programmers often say that they had to debug
5 Write a program to declare a 6 index array named
a program. What is debugging? [2]
SPECIAL. The program should:
b Use examples to explain the difference
between syntax errors and logic errors. [4] a initialise the array to store empty spaces; [2]
c What is the role of the compiler in program b store # in locations 2 and 3; [2]
implementation? [1] c store $ in location 4; [1]
d Name the program implementation step that d count the number of empty spaces in the
occurs immediately before program execution. [1] array; and [3]
e print the number of empty spaces to the
3 Documentation for a program is important.
screen. [1]
a Suggest FOUR items that might be included in
6 State what is accomplished by the following program
the internal documentation of a program. [4]
segment:
b Describe TWO features that can be incorporated
into source code to improve its readability. [4] PROGRAM sample;
4 Parts (a) to (e) are based on the following array called VAR square : ARRAY [1..100] OF integer;
LETTERS. count : integer;
BEGIN
CONTENTS B L U E FOR count := 1 TO 100 DO
INDEX 1 2 3 4 BEGIN
a State the size of the array. [1] square[count] := sqr(count);
b What is the data type of the array? [1] WRITELN(square[count]);
c Write the statement that would change the END
contents of the array at index number 1 to ‘G’. [1] END
192
7 What is the output of the following program? [6] 9 An array, MONTHS, contains the names of the 12
months and another array, DAYS, contains the number
PROGRAM Simple_Arrays;
of days in each month (31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31,
VAR count,index : INTEGER;
30, 31, 30, 31).
automobiles : ARRAY[1..12] of INTEGER;
BEGIN FOR counter := 1 TO 12 DO
FOR index := 1 TO 12 DO IF DAYS[counter] = 31) THEN
automobiles[index] := index + 10; WRITE (MONTHS[counter]);
WRITELN(‘This is the first program with an array’); ENDIF
WRITELN; END
FOR index := 1 to 12 DO
a What is the data type of the array DAYS? [1]
WRITELN(‘automobile number’,index:3’, has
b What is the data type of the array MONTHS? [1]
the value’,automobiles[index]:4);
c What is the output of the section of
WRITELN;
pseudocode algorithm given above? [1]
WRITELN(‘End of program’);
d Discuss the advantages of using arrays instead
END
of individual variables in this context. [3]
8 Arrays are often used when writing algorithms. e Give the correct term for looking through an
a Explain the advantages of using an array array selecting particular items in this way. [1]
instead of individually named variables. [2]
b Write a program segment to perform a linear
search of a 12-element, 1-dimensional array
named ‘TIMES’ searching for a value of 27. [5]
Further practice
1 You are employed at General Painters as their A by xx marks’, where xx represents the difference
estimator and are required to prepare quotations for between 80 and the average marks obtained.
painting jobs.
3 The St Luago Micro Finance Company (SLMFC)
a You have been asked to create a program that provides loans to small business operators at an
will: interest rate of 5.25%. All loans are given for a period
i set the rate ($ per square foot) that will be of 2½ years. You are required to:
charged for painting a write a program to compute the total interest to
ii set the rate (minutes per square foot) at which be paid as well as the monthly payment (principal
one painter works + interest), assuming that the amount is repaid
iii accept the total length and total width of the in equal instalments over the life of the loan.
area to be painted Interest is computed using the formula (principal
iv compute the price and time to paint the area * rate * time)/100 .
b The output should read: b test your program with loan amounts (principal)
Estimated cost to paint 9999 square feet is of $1,000, $15,000 and $17,500.
$999.99.
The job is estimated to take 99 hours and 9 4 A program is required to simulate the divide function
minutes. of a calculator that will carry out computations on
Thank you for the opportunity to quote. integers only. The program’s header and declaration
section appears below:
(Note: In the output above, 9999, $999.99, 99
and 9 are all used as placeholders for the area to PROGRAM calculator;
be painted, price charged for painting, and time VAR num1, num2, result : integer;
to paint (in hours and minutes) respectively. Your operation : char;
output should include the actual values.) a Write a program to:
c Modify the program to accept the number of i accept and store integer values in variables
painters that will complete the job and re- num1 and num2
compute the time taken to complete the job. ii accept a character, ‘D’, to represent the
2 Write a program to prompt for and accept three test operation DIV, or a character ‘M’ to represent
scores and compute their average. If the average the operation MOD
is greater than or equal to 80, print the message, iii perform the operation indicated
‘Congratulations: you scored an A this term’, iv print the output using the format:
otherwise, print the message, ‘Sorry, you missed an num1 operation num2 = result
193
b Test the program using the following data: e If the topUpbonus > 0, print the following
statement as well:
num1 num2 operation result output Congratulations! You received <<topUpBonus>>
6 2 D 3 6 DIV 2 = 3 in bonus credit.
4 2 M 0 4 MOD 2 = 0 (Note: Replace <<topUp>> and <<topUpBonus>>
7 2 D 3 7 DIV 2 = 3 with the actual values.)
10 3 M 1 10 DIV 3 = 1
9 Students at Possibility High School can graduate with
11 2 D 5 11 DIV 2 = 5
an Honours Diploma if their overall score is greater
7 2 M 1 7 MOD 2 = 1
than 80% and their attendance is 75% or higher. Write
9 2 D 4 9 DIV 2 = 4
a program to accept a student’s name, their overall
5 Write Pascal code to implement the following score and their attendance. The program should print
algorithm: a statement in the following format:
START Possibility High School
READ a, b *********************
IF a * b > 100 THEN Name: Xxxxxxxxxxxx
WRITE ‘product is greater than 100’ Score: 90%
ELSE Attendance: 85%
WRITE ‘product is less than or equal to 100’ Status: Okay to graduate
END IF 10 The Double Secure Security Company pays an hourly
END rate to its security guards. Guards who are paid time
6 Write a program to: and a half (1.5 times the hourly rate) for all hours
a prompt for and accept integer values into they work in excess of 40 hours. No security guard is
variables numX and numY allowed to work more than 60 hours per week. Write a
b subtract numY from numX and store the value program that:
obtained in a variable named difference a sets the hourly rate to $7.25
c display the message ‘Both values are equal’ if b accepts and validates the number of hours worked
difference = 0. Otherwise, display ‘The values are c computes the pay due for the month
not equal’. d prints a pay slip for the security guard showing:
7 Write a program to accept two real number values i name
from the user and compute and print their sum, ii total hours worked
product and absolute difference. For example, if the iii a breakdown of the hours worked as regular
values 8 and 9 are entered, the program should print: and overtime
iv the total pay due
The sum of 8.5 and 9.5 is 18
v a breakdown of the pay as regular pay and
The product of 8 and 9 is 80.75
overtime pay.
The difference between 8 and 9 is 1
11 Julie teaches Principles of Business at Possibility High
(Note: The absolute value (or modulus) |x| of a real
School. The number of students in any given year
number, x, is the non-negative value of x without
ranges between 20 and 30. She requires a program to
regard to its sign.)
compute the class average for each test, as well as
(Hint: Use a conditional statement to output the the highest and lowest score gained. Write a program
absolute difference.) that:
8 Caribbean Cellular gives each customer 20% more a accepts and validates the number of students in
credit (topUpBonus) with every phone credit (topUp) the class
over $20. Write a program that will: b accepts the score on a test for each student in the
a set the topUpBonus to 20% class
b accept the topUp amount c determines the lowest score, highest score and
c compute the topUpBonus, if applicable average score
d print the following output for all customers: d prints the lowest score, highest score and average
Your top up was successful. Your account was score, complete with suitable labels.
credited with <<topUp>>.
194
12 By the end of
Mastering word
processing
describe commonly available features

this chapter
import documents
you should
be able to:
use columns and tables appropriately
select appropriate editing features in the preparation of a document
perform block operations
use search and replace functions appropriately
use spell check
apply appropriate character formatting features
select appropriate formatting features for the preparation of a document
use headers, footers, footnotes and endnotes appropriately
Concept map
Word processing
includes processes such as
document creation text editing formatting printing &

distribution
via which includes that applies columns

using
tables
combining typing word block addition/ character formats:
documents text changes operations: deletion text effects
copy of text font effects to words
aided by move font colour
font size
in one of
two modes
proofing tools: find and paragraph formats:
to improve the
spelling and grammar replace borders & shading
appearance
thesaurus bullets & numbering to paragraphs
type over insert and readability
alignment
of a document
line spacing
page formats:
background
margins to pages
headers & footers
gutter
12 • Mastering word processing
A word processor is a text manipulation tool and this makes it one of the main
applications used on personal computers worldwide. From letters and reports
to stories and books, a word processor is a flexible and powerful tool when you
need to create great looking documents.
In this chapter, we will help you to master word processing. You will need
to spend a considerable amount of time practising at the computer. To help
you, we have included numerous practical exercises that will help you develop
all the skills needed.
Introduction to word processing

Word processing was one of the earliest applications for the personal computer
A word processor is a computer application used and is a descendant of early text formatting tools. Between the early 1970s and
for the production (including composition, editing, mid-1980s, stand-alone office machines that combined the keyboard text-entry
formatting, and possibly printing) of any sort of and printing functions of an electric typewriter with a dedicated processor for
printable material.
the editing of text were popular. Later models introduced innovations such as
spell-checking programs, increased formatting options, and dot matrix printing.
As the more versatile combination of a personal computer and separate
printer became commonplace, most business-machine companies stopped
manufacturing the word processor as a stand-alone office machine.
ITQ1 Over the years, Miscrosoft Word, Wordperfect and Open Office have been
very popular. With increased access to the Internet, web-based word processors
Name THREE free word processors. such as Google Docs, Zoho Writer, and ThinkFree have increased in popularity.
Office 2013 was released just about the time we finished preparing the
manuscript for this book.
Features of word processors

All word-processing packages have some basic features that facilitate:
• document creation
• document editing
• document formatting
• printing and distribution of documents
A document starts as a sequence of words which may be typed, copied from
another document or even imported from another application. These words are
then sequenced in the order that the user wants them to appear. Block editing
tools such as cut, copy and paste are useful here. Additionally, tools such as
the spell checker are a very useful editing tool as it helps to keep documents
free of spelling errors. Columns and tables help to organise text and images
in documents. Both of these may be used in creative ways to enhance the
readability and presentation of a document. When all the editing is complete,
Distribution it is time to improve the way the document looks. A wide range of formatting
features will help with this multi-faced task. A user may format characters,
Printing
paragraphs or pages in a document. When the document is complete, it may be
printed for distribution as a hard copy document or it may be e-mailed. Table
Page Layout
12.1 describes some features that are common to word processors.
Formatting
Document Creation
Figure 12.1 The document production

pyramid. Much of the work involved in the
production of a document has to do with its
creation.
196
Feature Brief description of feature

Font A set of type of one particular face and size. The complete character set of a single size and style of a particular typeface (a
set of characters that share common design features).
Insert mode Characters are inserted at the current cursor position.
Insertion position A flashing vertical bar on the screen indicating where the next character will be inserted. The position of the insertion position
can be changed using the mouse or the navigation keys , , and .
Margins The width of the margins, that is, the spaces between the edges of the paper and the text, can be set individually for top,
bottom, left and right margins.
Overtype mode New character replaces the existing character at the insertion position.
The key marked ‘Ins’ on the keyboard is used to switch between Insert mode and Overtype mode.
Page break A forced move onto the start of a new page. New chapters or large diagrams may need to occur at the start of a new page.
Inserting a forced page break will ensure that a new chapter starts on a new page.
Page numbers Automatic page numbering means that the page numbers always remain correct even when text is added or deleted from a
document. Flexible automatic page numbering is essential for longer documents.
Page set up Most modern word processors give control to the user to modify the layout of the page. Orientation can be either portrait or
landscape. The paper size can also be adjusted to match the size of the paper being used in the printer.
Tabs Short for tabulate. Tabs are pre-defined positions across a page and may be used be used to line up text into neat columns.
Text alignment Text can be left aligned, centred, right aligned or fully justified.
Word wrap Word processors automatically move text onto a new line when the current line is full. The user only has to press the ‘Enter’
key at the end of a paragraph. Word wrap ensures that the text is automatically adjusted when text is added or deleted. This
means that the text is always aligned within the margins of the page.
WYSIWYG What You See Is What You Get formatting applied to text is immediately changed on the screen meaning that what you see on
the screen is what will appear on the page when the document is printed.
Table 12.1 Some basic word processing features. These terms are common to all word-processing programs including Microsoft Word and Open
Office Writer.
Prepares letters,
envelopes and labels
for mass mailing
Find and replace is
Creates bullets a powerful text
and numbered lists editing feature
Red wavy lines indicate

potential misspelled words
Bulleted list
Character formatting
features such as bold may
be used for text emphasis
Figure 12.2 Some features of a word processor.
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Advantages of using a word processor

It is not difficult to see why word-processing packages have become so
common. The vast majority of printed documents nowadays are produced
using a word processor. Some advantages of using a word processor include the
ability to:
• combine documents or incorporate text from one document into another
without having to retype it
• insert pictures, tables, lists and other embedded objects
• move sections of text to another part of the document
• add headers and footers that appear on every page in the document
• emphasise particular words or phrases by underlining, making bold,
changing the font style or size
• correct mistakes before the final document is printed
• print the document many times
• store typed documents in the computer for future amendment or reprinting.
Introduction to Microsoft Word

The subsequent sections include practical exercises that are specific to
Microsoft Office 2007/2010.
Figure 12.3 When you open Word, you see two things, or main parts: (1) The ribbon, which sits
above the document, and includes a set of buttons and commands that you use to do things in and
with your document (like save it); and (2) a blank document, which looks like a white sheet of paper
and takes up most of the window.
How to start Microsoft Word

Start ❯ All Programs ❯ Microsoft Office ❯ Microsoft Word
1 Click on the start menu.
2 Go to All Programs.
3 Select the Microsoft Office folder.
4 Click on Microsoft Word to open.
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Activity 12.1 Opening Microsoft Word

1 Open Microsoft Word.
2 Check to ensure that your screen looks similar to Figure 12.3.
Tabs Commands change Scroll

colour when active list
Commands Groups Show dialogue

box
Drop-down
list
Figure 12.4 The Ribbon is new to Microsoft Office 2007 and Microsoft Office 2010. The buttons
and commands are arranged in groups and the groups are arranged in tabs.
Activity 12.2 Exploring the Home tab on the ribbon

1 Make a list of the different groups on the Home tab.
2 Expand each of the dialogue boxes (Clipboard, Font, Paragraph and Styles).
Explore the options that are available.
3 Click on the drop-down list for the Find command. Explore the three menu
options (Find, Advanced Find and Go To).
Creating a document
After opening a new document in Microsoft Word, there are three basic ways
to get text and illustrations into your document:
1 Using the keyboard and mouse to type text or to manipulate graphic objects;
2 Importing content from an existing document; and
3 Copying text and illustrations from a website or another application.
We will explore each of these.
Using the keyboard to type text

Once you open a new document, look for the cursor, a blinking vertical line in
the upper-left corner of the page, which tells you where the content you type
will appear on the page. Word waits for you to start typing.
If you’d like to start typing further down the page instead of at the very top,
press the ENTER key on your keyboard until the cursor is where you want to
type.
When you start typing, the text you type pushes the cursor to the right. If
All word-processing packages start with a you get to the end of a line, just continue to type. The text and the insertion
standard set up for font size, font type, page size, point will move on to the next line for you.
margins and other features. These initial settings Once you’ve finished typing your first paragraph, you press the ENTER
are the default settings.
key to go to the next paragraph. If you want more space between the two
paragraphs (or any two paragraphs), press ENTER again and then start typing
your second paragraph.
199
If you make a mistake while typing, just press the BACKSPACE key to
‘erase’ the incorrect characters or words.
Microsoft Word is an example of a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You
Get) so what you see on the screen is what the final document will look like.
WYSIWYG works best in Print Layout.
How to change to print layout view
View ❯ Document Views ❯ Print Layout
1 Click on the View tab.
2 Click the Print Layout button in the Document Views group.
Activity 12.3 Creating a document by typing text

1 Create a document by typing the text shown in the paragraph below.
Information Technology has evolved over

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2 Observe how the text wraps to the next line as the insertion point approaches
the margin.
3 Save your document as Rationale Part 1 using the File ❯ Save command (see
Figure 12.5).
STEP 1
Activate the
File tab.
STEP 2
Click the
Save As
button.
STEP 3
Select the location
where the file will
be saved
STEP 4
Type the
filename.
STEP 5
Click Save.
Figure 12.5 The save command is on the

File menu tab. Saving a document allows it
to be reopened at a later stage.
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Microsoft Word will automatically wrap onto the next line when necessary so your version may
not look exactly like this.
Activity 12.4 Creating a document by typing text

1 Creating a document by typing the text shown in the paragraph below.
In a world characterised by technological

innovation and computerised response
to situation in the work place and in the
wider society, all citizens will need to have
practical exposure to the techniques of
Information Technology in order to bridge
the widening gap between Caribbean
nations and the developed countries and
provide our citizens with the best chances
for survival and growth in this new age.
2 Save your document as Rationale Part 2
Importing a document
In many cases, some of the text needed to create a document already exists
in one or more documents. Since the text already exists, there is no need to
retype it.
For example, a publisher working on a dictionary may have a team of
26 people, one for each letter of the alphabet. Just before publication the 26
individual documents will need to be combined into the final dictionary.
There are two options to import from a document created in another
program. The option that you choose depends upon how much text you want
to import. The options are described in Table 12.2.
You want to Use this import option

Import selected text from a document created in another program Copy and paste
Import all of the text from a document created in another program Insert
Table 12.2 Text import options.
How to import a document

Insert ❯ Text ❯ Object ❯ Text from File
1 Open a new document.
2 Position the insertion point where you want the file to appear.
3 On the Insert tab, choose Text group.
4 Select the Object drop-down list.
5 Select the Text from File dialogue.
6 Select the location where the file is saved.
7 Select the file to insert.
8 Click insert.
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STEP 1
Select the
location where
the file is saved.
STEP 2
Select the file
to insert.
STEP 3
Click insert
Figure 12.6 Steps to import an entire document.
Activity 12.5 Importing a document

1 Import all the contents of the file Rationale Part 2 as the second paragraph of
rationale 1.
2 Save your document as Activity 5. The contents should resemble Figure 12.7.
In a world characterised by technological innovation and computerised response

to situation in the work place and in the wider society, all citizens will need to
have practical exposure to the techniques of Information Technology in order to
bridge the widening gap between Caribbean nations and the developed countries
and provide our citizens with the best chances for survival and growth in this
new age.
In a world characterised by technological innovation and computerised response

to situation in the work place and in the wider society, all citizens will need to
have practical exposure to the techniques of Information Technology in order to
bridge the widening gap between Caribbean nations and the developed countries
and provide our citizens with the best chances for survival and growth in this
new age.
Figure 12.7 This is what the new document looks like after importing the file Rationale Part 2.
202
Columns and tables

Columns
Word processors allow you to you to divide your document into columns.
This can enhance the formatting of your document. It is particularly useful
when creating newsletters, brochures, magazines and other similar documents.
Columns break make rows of text shorter. A shorter row of text is easier to
read.
How to insert a column
Insert ❯ Page Layout ❯ Columns
1 Position your cursor where you would like to insert the columns.
2 Open the page layout ribbon.
3 In the Page Setup section, click Columns.
4 From the drop-down menu, select the number of columns you’d like to insert.
5 Word will automatically insert the columns in your document.
Introduction to Word processing

A word processor is a computer application used for the Over the years, Microsoft Word, WordPerfect and Open
production (including composition, editing, formatting and Office have been very popular. With increased access to
possibly printing) of any sort of printable material. the internet, web-based word processors such as Google
Docs, Zoho Writer and ThinkFree have increased in
Word processing was one of the earliest applications for popularity.
the personal computer in office productivity and may be
considered a descendant of early text formatting tools. To really appreciate how word-processing packages
Between the early 1970s and mid-1980s, stand-alone office improve productivity, we need to consider the advantages
machines that combined the keyboard text-entry and of word-processing packages when compared with manual
printing functions of an electric typewriter with a dedicated typewriters that were popular 20 years ago.
processor for the editing of text were popular. Later Word processing was one of the earliest applications for
models introduced innovations such as spell-checking the personal computer in office productivity and may be
programs, increased formatting options, and dot-matrix considered a descendant of early text formatting tools.
printing. As the more versatile combinations of a personal Between the early 1970s and mid-1980s, stand-alone
computer and separate printer became commonplace, most office machines that combined the keyboard text-entry and (b)
business-machine companies stopped manufacturing the printing functions of an electric typewriter with a dedicated
word processor as a stand-alone office machine. processor of the editing of text were popular. Later
(a)
Figure 12.8 (a) A two-column format has been applied to selected text; (b) the Columns dialogue box shows the setting in effect for the diagram.
It is sometimes necessary to make one column shorter than the other. This
is done by inserting a column break.
How to insert a column break

Page Layout ❯ Breaks ❯ Column ❯
1 Position your cursor where you would like to insert the column break.
2 Open the Page Layout ribbon.
3 In the Page Setup section, click Breaks.
4 From the drop-down menu, select column.
5 Any text typed will begin in the next column. If there is already text following the
cursor, it will be moved to the next column.
You may not want the entire page to contain columns. In that case, you can
simply insert a continuous break in your document. You can insert one before
and one after the section that contains columns. This can add a dramatic effect
to your document (see Figure 12.8c).
203
How to insert a continuous break

Page Layout ❯ Page Setup ❯ Continuous Break
1 Position your cursor where you would like to insert the first break.
2 Open the Page Layout ribbon.
3 In the Page Setup section, click Breaks.
4 From the drop-down menu, select Continuous.
5 You can apply separate page setup formatting to different sections as you desire.
Local student James Jones who attends Trinity High School had an
accident last week. On Thursday last week James was cycling home from
school in a high wind when a sudden gust blew him into a dustbin on
Main Street. Although James was unhurt, the contents of the bin were
spilled onto the pavement. The wind immediately caught the rubbish and
swept it down the street. James made it home safely.
Local student James Jones who James made it home safely. To

ITQ2 attends Trinity High School had an make amends James and his
Suggest TWO reasons why columns accident last week. On Thursday friends are planning a litter pick on
are used in textbooks, magazines and last week James was cycling home Main Street to clear up all the
newspapers. from school in a high wind when rubbish on Saturday. If you would
a sudden gust blew him into a like to help James out, meet at the
dustbin on Main Street. Although bus stop on Saturday at 10 o’clock.
James was unhurt, the contents of Refreshments will be provided
the bin were spilled onto the compliments of the St. Luago
pavement. The wind immediately National Bank and TV7 will be on
caught the rubbish and swept it hand to capture the events.
down the street.
To make amends James and his friends are planning a litter pick on
Main Street to clear up all the rubbish on Saturday. If you would like
to help James out, meet at the bus stop on Saturday at 10 o’clock.
Refreshments will be provided compliments of the St. Luago National
Bank and TV7 will be on hand to capture the events.
Figure 12.9 A document showing the use of continuous breaks.
Activity 12.6 Using columns

1 Open the document Activity 5.
2 Format document as two columns with the first column ending at ‘and swept it
down the street’.
3 Save as Activity 6.
204
Activity 12.7 Creating a multi-column document

St Luago will be hosting the Caribbean’s biggest sporting event − the Calympics
from 1 to 16 August 2016. The National Calympics Planning Committee has asked
you to prepare an attractive tri-fold brochure to send out to the 18 participating
Caribbean countries.
About the Calympic Village
The Calympic Delivery Authority started work on the Village in June
2012. It is expected that the Village will be handed over in January
2016 to the Luago 2016 Organising Committee for overlay work to get
it ready for Games time.
1,414 new apartments will be built in 6 residential plots, complete
with spacious courtyards, gardens and balconies. A swimming pool,
barbecue pit and amphitheatre will also be at the Village.
During the Games
During the Games, the Calympic Village will comprise residential
apartments for thousands of athletes and officials, along with shops,
restaurants, medical, media and leisure facilities.
The Village also includes a ‘Village Plaza’ where athletes can meet
with friends and family. The plan retains Luago’s tradition of building
homes around communal squares and courtyards, with water features
accentuating the closeness of the Minho River.
Athletes will have an inspirational view over the Park. Every
apartment will provide comfortable accommodation and state-of-the-
art communications facilities, including Internet access and wireless
networking. All the apartment blocks will be fully accessible and
equipped with modern lifts.
Athletes will have easy access to the travel and leisure facilities of
the adjacent Luago City complex, and the high-speed shuttle service
will link the Village to central Luago in just four minutes.
During the Games, the Village will include ‘back of house’
operations, and services for athletes such as catering and transport. The
majority of these will be accommodated in temporary structures on
sites that can be cleared for development immediately after the Games.
After the Games
After the Games, the Calympic Village will be a lasting legacy of
essential new housing for Luago. It will be transformed into 1400 new
homes, including 750 affordable homes.
The communities that develop in the area after the Games will be
supported by new parks, open space, transport links, and community
facilities including Calympic Legacy Academy – a world-class new
education campus with 900 places for students aged 3–19.
Tables
Tables are useful for organising data. A table consists of rows and columns. The
intersection of a row and a column is called a cell. Text is written in the cells
and these cells may be resized, merged, coloured or may even have borders
added to them.
How to insert a table
Insert ❯ Table ❯ [select number of rows and columns]
Figure 12.10 The Insert table command. 1 Position your cursor where you would like to insert the table.
2 Open the Insert ribbon.
205
3 Click the button and drag the cursor onto the grid that is displayed.
4 Move the cursor over the grid until you highlight the numbers of rows and columns
required.
5 Release the mouse button and the table will appear in the document.
For more control over the table size, click the Insert tab, click Table, and then click Insert Table.
You can then set the exact number of rows and columns. Use the AutoFit behaviour options to
adjust the table’s size.
Figure 12.11
Once a table is selected the Table Tools Design and Layout tabs also appear,
with options for choosing different colours, table styles, and borders.
Activity 12.8 Create the table shown below

Position Type Worldwide gross Year of
release
1 Avatar $2,782,275,172 2009
2 Titanic $2,185,246,990 1997
3 Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 $1,328,111,219 2011
4 The Avengers $1,305,807,202 2012
5 Transformers: Dark of the Moon $1,123,746,996 2011
6 The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King $1,119,929,521 2003
7 Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest $1,066,179,725 2006
8 Toy Story 3 $1,063,171,911 2010
9 Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides $1,043,871,802 2011
10 Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace $1,027,044,677 1999
Working with graphics

Graphic elements include charts, clip art, pictures, shapes, SmartArt and
WordArt, each of which may be resized, repositioned and formatted. Graphics
may be positioned behind, in front of, or in line with text.
You should then be able to carry out the following operations:
1 Locate and insert the graphic element required into your document.
2 Position the graphic element on the page such that it sits well with existing
text and other elements in your document.
3 Resize the graphic element, taking care to maintain proportions.
206
Clip art
Inserting Clip Art
A piece of clip art is a ready-made computerised graphic that can be used to
decorate a document.
The Clip Art button is located in the Illustration group on the Insert tab.
How to inserting Clip Art

Insert ❯ Illustrations ❯ Clip Art
1 Position your cursor where you would like to insert the clip art.
2 Open the Insert ribbon.
3 In the Illustrations section, click Clip Art.
4 In the Search for text box In the Clip Art task pane, type a word or phrase that
describes the clip art that you want, or type in all or some of the file name of the Clip
Art.
5 Click Go.
6 In the list of results, click the Clip Art to insert it.
Repositioning and resizing Clip Art

Used well, an image can improve the visual impact of the page and make the
document easier to understand. It may be necessary to reposition or resize a
graphic for greater impact. There are two types of objects in Microsoft Word,
one of which is easier to reposition than the other:
1 Floating object – a graphic that is inserted in the drawing layer so that you
can position it precisely on the page or in front of or behind text or other
objects.
2 Inline object – a graphic that is positioned directly in the text of a document
at the insertion point.
Graphic objects may be converted from inline to floating and vice versa.
Shapes are inserted as floating objects whereas WordArt objects are inserted as
inline objects.
How to convert a WordArt object to a graphic object

Right-click on object ❯ Format ❯ Layout ❯ Square
1 Right-click the WordArt object.
2 Select Format WordArt on the context menu.
3 In the Wrapping Style section, select ‘Square’.
4 Click OK.
Floating objects can be precisely positioned on the page or in front of or

behind text or other objects.
How to reposition a floating object

1 Click and drag it to its new location.
2 Release the object at the new location.
When an object is selected, eight small black squares, called handles, appear
around the border of the object. These may be used to reposition the object.
How to increase the size of an object

1 Select the object.
2 Click and hold the handle at the top right of the object.
3 Drag the handle away from the object until the desired size is achieved.
207
Editing is the process used to prepare a

document for publication or presentation by
Document editing
correcting, revising or adapting text.
Some of the tasks done during editing include:
1 Copying text.
2 Inserting additional text.
3 Removing unwanted text (cutting).
4 Replacing a word with another word (the thesaurus may be used for this).
5 Deleting and inserting characters, words, lines, sentences, paragraphs.
6 Rearranging contents of document (into columns and/or tables).
7 Correcting spelling and grammatical errors.
8 Correcting typographical errors.
What is it What it does

Cut, Copy and Paste A set of tools (like the trusted scissors and glue) for deleting, copying
and moving text.
Drag-and-drop text editing A technique in which the mouse is used to reposition text within a
document.
Find and Replace A feature that allows all instances of text, once located, to be altered
throughout the document.
Overtype mode A feature that allows new characters to be typed over the existing
characters.
Spelling and Grammar A tool to check spelling and grammar automatically as you type or
all at once.
Thesaurus A tool to check synonyms.
Table 12.3 Tools, techniques and features used in document editing.
Changing the default editing options

Text editing is one of the main activities in the document production process.
After writing a document, it is sometimes necessary to insert, delete or amend
text in various sections of the document. It is important that we know exactly
what the default options of our word processor are.
How to review and change the default editing options
File ❯ Options ❯ Advanced
1 Click the File tab to see the Backstage view.
2 On the menu, click Options.
3 On the Word Options dialogue box, click Advanced.
4 Review the:
a editing option; and
b cut, copy and paste options
and change as necessary.
5 Click OK.
Using insert and overtype

Microsoft Word has two typing modes: insert mode is the default; in overtype
mode, anything you type will write over – wipe out – text to the right of the
insertion point. Overtype allows you to delete unwanted characters just by
typing over them. You can turn overtype mode on by checking ‘Use overtype
mode’ in the Editing Options section of the Advanced tab of Word Options.
208
Alternatively, you can check ‘Use the Insert key to control overtype mode’.
This allows you to toggle (change) between insert and overtype mode using
the Insert or Ins key on the keyboard.
How to use insert key to control overtype mode
File ❯ Options ❯ Advanced
1 Click the File tab to see the Backstage view.
2 On the menu, click Options.
3 On the Word Options dialogue box, click Advanced.
4 In the Editing section check the:
a ‘Use overtype mode’ box; and
b ‘Use insert key to control overtype mode’ box.
5 Click OK.
Figure 12.12 Editing options for working with Word: (1) drag-and-drop editing is turned on and
(2) overtype mode is turned off.
Figure 12.13 The Insert indicator appears on the taskbar when the type-over mode is on.
209
Activity 12.9 1 Turn on the overtype mode from the Advanced Options dialogue.
2 Type the following passage:
Editing and proofreading are two of the skills

that are assessed in the CSEC EDPM
examinations. These are assessed under the
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a Reposition the insertion point to the start of the paragraph.

b Type the following sentence: As you type, observe how the words to the right
of the insertion point shift over as you type.
c Reposition the insertion point to the start of the paragraph.
d Press the Insert key. Overtype mode should now be on. Confirm this by
looking for the OVR indicator on the status bar as shown in Figure 12.13.
e Type the following sentence: As you type, observe how the words being typed
erase the characters that were typed before!
3 Save the document as Activity 9.
Block operations
An advantage of word processing is the ability to move sections of text – a
block operations ❯ block – from one part of the document to another. Block operations allows
you to be more creative and flexible with your documents. For example, you
may have a collection of poems in a document but would like to experiment
with their order to see which sequence is most effective. Simply dragging and
dropping a line from one place to the next is likely to be more effective than
retyping. Block operations include the cutting, copying and pasting. Word-
processing packages use the clipboard to manage the cut, copy and paste
operations.
The clipboard is a temporary area where applications can store items for
future use.
Selecting text
Text to be edited must first be selected. It is customary for word processor users
to call this activity ‘highlighting’. This is incorrect as highlighting is a formatting
feature. When text is selected, it appears highlighted, hence the confusion.
Whereas the highlighting of selected text is temporary (it is removed as soon as
the editing operation is complete). When the text highlight feature is used, the
text remains coloured until the format is removed.
210
How to select text by double-clicking and triple-clicking

1 To select a single word, double-click the word.
2 To select an entire paragraph, triple-click anywhere in the paragraph.
How to select text by clicking and dragging
1 Click and hold the left mouse button at the start of the section of text.
2 Release the mouse button at the end of the section of text.
How to select text using the keyboard
1 Position the cursor at the start of the section of text.
2 Hold down the Shift key and use the (right and down) arrow keys to navigate to the
end of the section of text.
Using cut, copy and paste

During editing, existing text may be:
• copied to an additional location;
• deleted (or cut) from its existing location;
• moved to a new location.
clipboard ❯ When text is cut or copied, it is placed on the clipboard. The clipboard is
a temporary holding place for information placed there. The Microsoft Office
clipboard allows you to copy up to 24 text and graphical items from Office
documents or other programs and paste them into another Office document.
For example, you can copy text from an e-mail message, data from a
workbook, and a graphic from a presentation and then paste them all into a
document. By using the Office clipboard, you can arrange the copied items in
the way that you want in your document.
Operation Icon How to use the tool to carry out the operation
Cut After selecting some text, choosing Cut causes it to be sent to the
clipboard. The selected text disappears from its current position.
Copy After selecting some text, choosing Copy causes an identical copy
of the selected text to be sent to the clipboard. The selected text
remains where it was and the Paste icon is enabled.
Paste The contents of the clipboard can be pasted by first clicking the
location where the text should appear, and then choosing Paste.
Table 12.4 Cut, copy and paste.
Using drag-and-drop
drag-and-drop ❯ When we want to move some text, an alternative to cut-and-paste is drag-
and-drop text editing. The drag-and-drop text editing feature may be turned
on/off by checking the ‘Allow text to be dragged and dropped’ option in the
Advanced Word Options menu (see Figure 12.12).
211
Activity 12.10 Moving a block of text

In this activity you will learn how to use copy and move sections of text.
1 Open a new document.
2 Type in three limericks as shown below. (Do not type the numbers ➀, ②, ③.)
➀
There was a student from St Lucia
Who worked all day on a computer.
She worked so hard to produce a card,
She really impressed her tutor.
ITQ3 ➁
Explain how you would move limerick There was a teacher from Montserrat
3 and place it above the first limerick. Who used a blackboard in his act.
He became such a bore until he changed to use a projector.
Now his lessons have a great impact.
➂
There was a girl from Tobago
Who had to design a new logo.
The computer was the tool, the logo was so cool,
So why don’t you have a go?
3 Highlight the first limerick and then select Home ❯ Clipboard ❯ Cut (this moves
the first limerick onto the Clipboard)
4 Move the insertion position to the end of the document and select Home ❯
Clipboard ❯ Cut (the first limerick has now become the last limerick in the
document)
5 Do NOT close or save the document as it is needed for the next exercise.
Using Undo and Repeat

Microsoft Word provides a pair of buttons – Undo and Repeat – that are used to
implement the undo and redo feature. These buttons are located side-by-side
on the Quick Access Toolbar as shown in Figure 12.14.
The Undo feature can be very useful. It simply undoes the last operation
performed on the document. It can be used repeatedly to step back through the
changes that you have made to the document.
The Repeat feature simply repeats the last operation done.
Activity 12.11 Using the Undo feature

Use the Undo feature to return the limericks to their original positions. (Hint: Click
the Undo button repeatedly until the limericks appear as they were in Activity
12.10.)
212
Undo Repeat
ITQ4
Your cursor position is just past the
last letter of a word. What combination
keystrokes can you use to delete the
entire word?
Figure 12.14 The Undo and Repeat buttons.
Checking the spelling and grammar of text in a document

For many people the main advantage of using a word-processing package is
the ability to correct mistakes before sending a document to be printed. All
good word-processing packages have a built-in dictionary to check the spelling
of every word in the document. The user may select a dictionary to use.
Additionally, a user may also add words, such as regularly used names, to a
dictionary.
As you type, Word will warn you if you make spelling or grammar mistakes
by inserting a wavy red, green, or blue underline beneath the text that it thinks
is an error, as follows:
Colour Meaning
Red underline This indicates either a possible spelling error or that Word doesn’t recognise a
word, such as a proper name or place.
Green underline Word thinks that grammar should be revised.
Blue underline A word is spelled correctly but does not seem to be the correct word for the
sentence. For example, you type ‘too’, but the word should be ‘to’.
Table 12.5 Microsoft Word warning system for spelling and grammar mistakes.
Right-click an underlined word to see suggested revisions then click a

revision to replace the word in the document and get rid of the underlines.
Note that if you print a document with these underlines, they will not show up on printed pages.
It may be too time consuming to stop every time you see wavy underlines
so you can just ignore them as you go. When you are finished typing your text,
you can tell Word to check spelling and grammar all at one time.
Spelling and grammar is a feature that Microsoft Word provides to
automatically detect and suggest corrections for spelling and grammar mistakes
in a document.
Here are a few important things to remember when using a spelling
checker:
• It won’t catch correctly spelled words that are used improperly (there instead
of their, for example).
• It will not recognise unusual names or technical words.
• It won’t notice if words are missing or if the grammar is incorrect.
• It will use the dictionary appropriate to the language you have specified: UK
English differs from US English. This book uses UK English throughout.
213
Do not depend on the spelling checker to catch all your mistakes. It is

always a good idea to proofread your work after you spell check it.
In the next activity, you will learn how to use the spelling and grammar
checking feature of a word processor.
When using a word processor there is no excuse for spelling or grammatical
errors in a document.
Activity 12.12 Using the Spelling and Grammar checker

1 Create a new document.
Dominica is a very mountainous

country/ It is located in the
Eastern Caribbean. The capital
city is Roseau. The correct name is
the Commonwealth of Dominica.
What is the hight of Morne
Diablotins Mountain in Dominica.
If you are interested, the answer
is 1,447 meters.
2 Type the paragraph as shown above.

3 The words ‘hight’, ‘Morne’ and ‘Diablotins’ will be underlined with a red line
indicating that the word processor does not recognise these words. The word
‘Dominica’ will be underlined with a green line indicating a possible grammar
error.
5 Activate the Spelling & Grammar tool by pressing F7.
6 Observe that the Spelling & Grammar checker finds each potential problem,
highlights them, and offers suggested corrections:
a change the word ‘hight’ to the selected suggestion ‘height’ by clicking the
Change button;
b change the word highlighted is ‘Morne’; this is the correct spelling for the
name of the mountain so click on the Ignore All button;
c the next word ‘Diablotins’ is also correct, so click on the Ignore All button.
This tells the program that these words are correct and any further
Figure 12.15 The Spelling and Grammar occurrence should not be marked as errors;
dialogue. The word ‘hight’ is not in the
d the final warning is in the word ‘Dominica’. This is a grammar error and the
dictionary being used; change to the
word processor suggests that a? is needed because it has identified the
selected suggestion ‘height’ by clicking the
sentence as a question.
Change button.
7 Save the document which is now error free.
214
Find and Replace

It is possible to find and replace all occurrences of a sequence of characters
with another.
How to activate the find and replace dialogue box
Home ❯ Replace
1 Click the Replace button in the Editing section of the Home ribbon.
Figure 12.16 The Find and Replace feature may be used to replace all occurrences of Eastern Caribbean Dollar with
$ECD.
Activity 12.13 Exploring the find and Replace feature

1 Type the paragraph shown below.
Anguilla: The small island of Anguilla only covers 35 sq. miles. The
currency of Anguilla is the Eastern Caribbean Dollar.
Antigua and Barbuda: Keen bird watchers may want to visit Barbuda.
The currency of Antigua and Barbuda is the Eastern Caribbean Dollar.
Dominica: The currency of Dominica is the Eastern Caribbean Dollar.
Grenada: Along with Grenada itself, tourists may take the opportunity
to visit Carriacou and the small island of Petit Martinique. The
currency of Grenada is the Eastern Caribbean Dollar.
Saint Lucia:7KHFDSLWDORI6DLQW/XFLD&DVWULHVKDVD¿QHFDWKHGUDO
The currency of Saint Lucia is the Eastern Caribbean Dollar.
2 Replace all occurrences of Eastern Caribbean Dollar with $ECD.

215
Formatting
The format of a document refers to the way all the elements of a document –
text, pictures, title, headers and footers – are arranged on a page. The final
format of a document depends on how and where a document will be
used. Committee documents will be formatted in a different way from legal
documents and also from documents such as technical reports, newsletters and
memoranda.
formatting ❯ Formatting is a process during which the layout and appearance of
elements in a document are changed.
Three types of formatting may be applied to a document – character,
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apply font effects apply bullets and numbering change margin sizes
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change font size change line spacing set gutter size
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Key features: Table 12.6 Some common formatting features.

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We format documents to:
The most up-to-date scientific information
z
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Written by an expert team of science educators 2 improve their overall appearance;
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3 add emphasis (for example, the word ‘emphasis’ has been emphasised by
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macmillan-caribbean.com
ƚǁŝƩĞƌ͘ĐŽŵͬŵĂĐĐĂƌŝďďĞĂŶ
4 make information technically correct (for example, where subscripts and
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superscripts are needed);
Figure 12.17 A well-formatted document. 5 facilitate their use (for example, printing a document with a 0.5 inch gutter
to facilitate binding).
Now look at the list presented above. Observe that the use of a numbered
list makes it easy to determine the number of reasons. Selections and use of
appropriate formatting features help a document to communicate with its reader.
Without the numbers, the text would look like this:
We format documents to improve their readability; improve their overall
appearance; add emphasis (for example, the word ‘emphasis’ has been
emphasised by making the text italic); make information technically correct
(for example, where subscripts and superscripts are needed); facilitate their use
(for example, printing a document with a 0.5 inch gutter to facilitate binding).
Can you tell just by glancing at the paragraph how many reasons have been
put forward for formatting documents?
Formatting features may be applied in a variety of ways including the use of
the Menu tab and keyboard shortcuts. Before a format is applied, the element
to be formatted must first be selected.
Character formatting
Most or all documents are likely to contain at least one element – text. Text is
ITQ5 written using a font or typeface, which is a set of letters that share a unified
What will be accomplished by pressing design. Font size is measured as point size, abbreviated pt. The main portion of
Ctrl + spacebar? text in a document is called the body. Body text is usually written in 8, 10 or
12 pt. Titles are usually either a few point sizes bigger than body text or, if it is
the same size, the title is emboldened.
216
Paragraph formatting
Paragraph formatting is used to change the appearance of body text on a page.
Whether you are producing a one-page letter, a 10-page Principles of Business
SBA or a club newsletter, formatting may include one or more of the features
listed in Table 12.6.
Figure 12.18 You can vary the font style

by selecting character formatting attributes
such as bold, italics, underline, superscript
and subscript, and a size for the font.
Figure 12.19 The word processor allows you to use many different characters attributes.
Activity 12.14 Character formatting

1 Type the text in Figure 12.19 above, exactly as shown. Take care to apply all
character attributes.
2 Save the file as Activity 14.
3 Double-check your work to make sure you have formatted the text correctly.
Print the document and paste it in your notebook.
Activity 12.15 More character formatting

Copy and complete the following table using FIVE examples of character formatting
that you carried out in Activity 1.
Example of text Character format applied How to apply the format

72 pt Font size Select the text, select 72 from font size list
217
ITQ6
Titles sometimes look better when centred!
Alignment is important in helping text convey meaning. Usually, body text
The heading of your document is
is left aligned. There are, however, some special cases, especially when doing
‘THE IMPORTANCE OF DOCUMENT
display work (such as programmes, menus and posters cards) when body text
FORMATTING’. In addition to bolding
has to be centred. Note that the spacing of this paragraph is 1.0 (single line
and italicizing, state TWO other
spacing). An easy way to set the spacing to single is to press Ctrl+1.
formatting features that may be applied
to the heading to emphasize it. This paragraph is left aligned and justified. Look at how the text is aligned on
both left and right margins. The spacing on this paragraph is 1.5 (line and a half
spacing). An easy way to set this spacing is to press Ctrl+5. The next paragraph is
centred and has a border around it. Borders are very handy and may be used in
a wide variety of ways to make a document look better. Add shading to an area
enclosed by a border and your document begins to pop!
Caribbean Entertainers and Sportspersons

Barbados – Rhianna
Jamaica – Shaggy
St Kitts and Nevis – Kim Collins
St Vincent and the Grenadines – Kevin Little
Trinidad and Tobago – Machel Montano
Just to recap, the formatting features used so far in this chapter are shown
as a sorted, bulleted list below:
• alignment • font style
• bold • shading
• border • strikethrough
• double strikethrough • subscript
• font colour • superscript
• font size
Activity 12.16 More about character and paragraph formatting

Use a word processor to create a new document with two paragraphs based on the
information below.
1 Your first paragraph should be titled ‘Character Formatting’ and should have a
numbered list of at least FIVE character formatting attributes and a description
of how to apply any ONE of these to some selected text.
2 Your second paragraph should be titled ‘Paragraph formatting: using
indentation’. The body text should be set to Times New Roman size 14 and
should be double-spaced (press Ctrl + 2 for double spacing). Use the help
feature to research indentation and write enough details that will help you to
understand the feature.
Check the list. Have we missed any? Yes, we have. We did not include
bullets or sorting. Because the list is sorted in alphabetical order, it makes it
easy for a reader to check whether an item is in the list. A numbered list was
used earlier in this chapter.
218
Page formatting
Word processors now provide a wide range of features for formatting pages.
Page Setup Page Background These features are arranged in two groups on the Microsoft Word Page Layout
tab – Page Setup and Page Background.
Margins Watermarks One of the first steps in creating a document is to set up your page. Start by
Orientation Page colour selecting your page size, after which you set the orientation, followed by the
margins. If you need multiple columns, ensure that this is set after the size,
Size Page borders orientation and margins.
Column Page background features should be set after you have edited your
document. Watermarks are useful for identifying documents as ‘DRAFT’,
Table 12.7 Page formatting features. ‘CONFIDENTIAL’ or as an ‘ORIGINAL’.
The Page Layout tab displays some of the

features available for formatting text
elements on the page and the page itself.
The Fonts drop down

list in the Themes
ITQ7 group may be used to
change the theme
State TWO reasons why it is better to font in a document
The Paragraph group
apply page numbering than to manually on the Home tab
has options for aligning
type the numbers at the bottom of every a paragraph
page.
The Page Background

The button for
tab has features for
Bullets is available in
applying watermarks,
the Paragraph group
page colour and
on the Home tab.
page borders.
Figure 12.20 The Page Layout tab.
Activity 12.17 1 Look at a magazine and list all the word-processing functions that have been
used to create an article. For example, font style, multiple columns and page
numbers.
2 Record the results in your portfolio.
219
Task Mouse Shortcut menu Keyboard shortcut

1.5 line spacing Line spacing drop-down list Paragraph | Indents CTRL + 5
in Paragraph group on Home and Spacing tab
tab
Bold Bold button in Font group on Font | Font tab CTRL + B
Home tab
Bulleted list Bullets drop-down list in Bullets and Numbering
Paragraph group on Home | Bulleted tab
Figure 12.21 tab
Visit www.shortcutworld.com/en/win/
Word_2010.html for 200+ useful keyboard Centre Centre button in Paragraph Paragraph | Indents CTRL + E
shortcuts. group on Home tab and Spacing tab
Font Font drop-down list in Font Font | Font tab CTRL + SHIFT + F
group on Home tab
Font size Font Size drop-down list in Font | Font tab CTRL + SHIFT + P
Font group on Home tab
Italicise Italic button in Font group on Font | Font tab CTRL + I
Home tab
Justify paragraph Justify button in Paragraph Paragraph | Indents CTRL + J
group on Home tab and Spacing tab
Left align Align Text Left button in Paragraph | Indents CTRL + L
Paragraph group on Home and Spacing tab
tab
Margins In print layout view, drag
margin boundary on ruler
ITQ8 Page orientation Orientation drop-down list in
What is the difference between justified Page Setup group on Page
and centred text? Layout tab
Right align Align Text Right button in Paragraph | Indents CTRL + R
Paragraph group on Home and Spacing tab
tab
Set tab stops Click location on ruler
Shade paragraph Shading drop-down list in Borders and Shading |
Paragraph group on Home Shading tab
tab
Single space text Line Spacing drop-down list Paragraph | Indents CTRL + 1
in Paragraph group on Home and Spacing tab
tab
Subscript Show Font dialogue box Font | Font tab CTRL + =
(lower right corner of Font
group on Home tab)
Superscript Show Font dialogue box Font | Font tab CTRL + SHIFT + =
(lower right corner of Font
group on Home tab)
Table 12.8 Formatting commands.
220
Activity 12.18 Creating a newspaper advertisement

1 Use appropriate features of a word processor to create an advertisement for
placement in a local newspaper with the following information:
Possibility High School
Where EVERY child learns
Applications are invited for the following positions for the upcoming school year:
School Nurse (Level CGM01)

Must be a registered nurse with a current license
Experience working in a school environment is advantageous
Night-time Security Officer

Must be available to work from 10 pm to 6 am daily on weekends and public holidays
Must have a clean police record
Chef
A valid Food Handler’s Permit is a requirement
Must have a valid driver’s license
English Teacher to CSEC (8 months only)

Graduate trained teachers preferred
Mathematics Teacher to CAPE (clear vacancy)

Applicants with an engineering background will be at a distinct advantage
Applications should be submitted in writing (in the applicant’s own handwriting), no

later than 30 July 20__ to:
The Chairman
c/o The Principal
39 Can Do Drive
St Augustine
Trinidad
Absolutely no telephone calls.

2 Design the advertisement so that its finished size is 4.25” × 5.5” (11 × 14 cm).
3 Ensure that the document is effectively formatted for presentation and that
important information is appropriately emphasised.
Headers and footers

A header is an area within the top margin of a page whereas a footer is an area
within the bottom margin. These areas are used to contain information that is:
• common to the entire document such as a document title or author; and
• specific to a particular page or section of a document such as page numbers
and chapter titles.
Headers and footers may include both text and graphics and the feature
may be accessed from the Insert tab.
221
How to insert a header

Insert ❯ Header and Footer
1 Select the Header button in the Header and Footer section of the Insert ribbon.
2 Enter the required information in the designated area.
3 Set the location option if necessary:
• Different first page;
• Different odd and even page.
4 Set any other required options.
5 Indicate whether current header should be linked to the previous header.
6 Click Close Header and Footer to save your changes.
2 3 4
ITQ9
Your word processor assumes a paper 1
size of A4 (21 × 29.7 cm). Describe the

steps you could take to reset the paper
size to Letter (21.59 × 27.94 cm). State
the name of your word processor that
you are using.
Figure 12.22 The Header and Footer Toolbar.
The Header and Footer tools provide many options to information to be

inserted in the text area (1). Tools are provided to insert items such as dates
and Clip Art (2). The header and footer may be configured to show on the first
page only or on odd or even pages only (3). When all the information has been
entered and the settings are complete the date will be saved once the Close
Header and Footer button (4) is pressed.
Activity 12.19 Creating a letterhead using headers and footers

1 Design a suitable letterhead for your Happy Earth Environmentalists, a company
that reuses and recycles plastic water bottles. Your design must include a logo
alongside text in the header and text in the footer as well. It must also include a
watermark of an empty water bottle in the centre of the page.
222
Footnotes and endnotes

Typically, footnotes and endnotes are used in printed documents to explain,
comment on, or provide references for the text. You can include both
footnotes and endnotes in the same document; for example, you might use
footnotes to explain an unusual word or term and endnotes for references.
Footnotes appear at the end of the page. Endnotes typically appear at the end
of a document.
footnote ❯ Footnote is a portion of text in the footer area of a page, often used to
clarify or comment on the text on the page.
endnote ❯ An endnote note at the end of the document, often used for references.
Insert a footnote or endnote
References ❯ Insert Footnote ❯ Endnote
1 Select the word that will be reference by the footnote or endnote.
2 Click on the References tab to display the References ribbon.
3 In the Footnotes section, click Insert Footnote (or Insert Endnote).
4 Type the note at the insertion point indicated.
Activity 12.20 Creating a header, footer, footnote and endnote

1 Create your own unique header and footer using your name or the name of your
school. Use the Close Header and Footer button to return to editing the main
page of the document.
2 Type in the following text.
Sir Garfield St Auburn Sobers, better known as Gary Sobers, is
perhaps the most famous of all West Indies cricketers. As an all-
rounder, Sobers was a great batter, bowler and fielder. He had a
great batting record and as a bowler took 235 test wickets.
3 Insert a footnote is a note at the bottom of the page. It is usually used to
provide additional explanation of a point in the text. In the example, ‘As an all-
rounder, Sobers was a great batter, A bowler and fielder’, the A symbol refers
the reader to the footnote at the bottom of the page which gives more details of
Sobers’ batting performance.
4 To include the footnote, position the insertion position after the word ‘batter’
and select References ribbon I Insert Footnote. Numbers or symbols can be
used to indicate footnotes.
5 In this example we have used a symbol. When the footnote is inserted you are
taken to the bottom of the page where you can add the footnote: Over 20 test
centuries.
6 Save the file as Activity 20.
223
Activity 12.21 Character and paragraph formatting

1 Use the notes on the left as a guide to reproduce the document shown below.
Font size 22
Text centre
Font style: bold
Title case
Bottom border
National Shrimp Day
Dateline – May 10, 2012
First line indented
Font style: italic
Line spacing: single While you’re frying up shark and bakes (in Trinidad), ackee and salted fish (in Jamaica)
Alignment: left or even roasted breadfruit and fried Jack fish (St. Vincent and the Granadines), Americans
were busy cooking up something else – shrimps.
Grab some fresh fruit of the sea, today is May 10 – National Shrimp Day!
First line indented Whether you bake, boil, fry, grill, put ‘em in a stew, serve ‘em Southern-style with grits,
Font style: regular stir into a scampi or stick on top of a cocktail, shrimp can be served so many ways, you’ll run
Line spacing: single out of daylight first.
Alignment: justify
• Shrimp is at the heart of Asian cooking, at the base of soups or used for flavouring
• In Spain, folks like to toss them in with paella
Bulleted list
Line spacing: 1.5 • Italians include shrimp in their pasta dishes
Font style: bold
Underline • Coconut shrimp is a favourite in Caribbean cuisine
• Curried shrimp is alive and well in Southeast Asia.
• Fried shrimp is king here in the U.S.
But no matter where you are, you’ll have to peel and devein those little beauties first.
Alignment: justify 1. The shell is easy to detach – just hold the tail and peel away.
Numbered list
Lines spacing: double 2. To get rid of the digestive tract, just cut a slit in the back of the shrimp and remove
it with a deveining tool, or even a knife, skewer or toothpick.
Feel free to checkout some fun and tasty recipes at www.foodnetwork.com
Alignment: centre An extract from the Chronicles of Claire Volume 23

Font styles: St. James, Barbados
bold May 10, 2012
italic
224
Summary
• A word processor is a computer application used for the production (including composition, editing, formatting, and
possibly printing) of any sort of printable material.
• Default settings are a standard set up for font size, font type, page size, margins and other features.
• Word processors allow you to divide your document into columns to enhance the formatting of your document.
• Tables, consisting of rows and columns, are useful for organising data.
• Graphic elements include charts, clip art, pictures, shapes, SmartArt and WordArt.
• Graphic elements may be inserted, resized, repositioned and formatted so they interact with text in a range of ways.
• Editing is the process used to prepare a document for publication or presentation by correcting, revising or adapting
text.
• Microsoft Word has two typing modes: insert mode and overtype mode.
• The clipboard is a temporary area where applications can store items for future use.
• Spelling and grammar is a feature that Microsoft Word provides to automatically detect and suggest corrections for
spelling and grammar mistakes in a document.
• The format of a document refers to the way all the elements of a document – text, pictures, title, headers and
footers – are arranged on a page.
• Paragraph formatting is used to change the appearance of body text on a page.
• Headers and footers may include both text and graphics.
• An endnote is a note at the end of the document, often used for references.
• A footnote is a portion of text in the footer area of a page, often used to clarify or comment on the text on the page.
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 Any of the following: ITQ4 Ctrl+Backspace

AbiWord, Apache OpenOffice Writer, ITQ5 You can remove formatting by
Jarte, Kingsoft Office Writer, Pages, highlighting the text and pressing Ctrl
TextEdit, Textilus, WordGraph + spacebar.
ITQ2 Reasons include: to make ITQ6 Two of: centre alignment,
a page more attractive, to improve increased font size, colour, underline.
readability, to fit more content
ITQ7 Applying page numbering is
on a single page, to conform to
faster, less error prone and will result
organizational or industry standards,
in a more consistent formatting.
allows for a lot more flexibility for the
page layout. ITQ8 Each line of justified text
extends to both margins whereas each
ITQ3 Highlight all the verses in the
line of centred text may not touch
third limerick, Cut it, position the
either margin as it is anchored to an
insertion point above the first limerick
imaginary line running through the
then Paste it OR, using the drag and
centre of the page.
drop method: select the verses, press
and hold the left mouse button, drag ITQ9 Responses will vary based on
the verses to the new location above the package.
the first limerick then release the
mouse button.
225
Multiple-choice questions 6 Which of the following tasks may be accomplished

Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested using the cut-and-paste technique?
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each I selecting text
question carefully then select the most suitable II copying text
response. III moving text
1 Which of the following is NOT a method of (A) I and II only
emphasising text? (B) II and III only
(C) I and III only
(A) changing the font size
(D) III only
(B) underlining the text
(C) spell checking the text 7 Which of the following tasks may be accomplished
(D) changing the font style using drag-and-drop editing?
2 Sequence the following in the best order for producing I selecting text
a professional-looking document. II copying text
III moving text
(A) document creation, page layout, printing,
(A) I only
distribution, formatting
(B) I and II only
(B) distribution, printing, page layout, document
(C) III only
creation, formatting
(D) II and III only
(C) documentation creation, printing, formatting,
page layout, distribution 8 When using the find and replace feature you may:
(D) document creation, formatting, page layout, I choose from two replace options
printing, distribution II always use the undo button to replace any
3 Which sentence best describes Insert mode and change made
Overtype mode? III use the Find Next button to replace the current
text then move on to search for the next item to
(A) Insert mode adds typed characters at the end of
be replaced
the document.
(A) I only
(B) Overtype mode replaces characters, Insert mode
(B) I and II only
adds characters.
(C) I and III only
(C) Insert mode replaces characters, Overtype mode
(D) I, II and III
adds characters.
(D) Overtype mode replaces characters at the start 9 In word processing, what does a wavy red line
of the document. beneath a word mean?
4 An endnote is best described as appearing at: (A) The word is misspelled
(B) The word processor can suggest an acronym
(A) the end of the current page
(C) The word is not in the word processor’s
(B) the bottom of all pages
dictionary
(C) the top of all pages
(D) The use of the word has caused a grammatical
(D) the end of the document
error
5 A page break is best described as:
10 Which is the smallest unit of text that can be cut,
(A) causing a jump to the start of a new page copied or moved in a document?
(B) splitting text on the page into multiple columns
(A) line
(C) breaking the page into four equal sections
(B) word
(D) reducing the size of the page to half the original
(C) sentence
size
(D) character
226
JAM CELLULAR
Front Street, St. Phillipsburg, St. Maarten
Tel: 702-2700 ■ sales@jamcellular.net
October 20, 2014
Mr Dempster Mouse
12 Redcliffe Boulevard
St. Phillipsburg
Dear Mr Mouse:
We are in receipt of your complaint dated October 17, 2014. We apologise for the
inconvenience caused and assure you that we have been doing everything possible to minimise
the disruptions to your business. I have instructed my service team to:
• Deliver and install a temporary modem at your retail store

• Re-route all voice traffic to the line that is now operational
• Commence a facility audit to identify the possible source of the problem
Please feel free to contact me at ANY TIME from 8:00 AM – 8:00 PM by dialling 791-2386.
Thank you once again for your patience.
Yours sincerely,
Michelle Ollivierre
Technical Services Manager
1 The following questions relate to the letter above.

a What justification has been used on the FIRST paragraph of the body of the letter? [1]
b Which of the following is used in the letter?
i Header
ii Footnote
iii Footer [1]
c What line spacing has been used on the SECOND paragraph of the body of the letter? [1]
d How can the e-mail address be converted to a hyperlink? [2]
e For emphasis, the text ‘ANY TIME’ must be put in RED. Explain how this is done. [2]
f Write THREE formatting features used on the name of the company (JAM CELLULAR). [3]
g The secretary needs to insert the company’s logo stored on a flash drive into the letter to the left of the name
and address of the company. List the steps required to do this. [5]
h State what EACH of the following icons is used for in a word processing application:
i ii iii
1
2
3
[3]
i The secretary wishes to send this letter to other customers with their names and addresses included in
the letter using mail merge. Name TWO documents which are required to perform a mail merge. [2]
j State, with a reason, the number of merge fields that should be in the letters. [2]
227
2 Look carefully at the document below and answer the 3 Look carefully at the document below and answer the
questions that follow. questions that follow.
The Greenhouse Effect The four major greenhouse gases

(in order of their abundance)
The greenhouse effect is the process that keeps
our planet warm. If it weren’t for the greenhouse Carbon Dioxide
effect, Earth would be a frozen ball of snow, and Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a greenhouse gas that
totally uninhabitable. Without the greenhouse is emitted naturally and in human activities like
effect, Earth’s average temperature would be the burning of fossil fuel. Natural sources of CO2
around 0°F (-18°C). It is a process which makes include dying plants, plants going dormant in
life as we know it possible. Unfortunately, the fall, weathering of things that contain carbon
too much greenhouse gas in the atmosphere (like mountains or rocks), and volcanic eruptions
intensifies the greenhouse effect, and has led to (though this source is very small). Today, more
the warming of the planet greenhouse effect. than 34 billion tons of carbon dioxide are released
each year.
The atmosphere is filled with gases, the most
abundant of which are things like Nitrogen, Methane
Oxygen, and Argon. Some of these gases have Methane is a potent greenhouse gas with 25
important properties relating to longwave times the warming power of carbon dioxide.
radiation, or what we call heat. Radiation from Natural gas is 87% methane by volume. Natural
the sun reaches the earth in a short wavelength sources of methane are controlled by precipitation
(shortwave radiation, or visible light), that and temperature; it comes from wetlands,
easily passes through most components of the termites, hydrates, wildfires, and wild animals.
atmosphere. Man-made sources of methane include landfills,
natural gas systems, coal mining, livestock,
a You wish to move paragraph one to the bottom wastewater treatment, and rice cultivation.
of the document. Describe ONE method of
selecting the paragraph to be moved, and ONE Nitrous Oxide
way of removing the selected text to the new Nitrous oxide is a clear, colourless gas with a
position. [2] slightly sweet odour. It’s best known as the
b With reference to the document above, state ‘laughing gas’, used in surgery and dentistry.
the difference between centred and justified N2O has a very long atmospheric lifetime (~120
text? [2] years) with 310 times the global warming power
c The document has been created using a paper of carbon dioxide. N2O is produced naturally by
size of 8½” × 11”. Describe the steps that you a variety of biological sources in soil and water.
could take to change the paper size to Man-made sources of N2O include agriculture and
8½” × 14”. State the name of the word burning of fossil fuel.
processor that you would be using. [2]
d State ONE function of the OVERTYPE mode. [1] a State TWO formatting features besides bolding,
e Your insertion point is just past the last letter underlining and italicising that could be applied
of the word atmosphere at the end of to the title ‘The four major greenhouse gases
paragraph two. What combination keystrokes (in order of their abundance)’ to highlight it. [2]
can you use to delete the entire word? [1] b Assuming that the insertion point is
f State TWO reasons why it is better to immediately below the title, why would the
automatically insert a table of contents in a insertion point move to the centre of that line
document rather than manually typing one. [2] when the Tab key is pressed? [1]
c What will happen to the document if a page
break is inserted between the second and the
third paragraphs? [1]
d Explain what would happen to text in the
third paragraph of the document if it is right
aligned. [1]
228
Further practice
1 Possibility High School has redesigned its permission slip. All students who intend to leave the school compound
during the school day must take a signed permission slip to the school office. Save the document as Permission Slip.

PARENT/LEGAL GUARDIAN PERMISSION SLIP
FOR FIELD TRIP PARTICIPATION
Dear Parent/Legal Guardian,

Your son/daughter/guardianship is eligible to participate in a school sponsored
activity that requires transportation to a location away from the school site. This
activity will take place under the guidance and supervision of teachers from
Possibility High School. A brief description of the activity follows:
Curriculum Goal: _______________________________________________
Destination: ____________________________________________________
Designated Supervisor: __________________________________________
Date and Time of Departure: _____________________________________
Date and Anticipated Time of Return: _____________________________
Method of transportation: _______________________________________
Student Cost: __________________________________________________
If you would like your child to participate in this event, please complete, sign and
return the following statement of consent and release of liability.
✁
I hereby consent to participation by my child/guardianship, _______________, in
the event described above. I understand that this event will take place away from the
school grounds and that my child/guardianship will be under the supervision of the
designated school employee on the stated dates. I further consent to the conditions
stated above on participation in this event, including the method of transportation.
Parents’ Name & Signature
Address
Emergency Phone Number
Please return this form by: ________________________________________
229
2 Design an application form as follows. 1979 under Lome II, many years before it became
a Design an application form for the St Luago a member of CARICOM in July 1995’.
Housing Construction Corporation on letter size f Underline the phrase ‘observer status’ in the
paper (8½” × 11”) using suitable features of a paragraph below the membership list.
word-processing application. g Insert the following as the second paragraph.
b The left and right margins of the form must be All Participating States, with the exception
0.8” The top and bottom margins must be set to of Cuba, are signatories to both the ACP/
1.0”. European Union Cotonou Agreement and the
c The following information must be included: CARIFORUM-European Community Economic
Header Company name, address, telephone number and Partnership Agreement (EPA). In this regard,
e-mail address they benefit directly from regional resources
under Caribbean Regional Indicative Programmes
Body Section A: Applicant data − name (first, middle
financed by the European Development Fund
and name), full address(street and parish), contact
(EDF) and also belong to the preferential trade
details (landline, mobile and e-mail)
arrangement with the European Union.
Section B: Employment History (must capture h Spell check the document.
dates of employment, place of employment and i Change your margins to 2.54 cm (1.0 inch) all
job title/position for the past 10 years) around.
j Bold and italicise every reference to the word
Section C: Banking Information (bank name, CARIFORUM.
address, account type and account number) k Change the line spacing to 1.5. Keep the bulleted
lists to single spacing.
Footer Enter the following text ‘Last revised 04/2013’ l Justify the document.
m Enter your name, form and date in the header at
d There should be a space for the applicant’s right.
signature. n Save your work and print your document.
e Save the document as AppForm.
4 Reproduce the following table.
3 You have been asked to prepare a report on
CARIFORUM. The report should be produced using a Greenhouse Molecular Contribution Global Warming
word processor and should be formatted according to Gas Formula To Greenhouse Potential (GWP)
the requirements below. You are required to: Effect
a Type the passage in the figure using Garamond Water Vapour H2O 36–70% N/A*
size 12. Save the document as FinalReport.doc Carbon Dioxide CO2 9–26% 1
b Insert the title ‘Caribbean Group of African, Methane CH4 4–9% 25
Caribbean and Pacific States (CARIFORUM)’. Nitrous Oxide N2O 3–7% 298
c Centre the title, increase its font size to 16 and *A GWP cannot be applied to water vapour because the
apply the bold font style. amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is determined by the
d Sort the membership list in alphabetical order. atmospheric temperature.
e Insert the following as a footnote reference to
Suriname − ‘Suriname joined the Convention in
5 Use appropriate features of a word processor to recreate the table shown below.
February
January
March
June
Total
April
May
Member name Comments
TOTAL ➢
230
13 By the end of
Mastering
presentations
use common terminology associated with presentation software such as slide,

this chapter slide layout, template and view;
you should
create a new presentation using a template;
be able to:
add new slides to a presentation;
add text to a slide;
add an image to a slide;
navigate within a presentation using the scrollbar, slide sorter, tabs (ribbons)
and key commands;
print a slide show.
Concept map
Presentations
are created using usually include
presentation software such multiple slides

as PowerPoint 2010
which allows creation of which contain are efficiently navigated using either
new presentations using
templates text graphics scrollbar slide sorter menu key commands
which have
which are
appropriately transitions timing animation effects

formatted
which contributes to
effective communication
13 • Mastering presentations
Presentations
presentation ❯ Presentation is a practice of showing and explaining the content of a topic to
an audience or learner.
A presentation is a set of visuals prepared using special-purpose software.
Notice that we have two definitions above for presentation. The first
definition refers to an activity whereas the second refers to a document
prepared using application software such as Microsoft PowerPoint or
OpenOffice Impress. PowerPoint is the most widely used presentation software
so we will use it in this chapter for our activities.
In the old days, presentations were done using either a 35 mm projector
or an overhead projector. Nowadays, presentations are usually done using a
notebook computer connected to a multimedia projector. Presentations are
used to enhance a public address by letting the audience see text and images
that promote what the speaker is saying. Presentations are also used in
lectures, to present project reports and effectively present sales and marketing
ideas. The inclusion of multimedia elements such as animations, sound and
video enhances the experience of the persons viewing the presentation.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 13.1 (a) Overhead projector; (b) 35mm projector; (c) multimedia projector.
Creating a presentation in PowerPoint involves starting with a basic design;

adding new slides and content; choosing slide layouts; modifying slide design,
and creating effects such as animated slide transitions.
slide ❯ A slide is a page in a PowerPoint document.
(a) (b)
ITQ1
A new slide may be inserted from the
New Slide drop-down list in the Slides
group on the Home tab. In addition to a
Title Slide, and a Blank, list THREE other
slide designs that may be inserted into
a presentation.
Figure 13.2 (a) A title slide showing placeholders for a title and subtitle; (b) a slide with
placeholders for bulleted text and content.
232
placeholder ❯ A placeholder is anything that shows the space reserved on a slide for a
piece of text or artwork.
slide layout ❯ A slide layout (or slide type) is the arrangement of placeholders on a blank
slide in preparation for a combination of a title, text and content. Content
includes tables, images, media clips, WordArt and organisation charts and other
graphic elements.
It is important for you to carefully plan your presentation on paper before
you attempt to create the presentation using PowerPoint. When you adopt this
approach, you will be able to select the most appropriate slide types and this
will make the process easier. Additionally, your presentation will appear well
designed and will be well received by those viewing it.
Depending on the type of presentation you are creating, you may use
several different slide layouts or just keep repeating the same few. A popular
slide type is the bulleted list slide, used to enter key points or statements about
your topic. When creating the list, pressing the Enter key on the keyboard adds
a new bullet for the next point you want to add.
A design template is a file that contains the styles in a presentation,
including the type and size of bullets and fonts; placeholder sizes and
positions; background design and fill colour schemes. These are similar to the
Figure 13.3 Some useful slide layouts.
presentation wizards you might find in earlier versions of the software as they
help you to build a suitable presentation.
design template ❯
PowerPoint provides design templates that you can apply to a presentation
to give it a fully designed, professional look. Using the Themes section of the
Design tab, you can preview and apply a design template to your presentation.
The template can be applied to all slides or selected slides, and you can apply
more than one type of design template in a single presentation. You can save
any presentation you’ve created as a new design template, and it will be
available in the Slide Design task pane.
transitions ❯ Slide transitions are the visual movement as one slide changes to another.
animations ❯ In PowerPoint, animations are visual effects applied to individual items on
the slide such as graphics, titles or bullet points, rather than to the slide itself.
PowerPoint offers a variety of animation tools, all of which add impact to a
particular presentation. These include effects that decide how text and images
ITQ2
ITQ1 enter and leave the screen (fly in, drive in, flash once, typewriter, drop in). It
What is the main difference between also includes a series of additional effect that add emphasis to element of your
slide animations and slide transitions? presentation (camera effects, laser, reverse text). These elements are all part of
the PowerPoint custom animation tools that can be found on the Animation
ribbon. Custom animation also allows you to add timing to the presentation
and sound effects.
header and footer ❯ Text may be added to the header and footer area of each slide in a
presentation. It is recommended that you include a slide number and the date
of the presentation in the footer. To access headers and footers, use the options
located in ‘Text’ group of the ‘Insert’ Ribbon.
slide master ❯ A slide master stores information about the theme and slide layouts of a
presentation, including the background, colour, fonts, effects, placeholder sizes,
and positioning.
Every presentation contains a slide master that allows you to make style
changes to every slide in your presentation from one place.
You can access the slide master in the ‘View’ ribbon in PowerPoint.
233
speaker notes ❯ Speaker notes are notes added to the presentation slides as a reference
for the presenter. An area of a PowerPoint or OpenOffice Impress slide that
is hidden during the presentation is reserved for notes for the speaker. Here
the presenter will jot important key points that he wishes to cover during the
presentation.
The Outline tab You can find PowerPoint

shows your slide views on the View tab, in
text in outline the Presentations Views
form. and Master Views groups.
The Slide pane displays a

large view of the current
slide. You can add text
and insert objects here.
The Notes pane allows

you to type notes that
apply to the current
slide. These may be
printed later or read
during the presentation.
The main views (Normal,

Slide Sorter, Reading,
and Slide Show) are
available here
Figure 13.4 A PowerPoint window in Normal view showing (a) Outline tab; (b) Slide pane; (c) notes
area; (d) drawing toolbar; and (e) task pane.
The speaker can print these notes out, accompanied by a thumbnail version
of the appropriate slide, to keep as a handy reference to use when he is making
his oral presentation.
For example, you can have your text bullet points fly in from the left, one
word at a time, or hear the sound of applause when a picture is uncovered.
Presentation views
PowerPoint has three main views:
• Normal view is the main editing view, which you use to write and design
your presentation. It is also commonly known as Slide view. The view has
three working areas: on the left, tabs that alternate between an outline of
your slide text (Outline tab) and your slides displayed as thumbnails (Slides
tab); on the right, the slide pane, which displays a large view of the current
slide; and on the bottom, the notes pane.
slide sorter view ❯ • Slide Sorter view is an exclusive view of your slides in thumbnail form.
When you are finished creating and editing your presentation, Slide Sorter
gives you an overall picture of it – making it easy to reorder, add or delete
slides and preview your transition and animation effects.
slide show ❯ • Slide Show view takes up the full computer screen, like an actual slide
show presentation. In this full-screen view, you see your presentation the
way your audience will. You can see how your graphics, timings, movies,
animated elements and transition effects will look in the actual show.
234
Creating a presentation
The New Presentation task pane gives you a range of ways with which to start
creating a presentation.
ITQ3
ITQ1
Which view is most useful for carrying
out EACH of the following tasks?
(a) Rearranging slides in a
presentation.
(b) Editing a presentation.
(c) Testing animations and transitions.
Figure 13.5 The New Presentation task pane provides a range of options.
Activity 13.1 Create a new presentation based on a template

1 Open PowerPoint.
2 On the New Presentation task pane click ‘From installed templates’.
3 Select a template from the list.
4 Click Create.
5 Save the presentation as DTG_Version_1.
On many occasions you will need to insert, duplicate or delete a slide. One
of the easiest methods to delete a slide is to switch to Slide Sorter view, select
the slide to be deleted, then press delete. A slide has a blue border around it
when selected in Slide Sorter view.
Activity 13.2 Add new slides to a presentation

1 Open the presentation to be modified.
2 Do one of the following:
• On the Home tab, click New Slide.
• With the insertion point in the Outline or Slides tab, press Enter.
• Press Ctrl + M.
3 From the Office Theme options, click the layout you want.
235
Activity 13.3 Modify an existing presentation

1 Open PowerPoint.
2 Retrieve the file ‘DTG_Version_1’ created in Activity 13.1.
3 Insert the name of the presenter, Anya Bright-Spark, and tomorrow’s date as
the date of the presentation on the title slide.
4 Insert a new slide immediately after the title slide based on the bulleted list
layout.
5 Add the following content:
• Established in 1990.
• Headquarters in Bridgetown, Barbados.
• Locations in 5 Caribbean countries.
• Over 500 electronic documents prepared daily.
Placeholders are boxes with dotted or hatch-marked borders that are part
of most slide layouts. These boxes hold title and body text or objects such as
charts, tables and pictures.
AutoShapes are a group of ready-made shapes that includes basic shapes,
such as rectangles and circles, plus a variety of lines and connectors, block
arrows, flowchart symbols, stars and banners, and callouts.
A text box is a movable, resizable container for text or graphics. Use text
boxes to position several blocks of text on a page or to give text a different
orientation from other text in the document.
WordArt is text objects you create with ready-made effects to which you
can apply additional formatting options.
Adding text to a slide

There are four types of text you can add to a slide:
• placeholder text;
• text in an AutoShape;
• text in a text box;
• WordArt text.
Figure 13.6 Insert tab showing the Text Box icon.
How to add text to a slide with placeholders

Click inside a text placeholder and type or paste the text. If your text exceeds the size of
the placeholder, PowerPoint reduces the font size and line spacing incrementally as you
type, to make the text fit.
236
How to add text to a text box

1 In the Drawing section of the Home tab, click the Text Box icon.
2 On the slide, point to where you want the text, click, and then type or paste your text.
Notes
• When text is typed or pasted in a text box, it says on a single line.
• To add text that wraps, point to where you want the text box, drag the text box to
the size you want, and then type or paste your text.
Activity 13.4 Add text to a slide

1 Open the presentation ‘DTG_Version_2’.
2 Insert a new slide based on the ‘Blank’ slide layout.
3 Use a text box to add the slide title ‘What is electronic document processing?’
4 Format the text size to 24 point and make the font style bold.
5 Add another text box to the slide that will contain text as shown below.
Electronic document processing is the use of a computer system (hardware
and application software) to create, edit, format and share documents.
Documents may include envelopes, labels, meeting agendas, minutes,
newsletters, organisation charts and a wide range of other documents.
Lawyers use electronic document processing to prepare documents such
as wills, leases, agreements and conveyance documents.
Adding an image to a slide

PowerPoint allows you to insert a wide range of images directly into your
ITQ4 presentation, including:
• Pictures
Name ANY THREE of the types of
✓ Windows Enhanced Metafile
images that may be inserted in a
PowerPoint presentation. ✓ Windows Metafile
✓ JPEG
✓ Portable Network Graphics
• clip art
• Screenshots
• Photo albums
Printing a presentation
A hard copy of a PowerPoint presentation is often required for various reasons:
• as a reference for the speaker during a live presentation;
• as handouts for the presentation audience;
• for record-keeping or despatch.
PowerPoint offers a range of output options in the Print what section of the
Print dialogue:
Figure 13.7 You can insert a wide range • Slides;
of images into your presentation. • Handouts;
• Notes Pages;
• Outline View.
237
Activity 13.5 Insert an Organization Chart

1 On the Insert tab, click SmartArt.
2 Click the Organization Chart diagram, and then click OK.
3 Do one or more of steps 4, 5 and 6.
4 If you want to add text to a shape, right-click the shape, click Edit Text, and type
the text.
5 If you want to add a shape, select the shape you want to add the new shape
under or next to, click the arrow on the Insert Shape button on the Organization
Chart toolbar, and then click one or more of the following:
• Coworker – to place the shape next to the selected shape and connect it to
the same superior shape.
• Subordinate – to place the new shape below and connect it to the selected
shape.
• Assistant – to place the new shape below the selected shape with an elbow
connector.
6 If you want to add a preset design scheme, click AutoFormat on the
Organization Chart toolbar, and select a style from the Organization Chart Style
Gallery.
7 Click outside the drawing when you are finished.
Activity 13.6 Insert an Organisation Chart

1 Open the presentation DTG_Version_3.
2 Insert an Organisation Chart on slide 3 based on the information below.

4 Close the presentation.
238
You can print the entire presentation or specific slides in colour, grayscale,
or black and white. Most presentations are designed to be shown in colour,
but slides and handouts are usually printed in black and white or shades of
grey (grayscale). When you choose to print, PowerPoint sets the colours in
your presentation to match your selected printer’s capabilities. For example, if
your selected printer is black and white, your presentation will automatically
be set to print in grayscale. Slides print one per page and can be sized to fit a
variety of paper sizes. Slides can also be sized to fit standard transparencies (for
overhead projectors).
Print preview is a view of a document as it will With print preview you can see how your slides, notes and handouts will
appear when you print it. look in black and white or in grayscale, and adjust the look of objects before
your print.
You can also make certain changes when you preview before printing. You
can select:
• A layout for handouts.
• To add a frame around each slide for print out only.
• The orientation (portrait or landscape) for handouts, notes pages or an
outline.
• Header and footer options.
ITQ5
PowerPoint allows a user to print Full
Page Slides, Notes Pages, Outlines or
Handouts. For EACH of the following
scenarios, indicate which of the
formats is most suitable.
(a) The presenter wants to give each
participant a printed copy of a
36-slide presentation.
(b) A conference organiser requires a
printed copy of the presentation.
(c) The speaker requires a printed
document that will be used at the
podium during a live presentation.
Figure 13.8 The Print dialogue showing the Print Layout drop-down list.
Activity 13.7 Print slides, handouts

1 Open the presentation.
2 Click the Office Button, then Print.
3 Select the printer you want to print to if it is not set as default.
4 Select the print range, number of copies and the items to be printed.
5 Click OK.
239
Summary
• A presentation is a set of visuals prepared using special-purpose software.
• Microsoft PowerPoint is the most popular presentation software.
• Creating a presentation in PowerPoint involves starting with a basic design; adding new slides and content;
choosing slide layouts; modifying slide design; and creating effects such as animated slide transitions.
• A slide layout is the arrangement of placeholders on a blank slide in preparation for a combination of a title, text
and content.
• A presentation may include several different slide layouts.
• It is important for you to carefully plan your presentation on paper before you attempt to create the presentation
using PowerPoint.
• There are four types of text you can add to a slide: placeholder text, text in an AutoShape, text in a text box, and
WordArt text.
• To insert a new slide, press Ctrl + M.
• To delete a slide, switch to Slide Sorter view, select the slide to be deleted, then press delete.
• PowerPoint allows you to insert a wide range of pictures directly into your presentation including clip art, images
from a scanner or camera, AutoShapes, WordArt or an organisation chart.
• PowerPoint allows the printing of slides, handouts and note pages in colour, grayscale or black and white.
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 Any THREE of the following: ITQ3 (a) Slide sorter; (b) Normal;
title and content, section header, (c) Full screen.
two content comparison, title only, ITQ4 Any THREE of the following:
content with caption, or picture with Windows Enhanced Metafile,
caption. Windows Metafile, JPEG or Portable
ITQ2 Slide animations affect items Network Graphics.
on one slide whereas transitions ITQ5 (a) Handouts; (b) Full Page
involve pairs of slides. Slides; (c) Notes Pages.
240
Multiple-choice questions 6 The area where you create, edit and display
Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested presentation slides is called the ____________ pane.
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question (A) Notes;
carefully then select the most suitable response. (B) Outlines;
(C) Slide;
1 Which of the following statements is NOT true about
(D) Task.
presentation software?
7 In PowerPoint, animations are ____________.
(A) It uses slides as a container for the content.
(B) It allows the addition of new slides and content. (A) the visual movements as one slide changes to
(C) It provides an assortment of preset design another;
templates that cannot be changed. (B) visual effects applied to individual items on the
(D) Slide shows may be viewed on screen, delivered slide;
over the Web or printed on transparencies. (C) visual effects applied to the slide itself;
(D) cartoon-like video inserted on a slide.
2 If your text exceeds the size of the placeholder,
PowerPoint: 8 When you start a new organisation chart, you begin
with a default arrangement of ____________.
(A) keep increasing the width of the placeholder;
(B) truncates the text that is longer than the (A) two boxes;
placeholder; (B) four boxes;
(C) wraps the text and increases the height of the (C) two circles;
placeholder; (D) four circles.
(D) reduces the font size and line spacing 9 You’ve put a layout on your slide that contains a
incrementally as your type, to make the text fit. placeholder for a picture but you’d rather use the
3 You can insert a new slide after the current slide in a clip art task pane to insert the art than the options
presentation by pressing: you get when you click the Insert Clip Art icon in the
placeholder. What do you do?
(A) Ctrl + M;
(B) Alt + M; (A) Apply a Blank layout instead, and then use the
(C) Ctrl + Alt + M; Insert tab (point to Picture, and then click Clip
(D) Ctrl + Shift + M. Art) to open the Clip Art task pane and insert
the picture.
4 Which of the following statements is NOT true about
(B) Select the placeholder on the slide, and then
design templates?
press Delete. Then use the Insert tab (point to
(A) They give presentations a fully designed, Picture, and then click Clip Art) to open the Clip
professional look. Art task pane and insert the picture.
(B) The template can be applied to all slides or (C) Make sure the picture placeholder is selected,
selected slides only. and then use the Insert tab (point to Picture,
(C) You can preview a design template before you and then click Clip Art) to open the Clip Art
apply it to your presentation. task pane and insert the picture.
(D) You can apply only one type of design template (D) None of the above.
in a single presentation.
10 You can press ____________ to move forward through
5 A content layout is a slide layout that contains one or slides as an alternative to clicking the left mouse
more content ____________. button.
(A) charts; (A) N;
(B) diagrams; (B) P;
(C) placeholders; (C) Tab;
(D) tables. (D) Enter.
241
Further practice activities

1 Create a PowerPoint presentation that describes the management and staffing of Dox to Go based on the information
contained in the manuscript below. Include an organisational chart.
2 Visit About.com’s presentation software page at http://presentationsoft.about.com/od/classrooms/tp/student_tips.htm.

Create a 10-slide presentation entitled ‘Create Classroom Presentations Worthy of
an A’.
242
14 By the end of
Mastering web page
design
explain concepts related to website design

this chapter
plan for the creation of a website
you should
be able to:
create a simple web page
create hyperlinks
test a website
explain what is involved in publishing and maintaining a website.
Concept map
Web page design
includes processes such as
planning the website creating a creating testing the website publishing & maintaining
simple page hyperlinks the website
involving uses
is done by that link to includes tasks such as
Consider reasons for the website: another web page a web a test registering a domain name
the intended audience an email address browser audience locating a hosting company
number of web pages desired user-created files use FTP to upload file
content of each page a location within the web page
layout of the web pages
choosing an appropriate design

creating an index page
create a home page
create hyperlinks
inserting and deleting text and graphics
wrapping text with image
creating thumbnail image(s)
In this chapter you are going to master creating an effective website. A website
is a collection of web pages linked together with hyperlinks. You will need to
spend a considerable amount of time practising at the computer. To this end
we have included numerous practical exercises that show you all the skills you
will need in an easy-to-follow, step-by-step format.
Web page design packages allow us to create websites. All web page design
packages have similar features. In the introduction to web page design below
we discuss the general functionality available in all web page design packages.
14 • Mastering web page design
Introduction to web page design

Web page design is an art. As you surf the World Wide Web you will come
across a wide variety of web page designs. In this chapter we aim to show you
how to create a simple but effective web page.
Before we start let us explore some questions that will better help us to
create an effective website.
What is the aim of the website?

Websites are created to entertain, inform, persuade, sell goods and services,
collect feedback and connect friends, among other things.
Who is the intended audience for the website?

A website intended for a business user (such as www.FedEx.com) is likely to be
very different from one such as www.teen.com which is designed to appeal to
teenagers.
How many web pages will be needed?

For websites with a large number of pages careful considerations will have to
be given to how viewers will navigate from one page to another. The websites
we will be creating will only have a few pages so linking from one page to
other pages will be simple.
What will be the content of each page?

Viewers will be disappointed if they view a web page and it doesn’t contain the
information they were expecting. Remember that content can include text,
images, animations, video clips and sounds.
How will the information be laid out on the web page?

If you put too much information on a page and it becomes cluttered and
difficult to view, too little and it looks bare and simplistic. A balance of text and
pictures is usually effective.
How will colour and design be used on the web pages?

Consistent use of colours and design help the viewer know that they are still
on your website.
Creating simple web pages

Web pages are written in special language called Hyper Text Markup Language
.htm ❯ (HTML). The file extensions .htm and .html tell the operating system that
.html ❯ these documents are web pages and a web browser should be used to view
these files. Fortunately we don’t have to learn the HTML language because we
can use a web page design program to create the HTML for us. Programs such
as DreamWeaver from Macromedia and FrontPage from Microsoft are web-
authoring tools that include many advanced features. For simple web pages
we can use a word-processing package that will convert our document into an
HTML web page for us. We are already familiar with using Microsoft Word so
we will be using Word to create our web pages.
home page ❯ A home page is the main page on a website; it is the page that a person
sees first.
Although Microsoft Word is usually a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What
You Get) editor when used as a web page design tool, the final web page may
differ from what appears on the screen.
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Use your word-processing skills to create a home page
Activity 14.1 Creating a home page

1 Start Microsoft Word.
2 Create the following document. Use the Times New Roman font.
My First Web Page by
Your Name Here
Hyperlink to Countries page Hyperlink to Food page
3 Save document as a web page. In the Save as: type box select Web Page
(*.htm, *.html). Use the filename index.
(The home page of a website is usually named index as this allows the web
browser to know which file to display as the home page.)
To view a web page using Internet Explorer

Start ❯ All Programs ❯ Internet Explorer ❯ File ❯ Open ❯ Browse
1 Open your web browser
2 Open the file
3 Go to Find
4 Enter the filename
5 Press OK
Note
If you are not connected to the Internet and receive a warning message:
File ❯ Work Offline
Activity 14.2 Viewing a web page

1 Start Internet Explorer.
2 Open the file Index.htm created in Activity 14.1. Your document should be
displayed in the browser window.
3 Close this document.
Congratulations, you have created and viewed your first web page!
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Activity 14.3 Creating a web page

1 Start Microsoft Word
My Favourite Caribbean Countries
• Antigua and Barbuda
• Cayman Islands
• [Fill in your own favourites]
Hyperlink to Home page Hyperlink to Food page
3 Save document as a web page using the filename Countries.
Activity 14.4 Creating yet another web page

1 Start Microsoft Word.
My Favourite Foods
• Ackee
• Banana
A link from a hypertext document to another • [Fill in your own favourites]
location, activated by clicking on a highlighted
word or image. • [Fill in your own favourites]
Hyperlink to Home page Hyperlink to Food page
3 Save the document as a web page using the filename Foods.
Using hyperlinks
We already know that hyperlinks allow the author of a website to join one web
page to others. The person viewing a page can simply click on a hyperlink to
view the next page. In our web pages we have already created the text that we
Link to … Useful when … are going to use as hyperlinks.
existing file or you want to link to
web page. another web page.
place in this a web page is long and
document. contains many topics.
e-mail address. you want the web page
user to send you an
e-mail without having
to type the address.
Table 14.1 Hyperlinks are not restricted to
jumping to another web page, although this
is their most common use.
Figure 14.1 Showing that hyperlinks can link to an e-mail address.
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Activity 14.5 Adding hyperlinks to web pages

1 Open the ‘Your Initials Index’ web page document.
2 We want to edit this web page and not view it in a web browser, so start
Microsoft Word in the usual way and then open the ‘Your Initials Index.htm’ file.
3 We want the text ‘Hyperlink to Countries page’ to be a hyperlink.
a Highlight the text ‘Hyperlink to Countries page’ then click Insert ❯ Hyperlink.
b Select the html file, ‘Your Initials Countries.htm’, as the target web page.
c Highlight the text ‘Hyperlink to Food page’, then click Insert ❯ Hyperlink to
complete this hyperlink. Note that Microsoft Word indicates a hyperlink by
changing the font colour to blue and underlining the text.
4 Save and Close this document using File I Close.
5 Repeat steps 1 to 4 for the ‘Your Initials Countries’ file.
6 Repeat steps 1 to 4 for the ‘Your Initials Foods’ file.
Testing a website
It is important to test your website thoroughly. The last thing that visitors to
your site want is to click on a hyperlink that leads them nowhere.
Activity 14.6 Testing hyperlinks

1 Use Internet Explorer to open ‘Your Initials Index.htm’ web page file.
2 Click on the hyperlink to test the link to the Countries web page. Systematically
check all six hyperlinks in your website. Here is a sensible order for checking all
the links.
a From the Home web page test the hyperlink to the Countries web page.
b From the Countries web page test the hyperlink to the Home web page.
c From the Home web page test the hyperlink to the Food web page.
d From the Food web page test the hyperlink to the Countries web page.
e From the Countries web page test the hyperlink to the Food web page.
f And finally, from the Food web page test the hyperlink to the Home web page.
3 Once you have tested all six hyperlinks you may exit Internet Explorer.
If your website is going to be available on the World Wide Web then

you have millions of potential viewers and not all of them will be the
same. How will your website look if the user is using a different version of
Internet Explorer or if they use a different browser such as FireFox or Safari?
You should really test your website using a selection of web browsers and
hardware. Does the website still look good when viewed on a PDA or mobile
phone?
Will any of your viewers be visually impaired, colour blind or not speak
English? How do your web pages look to them?
Testing a website should not be limited to checking if the hyperlinks work.
Publishing a website
Having been thoroughly tested, your website is ready to be uploaded onto the
World Wide Web.
When we considered web browsers we saw that each web page has a
unique uniform resource locator (URL) which we use to access the document.
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Creating and hosting your own website

To make a website available on the WWW you need three things:
1 a set of files that make up a website;
2 a registered domain name;
3 a hosting company.
Securing a domain name

You have already created your website and named the home page index.html
so now you need to register a domain name. You need to think of a unique
domain name that has not already been chosen by someone else. An easy way
to test if a domain name is already in use is to type it into a web browser. If a
web page is displayed, the domain name is already registered and you need to
think of another.
Hosting
The final element to getting your website onto the WWW is to locate a hosting
company.
hosting ❯ Hosting is the act of making a website available on the World Wide
Web. The best way to identify a suitable hosting company is by personal
recommendation but you will find adverts for hosting companies in computer
magazines or by searching the WWW. Levels of service and prices vary
considerably so you should compare several hosting companies before making
a choice. Hosting companies will register your chosen domain and provide you
with space for your files on one of their computers. Once the hosting setup is
complete, whenever anyone types your URL into their web browser they will
be automatically directed to your website files.
One easy way to upload your files onto the hosting company’s computer is
using file transfer protocol (FTP) but your hosting company will provide you
with instructions on their preferred way for you to upload your files.
There are numerous spam-free and advertising free website building and
hosting services available on the web. One of these that I often recommend is
Webs.com. Webs’ drag-and-drop SiteBuilder requires no technical knowledge
and their three-step process will literally have your website up and running in
minutes.
Before you get started at Webs.com, ensure that you ask yourself the six
Figure 14.2 Make a free website. Get free questions that we explored at the start of the chapter. Have fun building your
hosting at Webs.com website!
Activity 14.7 Webs, Weebly and Wix are three websites that provide users with templates to
design their own websites. They also provide free hosting. In this activity, you will
review and rate each of these websites. Use a rating based on a five star rating
system where more stars indicates a better quality offer. Some features you may
want to use in your rating are ease of use, availability of online technical support
and restrictions on the use of a free account.
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Summary
• When considering a website, always think about the intended audience, number of web pages desired, content of
each page and layout of the web pages.
• Choosing an appropriate design for a page is an important first step in the web page design process.
• Hyperlinks may link to another web page, a location within the web page, an e-mail address or link to user-created
files.
• When testing a website, designers should use a web browser, verify that all the hyperlinks work correctly and use a
test audience.
• To make a website available on the Web, designers should register a domain name, locate a hosting company and
set up an account, then use the file transfer protocol (FTP) to uploading files to the hosting company’s server.
Multiple-choice questions 3 A hyperlink is used to:

Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested (A) link a web page to a home page
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question (B) link a web browser to a web page
carefully then select the most suitable response. (C) link one web page to another web page
(D) link the World Wide Web to your computer
1 FTP is an acronym for:
4 What three components are needed to make a website
(A) First To Process
available on the WWW?
(B) File Transfer Protocol
(C) Final Transport Protocol (A) web browser, a hosting company and web page
(D) File Transfer Process (B) web pages, domain name and a hosting
company
2 When planning a website, which of the following is
(C) hyperlink, web pages and a computer
least important?
(D) domain name, a hosting company and a
(A) the intended audience computer
(B) the layout of the web pages
(C) the content of each web page
(D) the number of hyperlinks
1 Hyperlinks are an important feature of all web pages. 2 To make a website available on the WWW, we need
a Explain the importance of thoroughly testing a the files that make up the website, a registered domain
website before uploading the files to a hosting name and a hosting company.
company. [3] a What is a registered domain name? [2]
b Why is it important to include at least one b What is the role of the hosting company? [2]
hyperlink on every web page of a website? [1] c Suggest ONE method of uploading the files
c Briefly describe what happens when a user that make up the website. [1]
clicks on a hyperlink to an e-mail address. [2] d Suggest TWO ways of identifying a suitable
d Hyperlinks can have a target which is an hosting company. [2]
e-mail address. Give TWO other targets to e Why is it considered important to thoroughly
which a hyperlink might point. [2] test a website before uploading to the hosting
e How are viewers of a web page able to company? [2]
recognise which text is a hyperlink? [1]
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15
15 • Mastering spreadsheets
Mastering
spreadsheets
By the end of explain the purpose of a spreadsheet
this chapter use appropriately the terminology associated with spreadsheets
you should
efficiently navigate the worksheets contained in a workbook
be able to:
create a spreadsheet containing labels, values and formulas
create advanced arithmetic formula
use appropriately the following functions: sum, average, date, maximum,
minimum, count, if, Vlookup and rank
manipulate cells containing formula
apply formatting to a spreadsheet
sort data in a spreadsheet
find a record matching a given criterion or criteria
use graphs and charts to represent spreadsheet data.
Concept map
Spreadsheets
facilitates creation of
tables charts & graphs:

bar charts
column charts
are stored may be arranged in line graphs
pie charts
worksheets formatted sorted columns rows
on intersect at
primary OR secondary field cells
in each of which may contain ONE
ascending OR descending order

label formulae value
may be written using

is applied to is applied to
text formatting relative addressing mathematical pre-defined functions: numeric

OR operators if count formatting
absolute addressing sum average
date minimum
rank maximum
A spreadsheet is a computer application – a productivity tool – used to capture,

analyse, and sharing tabular data sets (data arranged in table form as a set
of rows and columns). It is essentially an automatic calculation tool and is
an electronic replacement for the traditional financial modelling tools, the
accountant’s columnar pad, pencil and calculator that are still in use today.
In this chapter, we will help you to master spreadsheets. You will need to
spend a considerable amount of time practising at the computer. To help you,
we have prepared a wide range of practice exercises that will help you develop
all the skills necessary. All spreadsheet packages have similar features and we
will begin by discussing these features.
Introduction to spreadsheets
Whereas a word processor is used for processing text, a spreadsheet is used
for processing numbers. That is not to say that text cannot be typed in a
spreadsheet! Spreadsheets allow you to do anything that you would normally
do with a calculator, pencil, paper and a set of numerical data. They are usually
used for the following purposes:
• preparing financial statements: trial balance, balance sheet and profit & loss
statement;
• preparing documents such as invoices, credit notes and cash receipts;
• preparing budgets and examining ‘what-if’ scenarios;
• keeping records of financial and transactions involving numeric data.
The software suite includes Excel as a spreadsheet application. Another popular
spreadsheet program is Microsoft Works which also includes a spreadsheet
program.
We will use Microsoft Office Excel 10 for all our examples in this chapter. If
you prefer to use OpenOffice, we have provided step-by-step solutions on the
CD-ROM.
A single spreadsheet can contain a number of related worksheets just like
pages in the accountant’s ledger. Consider the advantages of a spreadsheet
package when compared with a human and calculator.
spreadsheet ❯ A spreadsheet is a table consisting of cells (the intersection of a row and
column) that hold accounting or financial data and simulates the traditional
physical spreadsheet. It is used to capture, analyse, display and sharing data.
worksheet ❯ A worksheet is a single working area in a spreadsheet file, consisting of a
grid of lettered columns and numbered rows. Each worksheet has a tab that
may be renamed. It is a good idea to give your worksheet descriptive names.
Each row and column is made up of a series of cells. Cells can be identified by
cell address ❯ their cell address. The cell address is the column letter and row number for
that cell. The first cell in each worksheet is A1, named such as it is in Column
A and Row 1.
Cell references are relative by default, this means that as a formula or
function is copied and pasted to other cells, the cell references in the formula
or function change to reflect the function’s new location. An example of a
relative cell reference is C4 and G15.
absolute cell address ❯ An absolute cell address does not change when a formula is copied and
pasted to other cells. An example of an absolute cell reference would be $C$4
and $G$15.
workbook ❯ A workbook is a collection of related spreadsheets that are saved as one
file. A new workbook contains three worksheets – Sheet1, Sheet2 and Sheet3.
Sheet1 is the active worksheet. More sheets can be added if required. When a
new workbook is created in Excel, it is given the name Book1.xlsx (see Figure
15.1).
The file extension ‘.xlsx’ refers to an Excel file.
251
Term Definition
Label A label is information typed into a cell to describe the values that will appear in other cells. The label ‘Expenses’ might indicate the
values below are a series of expenses payments.
Value Value refers to the numerical quantity placed in a cell. A cell value can also be a date of a True/False statement.
Template A template is a partially completed spreadsheet that can be edited to fit your needs. Common templates in Excel include invoices and
budget reports.
Range A range is a group of cells that have been selected to edit or calculate. The range A1:A10 is the first 10 cells in column A.
Title A title is a body of text that describes the purpose of the spreadsheet.
Record A record is a row of data where each cell in the row contains an element of information.
Formula A Formula is a basic mathematical operation used to perform a calculation. The formula ‘=A1+B1’ will add the values in cells A1 and
B1 and place the answer in the cell where the formula is written.
Function A Function is a preset formula which performs a set operation on the listed cells. The formula ‘=Sum(A1:A10)’ will add the values in
each of the cells in the listed range. The following is a list of common Excel functions.
Sum Add the values in a range of cells.
Average Find the average of the values of a range of cells.
Date Date functions allow you to make calculations involving dates. For example, The number of days that has elapsed between
two dates.
Max Find the highest value in a range of cells.
Min Find the lowest value in a range of cells.
Count Count functions allow you to count the number of cells or the values in a range of cells.
If If functions (or If statements) allow to make decisions about what happens in spreadsheets.
Vlookup Vlookup stands for ‘Vertical Lookup’ and allows you to look for specific information in large tables of data.
Rank Ranks the size of a number compared to other numbers in a list.
Table 15.1 Common spreadsheet terms. During this chapter, all the activities you do will be saved in one workbook
named ‘Macmillan Ch15 Activities’. Each activity will be saved as a new
worksheet in this workbook. By doing this, you will have a single file to
manage instead of a whole lot of files. Also, it will be easy for you to redo an
activity.
Features of spreadsheets
All spreadsheets provide the basic functionality to:
• perform error-free automatic calculation and recalculation every time the
worksheet is changed;
• format the contents of a worksheet into a professional-looking document;
• include data from another source such as a table in a word-processing
document;
• move or copy sections of the worksheet to another area of the worksheet or
to another worksheet;
ITQ1 • insert or delete rows, columns or cells at any position in the worksheet;
• lock parts of the spreadsheet, such as the column headings, so that they are
A computer user opens the Excel
always in view;
application and a new workbook
appears on screen. What name is likely • sort the entries in a worksheet ready for printing;
to be displayed in the title bar if there • select entries to be displayed using powerful searching functionality;
is already a file saved as Book1.xlsx in • create graphs and charts from the data;
the MyDocuments folder? • link data in two or more worksheets.
252
Figure 15.1 When you open a new Excel workbook the first sheet of the workbook is displayed:
(a) The ribbon, appears above the worksheet, and includes a set of buttons and commands that
you use to do things in and with your document (like save it); and (b) a blank grid, which looks like
a ruled sheet of paper and takes up most of the window. The sheet tabs (c) may be used to switch
easily between sheets.
How to start Microsoft Excel

Start ❯ All Programs ❯ Microsoft Office ❯ Microsoft Excel
1 Click on the start menu.
2 Go to All Programs.
3 Select the Microsoft Office folder.
4 Click on Microsoft Excel to open.
Activity 15.1 Opening Microsoft Excel

1 Open Microsoft Excel.
2 Check to ensure that your screen looks similar to Figure 15.1.
Tabs Commands change

colour when active
Commands Groups Drop-down list
Figure 15.2 The Ribbon in Microsoft Excel 2010. The buttons and commands are arranged in
groups and the groups are arranged in tabs. Some commands expand into a drop-down list or a
dialogue box.
Activity 15.2 Creating a new Microsoft Excel workbook

1 Start Microsoft Excel; observe that a new Workbook is created with a name
similar to Book1.
2 Save this workbook as Macmillan Ch15 Activities.
3 Close Microsoft Excel.
253
Activity 15.3 Exploring the Home tab on the ribbon

1 Make a list of the different groups on the Home tab.
2 Expand each of the following dialogue boxes: Alignment, Number, Styles and
Cells. Explore the options that are available.
3 Click on the drop-down list for the Find command. Explore the options available
for finding formulas and constants.
4 Record your findings in your notebook.
Creating and setting up your workbook

ITQ2
ITQ1 Like an exercise book, a workbook contains pages called sheets. All the data
There are two methods that may be that will be manipulated in a spreadsheet must be written on a sheet.
used to insert a new worksheet in a
workbook. State what these ways are Inserting a new worksheet
and explain the difference in the result By default, there are three worksheets are provided with a new workbook. The
obtained. maximum number of Excel worksheets in a single workbook used to be 256,
but now is only limited by your computer’s available memory.
How to insert a new worksheet
1 Press Shift + F11, or
2 Click the Insert Worksheet button (Figure 15.3).
Figure 15.3 The Insert Worksheet button.
Activity 15.4 Inserting a new sheet

1 Open the workbook Macmillan Ch15 Activities.
2 Click on Sheet1 to make it active.
3 Press Shift + F11; observe that a new sheet (Sheet4) is inserted BEFORE
Sheet1.
4 Click the Insert Worksheet button; observe that Sheet5 is inserted as the last
worksheet in the workbook.
5 Save your workbook.
Renaming a worksheet
By default, sheets are named Sheet1, Sheet2 all the way through to Sheet256.
Each of these sheets may be renamed. Renaming sheets makes them easier to
manage.
How to rename a sheet
1 Open the workbook Macmillan Ch15 Activities.
2 Double-click on the sheet tab that you wish to rename.
3 Type the new name.
4 Press enter when complete.
254
Activity 15.5 Renaming worksheet tabs

1 Open your workbook Macmillan Ch15 Activities.
2 Double-click the sheet tab labelled ‘Sheet1’.
3 Type ‘Price List’ then press Enter.
4 Double-click the sheet tab labelled ‘Sheet2’.
5 Type ‘Invoice’ then press Enter.
Reference on
Term Description
Figure 15.4
1 Active cell The cell at the cursor location, bounded by a heavy border; when data is entered, it is placed in the active cell.
2 Cell A box at the intersection of a row and column that can hold one data item.
3 Cell range Two or more adjoining cells.
4 Cell reference The coordinates of a cell; for example, the reference of the cell that appears at the intersection of column A and
or cell address row 1 is A1. The cell reference of the active cell is always displayed in the Name Box.
5 Constant A value that is not calculated and therefore does not change. Examples include 2, 12.5 and 12-Jun-2010.
6 Formula An equation that performs a calculation on values in your worksheet. A formula starts with an equals sign (=).
7 Formula bar The place where a formula is shown when the active cell contains a formula. It is also the place where data may
be typed for entry to a cell. Observe the green tick and the red cross to the left of the bar. These may be used to
accept or discard a cell entry, similar to what the ENTER and ESC keys do.
8 Function SUM (∑) is an example of a pre-written formula. It adds a set of numbers.
9 Label A descriptive name that indicates what data is in a cell, row or column.
10 Oblique A column heading oriented at 45 degrees. Notice the different orientations used for the other column headings.
heading
Table 15.2 Some spreadsheet terminology.
4 7
10
3
9 5
Figure 15.4 An annotated Excel Worksheet showing some key elements. Table 15.2 explains each
numbered element.
255
Getting to know your workbook

Using an electronic spreadsheet productively begins with knowing the different
parts of the workbook. Secondly, you need to know how to move from one
part of the workbook to the next. In this section, we introduce commonly used
spreadsheet terminology and provide instructions on how to select different
parts of a worksheet and enter and delete data.
Click here to select Double click here to make column A

the entire worksheet. wide enough to fit all its contents.
A
ITQ3
ITQ1
In Figure 15.5, what is:
(a) the cell reference for the cell
containing the label ‘Lilies’; C
(b) the label for the column containing

the list of flowers;
(c) the cell reference for the active cell;
(d) the cell range containing the names
of the flowers?
Right click here (the row header) to activate the shortcut

menu with commands to insert an delete a row.
Figure 15.5 An incomplete worksheet showing different types of labels already entered and some
of the areas that may be clicked to activate commands.
Sometimes it may be necessary to delete a worksheet that is no longer

needed. Deleting a worksheet is similar to removing a page from a book.
However, like magic, the workbook will still allow you to create up to 256
pages. Go ahead, create and delete worksheets as often as your needs dictate!
How to delete a sheet
a Right-click on the sheet tab that you wish to delete.
b Click ‘Delete’ on the shortcut menu.
As soon as you complete an activity, you will be required to make a copy of
the worksheet in preparation for the next activity. The copy of the worksheet
will be placed at the end of the workbook (it will be the last worksheet in the
workbook). You will also be required to rename the worksheet so that its name
matches the upcoming activity. By doing this, you will always be ready for the
next activity!
Activity 15.6 Deleting worksheets

1 Open your workbook Macmillan Ch15 Activities.
2 Delete ALL worksheets EXCEPT ‘Price List’.
256
How to copy a worksheet

1 Open the workbook.
2 Right-click on the sheet to be copied and select the ‘Move or Copy’ menu option.
3 Select ‘Move to end’ then check the ‘Create a copy’ checkbox.
4 Click ‘OK’.
Table 15.3 explains how to manipulate the data in a worksheet.
If you want to Using the keyboard Using the mouse

Move around a Use the arrow keys to move one cell at a Use the scroll bars to move to the
worksheet. time in the direction that you want to go. desired section of the worksheet
then click the cell.
Select a single Press the arrow keys to move to the cell. Click the cell.
cell.
Select a range. Press the arrow keys to move to the cell. Click the first cell of the range,
Hold down SHIFT while you press the arrow and then drag to the last cell.
keys to extend the selection.
Select an entire In the Name Box, type the row number Click the row header.
row. twice separated by a colon. To select row 5,
type 5:5. Then press Enter.
Select an entire In the Name Box, type the column letter Click the column header.
column. twice separated by a colon. To select
column E, type E:E. Then press Enter.
Select an entire Press and hold down the Ctrl key on the Click the Select All button located
worksheet. keyboard then press and release the letter at the intersection of the row
‘A’ key on the keyboard without releasing and column headers (see object
the Ctrl key. labelled A in Figure 15.5).
Enter data in a After the data is typed, press Enter. The cell After the data is typed, click the
cell. below will be the new active cell. green tick on the formula bar. The
current cell remains active.
Delete data from Select the cell (or cell range) then press the Right-click over the cell then
For more shortcuts visit the following web page: a cell. Delete key. select Clear Contents from the
http://www.shortcutworld.com/en/win/ shortcut menu.
Excel_2010.html
Table 15.3 Working with cells, rows and columns.
Editing your worksheet

During editing, the structure and content of a worksheet is changed. Rows and
columns are inserted and deleted, so too are cells. Also, cells may be merged
and addressed as a single cell. More importantly, spreadsheet data is entered
and later manipulated (sorting and filtering). Spreadsheet data includes labels
and values.
257
Figure 15.6 A price list and order form.
label ❯ A label is a set of alphanumeric characters used to identify the content of

one or more cells.
value ❯ A value is data in the form of a number, date or text (alphanumeric
characters) that may be manipulated.
Entering labels
Labels may be used as worksheet titles, column headers, row headers or as a
label for a particular cell. Figure 15.6 shows a two-line worksheet title ‘Flowers
by Howard: Price List and Order Form for 2012’. It also shows a column header
(flowers) and nine row headers (Rose, Chrysanthemum … Daffodils).
It is sometimes necessary to enter a label on two or more lines when it is
being used as a worksheet title. Also, for a well-presented worksheet, you may
need to merge and centre your labels across two or more columns.
If you are entering a set of numbers, such as 2014, as a label you will need
to enter ‘2014 instead of 2014. The spreadsheet treats the quotation mark as an
instruction to convert the number to text.
Activity 15.7 Entering labels

1 Open your workbook.
2 Rename the worksheet ‘Price List’ to ‘Activity 7 – Price List’.
3 Type the labels shown in Figure 15.6. Do NOT leave any blank lines between the
labels.
4 Make a copy of the worksheet; rename the copy ‘Activity 8 – Inserting blank and
cell’.
5 Save the workbook.
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Inserting cells, columns and rows

A worksheet is very flexible. It may be modified to suit changing needs. You
can:
• insert blank cells above or to the left of the active cell;
• shift other cells in the same column down;
• shift other cells in the same row to the right;
• insert rows above the active cell on your worksheet;
• insert blank columns to the right of the active cell on your worksheet.
How to insert blank cells on a worksheet

Home ❯ Cells ❯ Insert
1 Select the cell or the range of cells where you want to insert the new blank cells.
Select the same number of cells as you want to insert. For example, to insert three
blank cells, you need to select three cells.
2 In the Insert dialogue box, click the direction in which you want to shift the
surrounding cells.
Note: Right-click the selected cells and then click Insert on the shortcut menu (see Figure
15.5).
Activity 15.8 Inserting a blank row and a blank cell

1 Open the workbook and select the worksheet ‘Activity 8 – Pricelist’.
2 Insert two blank rows above row 3 (the row containing the label ‘Flowers’).
3 Type a dollar sign (‘$’) in EACH cell in the range B6:G6.
4 Insert another blank row above row 6 (the row containing the label ‘Rose’).
5 Insert a blank cell at A7. Enter the label ‘Anthurium’.
6 Centre all the labels in the range B5:G6.
7 Make a copy of the worksheet. Remember to place it at the end!
8 Rename the copy ‘Activity 9 – Deleting a cell’.
ITQ4
ITQ1
What would be the cell address of the
blank cell inserted in Activity 15.8?
Deleting cells, columns and rows
It is sometimes necessary to delete:
• The contents of a cell
• A cell and its contents
• An entire row
• An entire column
There is no need to delete the contents of a cell if you immediately want to
write something else in it. Since a cell can only hold one data item at a time,
anything that is typed in a cell will replace whatever was selected.
For practice, delete the cell containing the label ‘Anthurium’. Activity 15.9
will take you step-by-step through the process.
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Activity 15.9 Deleting a cell

1 Open the workbook and select the worksheet ‘Activity 9 – Deleting a cell’.
2 Select cell A7.
3 Right-click the selected cell then click Delete.
4 Select the ‘Shift cells up’ option.
6 Rename the copy ‘Activity 10 – Adjusting column width’.
Changing row height and column width

It is good practice to carry out the necessary structural changes to your
worksheet as these changes are needed. Some of these structural changes
include:
• Merging cells
• Adjusting the height of one or more rows
• Adjusting the height width of one or more columns
Oftentimes, we know right from the start that the document we are preparing
will need to be printed and presented as a single page document. This means
that we have to make proper choices as it concerns the width of columns and
when to increase the height of one or more rows.
Most spreadsheet packages have features that automate certain tasks. One
of these tasks is adjusting the width of a column so that it matches the widest
entry in the column. Whilst it is easy to see the widest entry in the rows
displayed on screen, it would take a great deal of time to scroll all the way
down a list with a few hundred entries. Imagine how much time that would
waste!
Automatically increase the width of a column:
Assuming that column A has data that is too wide for the column
1 Double-click between the headers of columns A and B.
Activity 15.10 Adjusting the width of a column

1 Open the workbook and select the worksheet ‘Activity 10 – Adjusting column
width’.
2 Double-click between the headers for columns A and B.
4 Rename the copy ‘Activity 11 – Entering data’.
Entering numeric data and dates

It is sometimes best to enter numeric data without formatting. Simply type data
in the respective cells then press enter. Formatting may be done afterwards.
In some cases you may want to enter the number format as you type. For
ITQ5
ITQ1 example, to enter 1.5% you would type exactly that – 1.5%.
State THREE ways in which data that When you enter a date with only two digits in the year, you need to know
has been typed in a cell may be saved how Excel treats the year. Excel uses 29/30 as the ‘cutoff point’ between
in that cell. 1900 and 2000. For example, entering a year between 30 and 99 causes Excel
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to treat the year as 1930–1999. Entering a year between 00 and 29 causes

If you type this … … you get this
Excel to treat the year as 2000–2029. The 29/30 cutoff is new to Excel97 and
$200 $200 Excel2000. Excel95 uses 19/20 as the cutoff year. If you have any doubts about
how your spreadsheet software will treat 2-digit years, use the full 4-digit year.
200 200
‘200 200 TIP: Press Ctrl+; to enter current date.
200.00 200
200.25 200.25
10.5% 10.50%
Sep 10 Sep-10
10/9 Sep-10
10/9/12 10/09/2012
10/9/00 10/09/2000
10/9/30 10/09/1930
Table 15.4 How Microsoft Excel interprets

numbers and dates. Open a worksheet and
try these!
Figure 15.7 Worksheet showing title locking. The top pane (rows 1 to 5) and left-hand pane
(columns A) are frozen.
Activity 15.11 Entering numeric data

1 Open the workbook and select the worksheet ‘Activity 11 – Entering data’.
2 Type the labels for columns B and C, as shown in Figure 15.7, in B4 and C4
respectively.
3 Enter the two sets of data shown.
4 Enter ‘10/09/2012’ in cell A18.
6 Rename the copy ‘Activity 12 – Merging cells’.
Title locking (Freeze Panes)

Worksheets can become very long, which is a problem because column
headings only appear at the top of the columns. To keep the column headings
in view, spreadsheets allow us to freeze window panes so that selected rows
and columns will remain in view.
title locking ❯ Title locking is the process of freezing a portion of a window so that
selected rows and columns remain in view.
How to freeze and unfreeze a pane.
View ❯ Freeze Panes ❯ Freeze Panes
View ❯ Freeze Panes ❯ Unfreeze Panes
1 Select the View menu
2 Select the Freeze Panes button
3 Select one of the three options: Freeze Panes, Freeze Top Row or Freeze First Column.
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In this next activity you will practice locking the titles so that you can
always see the column headings.
Activity 15.12 Freezing panes

1 Open the workbook and select the worksheet ‘Activity 12 – Merging cells’.
2 Freeze the window panes so that the title, column headings and the names of
the flowers are always visible.
3 Observe that the worksheet is split into four panes at this point, see Figure 15.7.
4 Press your cursor keys in different directions to explore exactly how the feature
really works.
5 Unfreeze the panes.
6 Close the workbook without saving the changes.
Formatting your worksheet

Some common spreadsheet formatting tools include;
• Numeric formatting – deciding what type of numbers appear in a cell; date
currency, percentages.
• Text formatting – deciding the size, colour, font.
• Alignment – deciding where in the cell the text appears.
• Borders – changes the colour, weight and appearance of each of the borders
of a cell.
Recall that when we format documents we change their appearance. This
enhances the document’s presentation and improves its readability. Look
back at the worksheet shown in Figure 15.5 then at Figure 15.8. Observe that
formatting has been applied in at least four areas. Table 15.5 gives details of
what formatting was applied to create this new look.
3
2
Figure 15.8 Price List and Order Form with text and cell formatting.
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Reference on Format applied What to do

Figure 15.8
1 • Title merged and centred across • Merge and centre title.
columns A through G. • Change font size.
• Font size increased to 14. • Apply character format.
• Title emboldened.
2 • Cells A4 and A5 merged. • Merge cells.
• Label centred both horizontally and • Change horizontal and vertical text
vertically. alignment.
• Border applied around cell. • Apply All Borders to cells.
• Column width increased. • Change the column width to fit the
contents.
3 • Cells F4 and G4 merged. • Merge and centre label.
• Label centred in merged cells.
4 • Border around cell range D6:D16. • Apply outside border to range of
cells.
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Table 15.5 Most of the tools needed to carry out this formatting are available on the Home tab or
State one OTHER way by which the
from the Format Cells window (see Figure 15.1).
Format Cells dialogue box may be
activated.
Figure 15.9 The Format Cells dialogue box may be activated using the Ctrl + I shortcut.
REGULAR PRICE DISCOUNTED SELECTION

Flowers
Large Small Large Small Large Small
Figure 15.10 Labels for column headings for the Price List and Order Form worksheet.
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Activity 15.13 Merging cells

1 Open your workbook and select the worksheet ‘Activity 12 – Merging cells’
2 Type in the labels shown in Figure 15.10.
a In cell B4 type ‘REGULAR PRICE’
b In cell D4 type ‘DISCOUNTED PRICE’
c In cell F4 type ‘SELECTION’
d Type ‘Large’ in each of the cells D4 and F4
e Type ‘Small’ in each of the cells E4 and G4
3 Select the cell range A1:G1.
4 On the Home tab, click the Merge and Centre button.
5 Change the front size to 14.
6 Apply the bold font style.
7 Select the cell range A2:G2.
8 Click the Merge and Centre button.
9 Apply the italic font style.
10 Select the cell range A4:A5.
11 1Right-click to activate the Format Cells dialogue.
12 On the Alignment tab, click the Merge cells checkbox in the Text control section.
13 Select Centre from both drop-down lists in the Text alignment section.
14 Merge and centre EACH of the following cell ranges: B4:C4, D4:E4 and F4:G4.
15 Make a copy of the worksheet and rename the copy ‘Activity 14 – Applying
Borders’.
Applying a border to a cell helps to make the data it contains more

presentable. In some cases, certain borders provide an indication of the type
of data the cell contains. For example, a double underline at the bottom of the
cell suggests that the cell contains a total.
The Borders drop-down list may be found in the Font group on the Home
tab.
Activity 15.14 Applying borders

1 Open your workbook and select the sheet ‘‘Activity 14 – Applying Borders’’.
2 Select the range A4:G5.
3 Apply the All Borders format.
4 Select the range A6:A15.
5 Apply the Outside Borders format.
6 Repeat step 19 for EACH of the following cell ranges: B6:B15, C6:C15, D6:D15,
E6:E15, F6:F15 and G6:G15.
7 Make a copy of the worksheet and rename the copy ‘Activity 15 – Entering a
Formula’.
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Figure 15.11 The order form so far. Check to ensure that your order form resembles the one
above. Feel free to redo one or more activities to get your sheet correct.
ITQ7
ITQ1 Making it compute: Using formulas
What would be the result of EACH Recall that a formula is an equation that performs calculations on values in a
of the following formulas using the worksheet.
spreadsheet below? Spreadsheets are frequently used for financial information because
(a) =2 they allow you to write formulas for the spreadsheet to do computations
(b) =A1 automatically. Additionally, the entire sheet is recalculated automatically after
(c) =(A1 + A2) a change to a single data item is made.
(d) =(A1 + A2) – (A3 + A4)
(e) =(A1 + A2) – (A3 + A4) + A5 Creating simple arithmetic formulas
A simple formula may include one or more of the following components:
• A constant (for example, the value 5, 2.5 or 12%)
• A cell reference
• Arithmetic operators
Figure 15.12 The formula will be displayed in both the formula bar and the cell as long as the cell
is in edit mode. Once Enter is pressed, the result of the computation is displayed in the cell.
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Example 15.1 Flowers by Howard is offering a 20 per cent discount on all

ITQ8
ITQ1 orders placed by 2 April. We can use a formula to calculate the discounted
In the example, 0.8 is an example price for each item. Offering a 20 per cent discount is the same as charging
of which one of the following only 80 per cent of the original price. Since 80 per cent means 80/100, which
components? is the same as 0.8, we can multiply the regular price of each item by 0.8 to get
(a) a cell reference the discounted price. The formula we will use in D7 is
(b) a constant
(c) a function =B7 * 0.8
(d) an arithmetic operators
This is what we have done in Figure 15.12.
If you want to repeat the data in a series of cells, you can do this quickly
by using the fill handle. You select the cells that you want to use as a basis for
ITQ9
ITQ1
filling additional cells, and then drag the fill handle across or down the cells
Cell A2 in a spreadsheet contains the that you want to fill. Any formulas are adjusted automatically.
value 7 and cell A3 contains the formula
‘=A2*5’. If the active cell is A3, what
will be displayed in:
(a) A3
(b) the formula bar?
Fill handle.
Figure 15.13 The fill handle is used to fill data in adjacent cells. When you point to the fill handle,
the pointer changes to a black cross.
Activity 15.15 Entering a formula

1 Open your workbook and select the worksheet ‘Activity 15 – Entering a
Formula’.
2 Make cell D15 active.
3 Enter the formula ‘=B7*0.8’.
4 Press <Enter>.
5 Make a copy of the worksheet and rename the copy ‘Activity 15 – Pricelist’.
Copying and moving formula

It is sometimes necessary to move or copy the contents of cells. Because some
of the contents being moved or copied may contain formulas, you need to
understand what happens to a formula when it is moved or copied. In general,
when cells are moved the spreadsheet automatically updates the formula to
reflect the change. Spreadsheets have two different modes of cell addressing:
relative addressing and absolute addressing. In normal working we use relative
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addressing. Using relative addressing allows formulas to change when they are
copied or moved simply because any two cells can be related by position.
For example, consider the cells shown in Figure 15.14.
• D5 is related to the cell E5 because they are next to each other and on the
same row (to get from D5 to E5 go right 1).
• C4 is related to E6 by ‘Left 2, Up 2’ (to get from cell E6 to C4 go left 2 and
up 2)
• G6 is related to cell D5 by ‘Right 3, Down 1’.
Any cell can be identified by its relative position to another. In a formula, if
you do not express otherwise, all addresses are relative.
ITQ10
What formula would be displayed in D5
if the formula from cell D2 is copied to
that location?
Figure 15.14 Relative addressing.
Figure 15.15 An example of relative addressing. If you copy the formula in cell D2 to cell D3 it
automatically becomes =B3*C3.
Activity 15.16 Replicating (copying) a formula

1 Open your workbook and select the worksheet ‘Activity 15 – Pricelist’.
2 Use the fill handle to copy the formula in D7 to all the cells in the range D8:D16.
3 In cell E7, enter the formula ‘=C7*0.8’ then press the green tick located on the
formula bar.
4 Copy the formula to all the other cells in the range (E8:E16) using the method in
step 5.
5 Enter the text ‘Orders must be placed by 2 April 2012’ in row 18 and format as
shown. Your spreadsheet should now resemble the one shown in Figure 15.12.
Using functions
function ❯ A function is a pre-defined formula. It returns (or gives) a single value (as
an answer). Microsoft Excel has approximately 400 functions in a standard
installation! We will use nine of the more popular ones. These are introduced
in Table 15.6.
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Function Purpose Example

AVERAGE adds up all the numbers in the given cell range and divides the answer by the number =AVERAGE(D2:D18)
of numbers.
SUM Sum adds up all the numbers in the given cell range. =SUM(B2:B12)
DATE Date combines a day, month and year into a complete date. DATE(C3, C4, C5) where cell C3 contains
the year, C4 the month and C5 the day
MAXIMUM Maximum finds the biggest of all the numbers in the given cell range. =MAX(T2:T124)
MINIMUM Minimum finds the smallest of all the numbers in the given cell range. =MIN(R44:R45)
COUNT Count counts the number of numbers that appear in the given cell range. =COUNT(C6:F10)
RANK Rank is a powerful function. Imagine you scored 85 in a test, a good mark. =RANK(85,A5:A104) would find the position
in the class of a student who scored 85
IF If allows a decision to be made. For example if the value in cell A5 is greater than 50
then the word ‘pass’ appears in this cell, otherwise the word ‘fail’ will appear.
VLOOKUP Vlookup is another very powerful function that searches through a column of values and =VLOOKUP(75,A5:B104,2) would find the
finds the value closest to the given value. This identifies a row in the spreadsheet. If the name of the student who scored nearest
cells A5:A104 contain test marks and B5:B104 contain the student names then 75.
Table 15.6 Common Microsoft Excel functions.
Figure 15.16 Currency exchange worksheet.
Relative addressing is normally what we want as formulas are automatically

updated when moved or copied. Sometimes, however, this is not what we
want. Look at this example of a currency conversion worksheet.
Activity 15.17 Exploring relative addressing

1 Open a new workbook.
2 Type all the labels in row 2 and column B.
3 Type the data in the range C3:C5 and in cell G2.
4 Enter the formula shown in D3.
5 Copy the formula in D3 to D4.
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In this case we might use the formula =C3*G2 in cell D3 which works well.
But look what happens when we copy this formula into cell D4.
Remember, relative addressing allows the spreadsheet to update the formula
when it is copied or moved which is what happened here.
The calculation of the formula in D4 results in 0 which is not what
we want.
Figure 15.17 Copying the formula containing relative addressing has produced an undesired
result.
What has happened? When we moved the formula the spreadsheet

automatically updated the formula for us to =C4*G3 but this is incorrect
because cell G3 is empty; the formula is now wrong, it should be =C4*G2.
In this case we don’t want the part of the formula G2 to change.
We want to make the reference to cell G2 absolute so it does not change
when the formula is moved or copied.
Figure 15.18 Worksheet showing correct use of absolute addressing.
Activity 15.18 Editing your worksheet

1 Open your workbook and select the worksheet ‘Activity 16 – Pricelist’.
2 Insert a blank row above the row labelled ‘Daffodils’.
3 Type the label ‘Iris’ in cell A15 and the values 300 and 200 in cells B15 and C15
respectively.
4 Copy the formula from D14 to D15.
Fortunately this is easily done by changing G2 (relative address) to $G$2

(absolute address). Now we can copy or move the formula and it will always
refer to the cell G2.
Note that because we did not include the extra $ signs in the reference to
cell C3 this remained a relative address and so was updated when we copied
the formula, which is just what we wanted.
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Working with complex formulas

Spreadsheet formulas can be simple arithmetic calculations or they may be
more complex. Some of the most useful functions are AVERAGE, COUNT,
COUNTA, IF and VLOOKUP. Parentheses are often used to ensure that a
formula is correctly written (by the user) and evaluated (by the computer).
Exercise 15.1 Working with complex formula
The St Luago National Bank is preparing interest payments for its account
holders. As an Account Manager, you are required to complete the Second
Quarter Interest Computations for the ten accounts assigned to you.
1 Prepare a worksheet showing the data and layout below. Save the
worksheet as Interest2Qtr2012.
2 Interest will be paid at the rate of 6.25%. Insert this value in cell A20.
Name this cell InterestRate.
3 In G5, compute the interest to be paid using the following formula:
Interest = (Opening Balance + Deposits – Withdrawals) * InterestRate
4 Copy the formula in G5 to cells in the range G6:G13.
5 Write a formula to compute the Closing Balance in column H.
Closing Balance = (Opening Balance + Deposits – Withdrawals) + Interest
6 Sort the data on account number in ascending order.
7 In an appropriate cell, insert a formula to compute the total interest.
Ensure that the cell is properly labelled.
8 During your quality control checks, you observed that you omitted data for
the tenth customer. Insert a row in the correct position to correct the entry
for this customer:
102270 Made it, Almost 24250.00 2360 0.00 03/03/13
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9 Format your worksheet as follows:

a Dates should appear in the format dd-Mmm-yy
b All money should appear as 9,999.99 EXCEPT Total Interest which
should appear as $9,999.99
10 Save your worksheet.
11 Print your worksheet as well as the worksheet formulas complete with
gridlines and row/column headings. Ensure that all your worksheet with
formula fits on one letter-sized page.
Exercise 15.2 is based on the following worksheet.
1 Create a new workbook and save it as ‘Macmillan Ch 15 Exercises’.

2 Enter all the labels shown in rows 1, 2 and 4.
3 Enter the labels shown in column A.
4 Enter the data shown in the range B5:E9.
5 Format rows 1, 2 4 and 10 as shown.
6 Enter a formula in cell B10 to compute the total sales for the first quarter
for all the countries.
7 Copy this formula to the cells in the range C10:E10.
8 Enter a formula in cell F5 to compute the total sales for Antigua.
9 Copy this formula to the cells in the range F6:F10.

Exercise 15.3 is based on the figure in Exercise 15.2.
1 Type all labels shown in row 2 and column A.
2 Enter the data shown in the range B5:E9.
3 Write a formula in cell F5 to compute the subtotal.
4 Replicate the formula in now in F5 to cells F6:F9.
5 Write a formula in cell F10 to compute the total of the data in the range
F5:F9.
6 Check your totals in column F. Do they match those in Exercise 15.2.
7 Save your workbook as SS Ex 1.
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Exercise 15.4 Working with yet another complex formula

As a part of your Introduction to Money Management course, you have been
asked to prepare a payroll for some make-believe members of staff of Possibility
High School.
You are required to:
1 Reproduce the worksheet shown below, taking care to format your titles,
column headings and data as shown. Save your worksheet as Payroll.
2 In an appropriate area of your worksheet, insert the following labels and

values:
National Insurance 2.5%

Vacation Club $25.00
Group Insurance $50.00
Income Tax 10%
Label the table as ‘Deduction Amounts and Rates’
3 Write a formula in E6 to compute National Insurance (Gross Salary * 2.5%).
Remember to use mixed or absolute addressing. Copy the formula to the
other cells in the column.
4 Write a formula to compute the deduction for Vacation Club. Note that this
is an optional deduction. (HINT: The IF function will come in handy here.)
Copy the formula to the other cells in the column.
5 Write a formula to insert the value for Group Insurance for each employee.
6 Write a formula in H6 to compute Total Deductions. Copy the formula to
cells in the range H7:H14.
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7 Compute net salary based on the formula:

Net Salary = Gross Salary – Total Deductions
8 It was just observed that no income tax was deducted; insert a new column
between columns F and G. Label it ‘Income Tax’. Write a formula to
compute Income Tax. Remember to use absolute addressing.
9 Apply the following formatting before you print your worksheet:
a Centre the data in columns A and C.
b Format all deductions using the comma format with two places of
decimal EXCEPT the net salary for Alex Campbell which should be
formatted as currency.
Sometimes there is a need to include additional data in your worksheet. In
our case, the record for the flower ‘Iris’ was omitted. You are now required to
insert this record between the records for Poinsettias and Daffodils. Activity
15.11 will help you to do this.
Formatting a worksheet for printing

A worksheet should be prepared for printing based on the specific instructions
provided. Before printing, ensure that you:
1 select the correct paper size and orientation;
2 set the top, bottom, left and right margins;
3 align the document horizontally and vertically;
4 include any required text in the header or footer; and
5 preview your worksheet before printing.
Activity 15.19 Formatting a worksheet for printing.

2 Activate the Page Setup dialogue.
3 Change the paper size to Letter.
4 Set the margins as follows: left 1.5 inches (3.81 cm), right, top and bottom 1
inch (2.54 cm).
5 Insert your name as a custom footer, centred in 9 point Arial.
6 Preview the document.
7 Save your work.
Exercise 15.5 More complex formulas, formatting and printing

You are a summer worker for the St Luago Micro Financing Company. The
company lends amounts up to one million Eastern Caribbean dollars. The
Credit Manager has asked you to prepare an account status report as at 31 July
2013.
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1 Recreate the worksheet shown below, taking care to ensure that the
worksheet structure and formatting is accurately replicated.
2 Swap the positions of the data in columns B and C.

3 Sort the data in order of loan date with the earliest loan first.
4 Insert a formula in F6 to compute the balance owing based on the formula:
Balance Owing = Loan Principal – Payment Amount
Copy the formula to the other cells in the range.
5 Insert formula to indicate the status of loans as at 31 July 2012. A loan may
have any one of the following three statuses:
a CLOSED: Balance owing is zero.
b CURRENT: Balance is greater than zero and last payment was made less
than 90
c IN ARREARS: Balance is greater than zero and last payment was made
more than 90 days ago.
HINT: Use the DATE and IF functions in your formula.
6 Format your worksheet as follow:
a Insert the report title below the address. Ensure that it is centred across
all the columns used and is in a font size at least 2 points larger than the
font size used for the data.
b Format all dates using the dd-Mmm-yy format (11/03/2012 would
appear as 11-Mar-12).
c Format Loan Principal, Payment Amount and Balance Owing using the
comma format with two decimal places.
d Centre all text in column G.
7 Print your worksheet as well as the worksheet formulas complete with
gridlines and row/column headings. Ensure that all your worksheet with
formula fits on one letter-sized page.
Sorting data
It is sometimes necessary to sort data in a spreadsheet.
sorting ❯ Sorting is an operation that rearranges data so that it is in a specified
ascending or descending order, usually alphabetical or numerical.
When the spreadsheet contains more than one column of data, you must
select all the data (including row and column labels where possible). In the
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example that we have been using, you would select A7:E16. Merged cells
should never be included in a sort range. Sorting is a very powerful feature and
mistakes can easily be made. Beware the following common errors.
• Selecting a small range of cells instead of the full rows of data. The
spreadsheet will only sort the selected cells. Always select complete rows.
• The spreadsheet may try to identify a column heading in your selection. If
your spreadsheet does this, include the column headings in the selection.
When sorting more than one row it is possible to sort on more than one
condition. For example, a list of student Christian and surnames might be
sorted by surname. Where there are more than one student with the same
surname they would be sorted by their Christian name. You can also sort in an
ascending (1–10, A–Z) or descending (10–1, Z–A) order.
Include the Column

Headings.
Select ALL the data

to be sorted.
Figure 15.19 Spreadsheet showing complete row and column headings being selected ready for
sorting.
Activity 15.20 Sorting data

2 Sort the data on name of flowers in ASCENDING order.
3 Save your work.
Exercise 15.6 Sorting on primary and secondary keys.

1 Open a new workbook and create the spreadsheet as shown in Figure
15.19.
2 Sort the data on Surname then Christian Name in ASCENDING order.
3 Check your data to ensure that everything is sorted, not just the names!
4 Save the workbook as Exercise 7.
5 Close the workbook.
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Figure 15.20 The completed spreadsheet with the Price List and Order Form. The list of items has
been sorted alphabetically in ascending order.
Creating graphs
It is often said that ‘a picture is worth a thousand words’. Spreadsheets allow
us to create pictures called charts (or sometimes graphs) to tell the story behind
our data. Microsoft Excel allows us to create ten different chart types. We
describe four of the more commonly used types in Table 15.7.
Types Description Example

Column chart Chart that plots data using vertical bars, Example: Height and arm length of three siblings at age 10.
often used to illustrate comparisons
60
among a group of items.
Height & Arm Length (inches)
50
40
30
20
10
0
Akeem Alexia Tiffany
Names of Siblings
Bar chart Chart that plots data using horizontal Example: Weekly attendance at a school for one month.
bars, often used to illustrate
comparisons among a group of items.
Week 4
Week 3
Week 2
Week 1
780 800 820 840 860

Weekly Attendance
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Types Description Example

Pie chart Chart that uses a circle to emphasise Example: Relative contribution of four Form 5/Grade 11 groups to graduation ball.
the relative contribution of different data
items to the whole. Contributions to Graduation Ball
$1,700, 9%
5A
5B
5C
5D
$7,250, 39%
$5,800, 31%
$3,900, 21%
Line chart Chart that uses a line to show the Example: Average test scores for a class of 30 Biology students over a 10-week period.
variations of data over time or to show
Class Average for Biology for Term 1
the relationship between two numeric 90%
variables.
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7
Table 15.7 Commonly used chart types.
Inserting a chart
When using a graphical representation, select the type of graph carefully.
Bar charts, pie charts and line graphs are all easily created in a spreadsheet
application but consider carefully the best way to present the data. Always be
ready to answer the question ‘Why did you use an XYZ chart to present this
data?’
How to insert a column chart
1 Select the range of cells containing the data to be charted.
2 Select the chart type from the Charts group on the Insert tab.
3 Use the Charts Tools tab to edit the design, layout and format of the chart.
277
Figure 15.21 Examples of a column chart, showing the Chart Tools tab.
To ensure that you convey the full story that your chart should tell, ensure
that your chart is appropriately labelled. The following labels may be added:
• chart title
• axis titles (vertical and horizontal)
• legend
• data labels
• data table
At minimum, ensure that your chart includes a chart title and both axis titles.
We are now going to create a column chart that compares the regular
price for all large flowers. Our chart title will be ‘Flowers by Howard – Price
Comparison’ and both the X and Y axes will be labelled.
Activity 15.21 Creating a chart

2 Select the range A7:B16.
3 Click Column in the Charts group on the Insert tab.
4 Select the 2D clustered column chart type. Observe that a set of tabs – Design,
Layout and Format – are provided as Chart Tools. Ensure that the chart is
selected when doing steps 5–15.
5 Enter the chart title: ‘Flowers by Howard – Price Comparison’ using the Chart
Title drop-down list in the Labels group on the Layout tab.
6 Label the Y axis ‘Jamaican dollars (J$)’ using the Axis Titles drop-down list in
the Labels group on the Layout tab.
7 Turn off the legend using the None option in the Legend drop-down list in the
Labels group on the Layout tab.
8 Position the chart one row below the table (row 20). Resize as necessary.
9 Save your work.
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Data extraction
A very important aspect of working with data in a list is the ability to find a
record matching a given criterion. Recall that a list consists of a header and one
or more rows of data and may contain hundreds of records. A filter may be
applied to a list to extract the rows that meet a criterion, allowing us to view
only a portion of such a list.
Three methods provided by spreadsheet packages are:
1 Record – find command
2 Simple criterion (Filter)
3 Complex criterion (Advanced Filter)
Using Filters
Following our Flowers by Howard activity, Howard may need to identify
all flowers with retail prices over $300 so that he may review the price
computations. Microsoft Excel allows us to filter entries according to one or
more criteria and display only those records that meet the criteria. The Filter
dialogue located on the Data ribbon will help us to get the answers we need.
filtering ❯ Filtering is a process that allows us to select rows in a spreadsheet that
meet a given criterion.
criterion ❯ A criterion is a condition you specify to limit which records are included in
the results of a query.
When a list is filtered based on one criterion, we call this a simple criterion.
Where two or more criteria are used, we call this complex criterion.
Extracting records using the Advanced Filters feature

List headers are very important in the filtering process.
Each column in the table represents a field. Field names are contained in
the header. This list has three fields: item, category and quantity.
How to extract data from a list using Advanced Filters

1 Insert at least three blank rows at the top of your worksheet or above your list for use
as a criteria range (We call this Rows 1–3).
2 Copy the list header to Row 1.
3 Select the range of cells consisting Rows 1–3 and the columns being used by the list.
4 Name the selected range ‘Criteria’ by typing this name in the Name Box (located to the
extreme left of the Formula Bar).
5 Enter the criteria that you want to use to filter the records in Row 2 (and Row 3 where
necessary). Ensure that you type the criteria in the correct column!
6 Select any cell in list to be filtered (Excel will use this to determine which list is to be
filtered).
7 Activate the Advanced Filter feature.
Data ❯ Filter ❯ Advanced Filter
8 Complete the process by indicating where to place copy the rows that match your
criteria:
a Click ‘Copy to another location’
b Click in the ‘Copy to’ box
c Click the upper-left corner of the area where you want to paste the rows.
9 Press ‘OK’ to apply the filter.
279
STEP 4
Activate the
Advanced Filter
feature.
STEP 1
Create the STEP 2
criteria range. Enter the criteria.
STEP 3
Click on any cell STEP 5
within the list Select where you
to be filtered. want the filtered
records to appear.
STEP 6
Click ‘OK’ to
proceed with
the sort.
Figure 15.22 Steps to complete an advanced filter.
Activity 15.22 Find a record matching a given criterion

1 Open the workbook labelled Macmillan Ch15 Activities.
2 Select the sheet labelled ‘Activity 11’ and edit it where necessary so that it
resembles the list range (A4:C13) in Figure 15.22.
3 Create the Criteria Range.
4 Type in the following criteria in Row 2 of the criteria range:
Flowers Small Large
>400 >300
5 Click on any cell within the range A6:C14.

6 Activate the Advanced Filters dialogue (see step 7 in the How to extract data
from a list using Advanced Filters section).
7 Indicate that you want to copy the filtered records to A20.
8 Press OK to proceed with the filter.
9 Check to ensure that only the following records were selected:
10 Save the file as Activity 22 – Filtering.
You may also filter the list ‘In Place’ by choosing this option at step #8. Note
though, that as long as the list is filtered you will not be able to see the records
that did not meet the criteria. You will observe that the numbers on the row
header has changed from black to blue, a sign that the list is filtered.
To clear a filter, simply click the ‘Clear’ button on the Sort & Filter section of
the Data ribbon.
280
Exercise 15.7 Data extraction, graphing and printing

You are completing a research assignment for Geography titled ‘Banana
Production in the Caribbean’. You are required to extract data from the table
provided below and use it to plot an appropriate chart comparing the banana
production among Caribbean countries.
1 Create a worksheet with the following column headings:
Country Quantity Region

2 Enter data from the table below into all three columns of your worksheet.
3 Sort data on Quantities in descending order as primary sort key then by

Country as secondary.
4 Use and advanced filter to extract data for all Caribbean countries.
5 Construct a column graph that compares the production targets for the
countries extracted. Include an appropriate title as well as axes labels.
6 Place the graph on a new worksheet.
7 Print the graph.
Exercise 15.8 Putting it all together

You are completing a research assignment for Information Technology titled
‘The Big Five’. You are required to extract data from the table provided on the
Internet usage statistics left margin and use it to plot an appropriate chart comparing the Internet usage
Brazil 44,184,160 among the top five users.
France 24,068,600 1 Create a worksheet with the following column headings:
Germany 23,214,800
India 45,868,120 Country Number of Users Country usage as a % of total usage
Indonesia 43,514,840 Save the worksheet as TheBigFive.
Mexico 33,939,440 2 Enter data into the first two columns of your worksheet based on the data
Philippines 27,934,000 below.
Turkey 31,315,860 3 In an appropriate cell, enter a formula to sum the total number of users.
United Kingdom 30,157,300
4 In the third column, use absolute addressing to work out Brazil’s country
usage as a percentage of the total usage computed in 2.
United States 154,760,400
5 Sort the table based on the values in column 3 in descending order.
281
6 Format your entire worksheet so that it looks like the portion shown below:
7 Plot an appropriate (bar or column) chart comparing the usage among the
top five countries.
8 Place the chart two rows below the worksheet. Resize the chart and/or
adjust the column widths so that both table and chart have the same width.
9 Centre-align the following statement in the footer of your worksheet ‘Data
retrieved from WorldInternetStats.com’ in Arial size 8 font.
Linking cells in different worksheets

We learnt earlier that a spreadsheet can contain a number of worksheets.
For example we may have the company accounts for the past five years in
five different worksheets. If we were asked to produce a summary of the
performance over the past five years, we would need to look at data from all
five worksheets.
Referencing another worksheet in same workbook

To access another worksheet in the same workbook, use a formula like
=Sheet1!C4.
ITQ11 Note carefully the three parts of the formula as explained in Table 15.8.
Write references to cell G7 in:
(a) a worksheet named ‘Attendance’ in Formula component Explanation
the same workbook;
(b) a worksheet named ‘Grades’ in a Sheet1 The name of the sheet to be accessed. Proper spelling is important.
workbook named IT2014. ! The exclamation mark separates the sheet name from the cell reference.
C4 The cell reference of the target cell.
Table 15.8 Referencing a worksheet in the same workbook.
Referencing another worksheet in a next workbook

To access a worksheet in the another workbook, use a formula like =’[Five
Year Sales.xls] Sheet1’!C4. Note that a new component – the name of the
workbook – has been added. Note also that both the names of the worksheet
and workbook are enclosed in single quotes.
Importing files
Sometime the data we want to insert into a worksheet is already available in
another electronic format.
282
Activity 15.23 Linking cells in different worksheets.

(a)
(b)
1 Open a new workbook.

2 On Sheet1, create the spreadsheet shown in Figure a.
3 On Sheet2, create the spreadsheet shown in Figure b.
4 Create a spreadsheet on Sheet3 to show that the year is 2010 with sales
$293,680.00.
5 Create a spreadsheet on Sheet4 to show that the year is 2011with sales
$301,470.00.
6 Create a spreadsheet on Sheet4 to show that the year is 2012 with sales
$308,920.00.
7 Finally, create the spreadsheet and chart shown, in Figure c, on Sheet6. We
have included the chart to show that linking worksheets might be useful.
8 Save the workbook as Activity 23 – Linking worksheets.
9 Close the workbook
(c)
283
How to Add or Insert a File in Excel Sheet

1 Open the Excel workbook, and switch to worksheet where user wants to insert the file.
2 Choose and highlight the cell where the icon that represents the file would be placed
to open the inserted file.
3 In the menu bar or ribbon interface, Insert > Object.
4 A dialogue window with two tabs, namely “Create New” and “Create from File” will be
opened.
5 Click on Browse button and select the file to insert into the worksheet.
6 Select one of the two options available: Link to File and Display as icon.
7 Click OK when done, and the file will be inserted into the Excel sheet, with content
displayed or as an icon.
Summary
• A spreadsheet is a table consisting of cells (rows, column locations) that hold accounting or financial data and
simulates the traditional physical spreadsheet; it captures displays and manipulate.
• A worksheet is a single working area in a spreadsheet program, consisting of a grid of lettered columns and
numbered rows whereas a workbook is a collection of related worksheets that are saved as one file.
• Spreadsheets are flexible and cells, rows and columns may be inserted in an existing worksheet to facilitate
changes.
• Most spreadsheets provide basic pre-defined systems functions such as sum, average, date, maximum, minimum,
count, if, vlookup, rank.
• Formulas can be written to allow a spreadsheet to do computations automatically.
• Row/column title locking (freezing panes), relative addressing and absolute addressing are commonly used
spreadsheet features.
• Data in a spreadsheet table may be sorted to arrange the data in a pre-determined order or the data may be filtered
to show only the relevant records.
• Spreadsheets use pictures called charts to illustrate the data used to create them.
• A worksheet must be prepared for printing based on the specific instructions provided.
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 Book2.xlsx. tick on the formula bar.

ITQ2 (a) Press Shift + F11 – ITQ6 Select Format ❯ Cells from the
Worksheet is inserted at the front of menu.
the workbook. (b) Click the Insert ITQ7 (a) 2; (b) 2; (c) 6; (d) Negative
Worksheet button – Worksheet is 8; (e) 2.
inserted at the back of the workbook.
ITQ8 (b).
ITQ3 (a) A8; (b) ‘Flowers’; (c) B4;
ITQ9 (a) 35; (b) =A2 * 5.
(d) A5:A14.
ITQ10 =B5*C5
ITQ4 A5.
ITQ11 (a) =Attendance!G7;
ITQ5 (a) By pressing ENTER; (b) by
(b) =’[IT2014.xls]Grades’!G7
pressing TAB; (c) by clicking the green
284
Paper 1: Multiple-choice questions (MCQs) 5 The Freeze Panes feature allows a spreadsheet user to
Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested freeze which of the following spreadsheet areas?
responses labelled (A), (B), (C) or (D). Read each question I Top row
carefully then select the most suitable response. II First column
III Both top row and first column simultaneously
1 Which of the following is NOT a purpose of a
(A) I ONLY (C) III ONLY
spreadsheet?
(B) II ONLY (D) I, II and III
(A) To create simple tabulations such as invoices
6 A spreadsheet contains the formula =$A9/B$25 in cell
and price lists.
C1. What will be the contents of cell D2 if the content
(B) To hold accounting or financial data.
of C1 is copied there?
(C) To perform advanced text processing.
(D) To capture, manipulate and display numeric (A) =B$9/C$25
data. (B) =A$9/B$25
(C) =$A9/B$25
2 B5:D9 is best described as a:
(D) =B$9/C$25
(A) cell range;
7 The text ‘Total Amount’ in a cell is best described as a
(B) row range;
____________.
(C) column range;
(D) cell reference. (A) value;
(B) formula;
3 Which of the following functions should be selected to
(C) label;
count the number of flowers in column A?
(D) function.
8 A cell contains the formula ‘=SUM(A5:A10)+17’. Which
of the following statements is UNTRUE?
(A) 17 is a constant.
(B) A5:A10 + 17 is a formula.
(C) SUM is the name of a function.
(D) The result will be the sum of the values in A5
and A10 plus the value 17.
9 Which samples will be filtered for height > 1.5 AND
(A) COUNT weight < 2.0.
(B) COUNTA
(C) COUNTIF
(D) COUNTIFS
4 Which of the following formulas would produce the
result shown in cell D2?
I =(A2+B2+C2)/3
II =AVG(A2:C2)
III =SUM(A1:C1)/3
(A) 2 and 3 ONLY

(B) 2 and 4 ONLY
(C) 2, 3 and 4 ONLY
(D) 4 ONLY
10 Which of the following chart types represents data
using a structure that is horizontal in orientation?
(A) I and II ONLY (A) Bar chart
(B) II and III ONLY (B) Column chart
(C) I and III ONLY (C) Line graph
(D) I, II and III (D) Pie chart
285
Paper 2 d If the range A4:F8 was sorted in ASCENDING

1 Answer the following questions based on the order by subject, state the cell location of
spreadsheet shown here. Integrated Science after the sort.
e State the name of the function that should be
used to find the number of subjects listed in the
spreadsheet.
3 The spreadsheet contains data relating to the sales of
mobile telephones and call credit.
a How many data records are shown in the

spreadsheet?
b State TWO formatting features that have been
applied to the label in cell D1.
c Each member is charged the membership fee
shown in row 9. Black belt members receive a
discount of 20% and Yellow belt members receive
a discount of 10%. Write a function in cell D2
a State the range used by the spreadsheet.
that would insert the correct discount rate.
b How many data records are in the spreadsheet?
d State the numeric data formats which have been
c In cell D8, ‘####’ is being displayed instead of the
applied to:
data that was entered. Why is this?
i Column D
d State the formula you would place in cell B14 to
ii Column E
compute the revenue collected in Jan.
e What change would you have to make to the
e ‘#REF!’ is displayed in cell B14. Why is this?
formula in D2 to ensure that when it is copied
f Explain how you would delete the record for
to the other cells in the range D3:D7 it remains
Barbados.
correct?
f The data in the spreadsheet have been sorted by 4 The following chart was created from data in a
a primary and then by a secondary field. List the spreadsheet.
primary and secondary fields.
Production Targets
2 The spreadsheet shows the performance of 50 1600
students from a particular high school in an external
Daily Production Targets
1400
exam. 1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
P Q R S T
Production Lines
a Name the type of chart shown.

b List ONE other chart types which would be
a State the number of columns that are illustrated suitable to represent the data in the spreadsheet.
in the spreadsheet. c How many columns of data in the spreadsheet
b State the formatting used in: were used for the data range?
i Cell A1 d What is the purpose of the chart?
ii Cell G3 e State the daily production target for Production Line
iii Cell range B5:F8 R.
c Write the formula used to calculate the % passing f State the title of the chart and the title of the
for Integrated Science. horizontal axis.
286
Further practice
1 You are completing a research assignment for Information Technology titled ‘The Top Ten’. You are required to extract
data from the table provided below and use it to plot an appropriate chart comparing the Internet usage among the top
ten countries.
Top 20 countries based on internet penetration
Population
Country or region Internet users (2009 est.)
Falkland Islands 2483 2483
Iceland 285700 306694
Norway 4235800 4660539
Greenland 52000 57600
Sweden 8085500 9059651
Saint Kitts and Nevis 35000 40131
Netherlands 14304600 16715999
Denmark 4629600 5500510
Finland 4382700 5250275
New Zealand 3500000 4213418
Australia 17033826 21262641
Luxembourg 387000 491775
Korea 37475800 48508972
Faroe Islands 37500 48856
United Kingdom 46683900 611132058
United States 234372000 307212123
Antigua and Barbuda 65000 85632
Switzerland 5739300 7604467
Japan 95979000 127078679
Germany 61973000 82329758
a Reproduce the worksheet shown above, taking e Apply the following character formats:
care to format your titles, column headings and i Wrap the title text and make it three point
data as shown. Save your worksheet as TopTen. sizes larger than the point size used for your
b In a new column, compute the percentage of data.
the population of each country that are Internet ii Wrap the label in the heading of column B.
users. Label this column appropriately and format iii Place a thick box border around the criteria
the data as a percentage with one decimal. range and fill it with yellow.
c Extract data for all countries where the usage f Ensure that your chart is adequately labelled.
percentage is greater than 82%. g Print the worksheet.
d Using the extracted results, create a bar chart
using the country name and usage percentage
only. Place the chart immediately below the
criteria range.
287
2 Your IT teacher has asked you to help Mrs King-Son, the chemistry teacher at Possibility High School, complete her
Christmas Term Grade Report. She needs your assistance to compute the final score and grade. You will need to use
appropriate functions to get the task done efficiently.

a Reproduce the report on the next page, taking care to ensure that you organise the spreadsheet so that data can
easily be interpreted.
b Use a pre-defined function to find the Term Average for each student. The Home Work, class Work and Group
Projects scores should be used to determine this Term Average.
c Compute the Final Score using the formula below:
Final Score = (Term Average + Exam) * 0.5
d Use an appropriate function to assign a Grade based on the following table:
A+ A A- B+ B B- C Fail
91–100 86–90 80–85 75–79 65–74 60–64 50–59 Less than 50
e Use an appropriate function to count the total number of students in the list and insert this value in cell C6.
f Use an appropriate function to count the total number of students in the list and insert this value in cell C15.
g Format the worksheet as follow:
i Apply all borders around the column headings.
ii Use the yellow fill tool to highlight the details of all students who gained an A+ for the term
288
3 Use the following spreadsheet to work through the tasks: 4 As one of the top students in Information Technology,
the principal at Possibility High School has asked for
your help to solve a problem. He needs to determine
the top overall student in the graduating class so that
this person may receive the Chairman’s Award.
The principal has a list of all the CSEC results for
each student arranged as shown below:
Marcia M Moses Queenie Bee

English Language 1** English Language 1*
English Literature 1* English Literature 2
Mathematics 2 Mathematics 1
Spanish 1 Spanish 1
Information Technology 1** Information Technology 1
History 1 Physics 1
Geography 1 Biology 1
a Enter the data into a new worksheet exactly as
Visual Arts 1 Chemistry 1
shown.
b Centre the worksheet titles in rows 1 and 2 The problem is how to tell which student has done
across the columns used. better overall. After much thought, he has come up
c Increase the font size in row 1 to 16 and make it with the following solution. He will use a points system
bold. where each grade is allocated a certain number of
d Write a formula in E13 to sum the ticket sales. points and the points for each pupil will be added up
e Write a formula that links B4 to E13 so that the to give the total for all subjects. Once this is done, he
total ticket sales computed in E13 will always believes that he can rank the students based on the
display in B4. total overall scores.
f Format the ticket price as currency (with no The point allocation system he decides on gives
decimals). the maximum 10 points to a Grade 1 with straight A
g Write a formula in B8 to compute the income profiles. This is indicated as ‘1**’. A Grade 1 with at
from ticket sales (Total ticket sales * Ticket price). least two As in the profile (1*) gets 9 points and so on.
h Drinks are sold for $2.00 each. If all the drinks
are sold, the income will be $1,920. Enter this The overall point system is as follow:
value in B9.
i Assume that $1,000 was received as sponsorship. Grade Points
Enter this in cell B10. 1** 10
j Enter a formula in B22 and B23 to compute the 1* 8
total income and total expenditure respectively. 1* 7
k Work out the profit in B24 by subtracting B23
2 5
from B22. If you followed all the instructions
then your profit should be $2,985. 3 3
l Make the following changes to your worksheet:
You are required to use appropriate spreadsheet
i The portable toilets will be donated free of
features to do the following tasks:
cost. Delete row 115.
ii The price of each soft drink will be increased a Set up a spreadsheet and enter the data for the
by $0.50. Change the value in B9 to $2,400. two students shown. Save the spreadsheet as
m Format the values in the range B9:B19 and cell Award.
B22 to comma format with no decimals. All b Insert a column that contains the points for each
other cells in column B should be formatted as grade. Use a LOOKUP table to allocate the correct
currency EXCEPT B4. points to each grade.
n Save the worksheet as Barbecue. c Develop a formula to add up the points to give
o Insert a pie chart at A25:C37 based on the the total for each student.
spreadsheet data in the range A21:B23. Title the d Extract the totals to another area of your
chart ‘Proposed Income and Expenditure’. worksheet and use the RANK function to
p Print your worksheet. Ensure that your determine which student should get the
information is centred on the page. top prize.
289
5 Students preparing for a regional culinary examination 6 The spreadsheet shows the population of retired
must pass an internal assessment (IA) component to persons in St Luago for the year 2013. Use it to answer
be eligible to sit the final examination. The IA consists the questions that follow.
of one assignment worth 20 marks, one test worth 20
marks and one practical exercise worth 20 marks. To
pass the IA, students must obtain 60% or above out of
a total of 60 marks. The marks earned by five students
for the IA are shown in the following spreadsheet.
a State the range of cells that contain all retired

persons 66 and over.
b What formatting feature has been applied to all
numeric data?
c What alignment has been applied to the headings
of all numeric columns?
a State the name of the student who will be at the d Write formulas to calculate EACH of the following:
top of the list if the data in the spreadsheet are i The total number of retired persons in
sorted in descending order by the Total IA marks. St Luago who are 66 years and older.
b Write the function in cell E4 to compute the Total ii The minimum number of retired persons,
IA marks obtained by Pemento. 60–65 years old, in a region.
c If a student scores 60% or above on the IA the iii The average of the regional totals of elderly
student is given a status of ‘Cleared for Finals’ persons.
while any mark below 60%, the student is given e If the data in the spreadsheet is sorted on the total
a status of ‘Not Cleared’. State the function that for each region in descending order, which region
will be inserted in cell G6 to indicate the status of would be at the TOP of the sorted list?
student Honeyghan. f State the spreadsheet feature that would cause
d A pie chart was created to show the names of the Row 1 to remain visible on the spreadsheet as the
students and the percentage scores they obtained users scroll down the rows?
on the IA. State the data range used in the chart. i If the formula =B7/$M$2 is entered in a cell
and the formula is copied to another cell, what
will happen to the values in the numerator
and denominator?
ii Complete the criteria range below to filter the
data for ALL regions with over 6,000 elderly
persons in EACH age group.
Region
iii State the region(s) that will be extracted when

the filter in part (ii) is applied.
290
7 The following spreadsheet contains data relating to the results of the semi-finals of the men’s 100 m at the Beijing 2008
Summer Olympics.
a How many records are in the list?
b What is the data range that contains the
countries?
c The time run by Usain Bolt was 9.85 s
and not 9.58 s as recorded. How would
you change the data?
d What formula would you write to
compute the average time run by all the
athletes in the semi-finals?
e The formula 4=J6-$J$5’ was inserted in
a cell and copied to the other cells in the
same column. What is the purpose of the
4$J$5’ in the formula?
8 Your form teacher has asked for your help in completing the worksheet shown. Your help is required to complete some
computations that will provide her with some well-needed summary data.
a In cell A2, use a function to insert the current d Use the VLOOKUP function to assign a letter
date. Format it so that it is similar to Friday, grade, in Column H, to each student based on the
31 May 2013 and merge and centre across all table below:
columns used in the spreadsheet. A 80–100
b In column E, compute the Total Test Score as the
B 65–79
total of Test 1, Test 2 and Test 3.
C 50–64
c In the column G, compute the Final Score as the
F 0–49
average of the Total Test Score and Exam Score.
Upgrade all Final Scores greater than 79.5 and less e In column I, rank the students based on their final
than 80 to 80. scores.
f Use the MAXIMUM, MINIMUM and COUNT
functions appropriately to complete the shaded
section in Column B.
291
16
16 • Mastering database management
Mastering database
management
By the end of explain the concept of a relational database
this chapter
use terminology commonly associated with a database
you should
be able to:
distinguish among terminology associated with files and databases
outline the advantages and limitations of databases
create a database consisting of two tables
modify a table structure
establish relationships
create calculated fields
query a database
sort records in a database
create professional-looking reports.
Concept map
Databases
are created with the aid of
store data for easy retrieval in database management software

such as Access 2010
facilitates creation of
tables reports
contains data which may be arranged in
sorted queried formatted columns rows
also known as
records fields
store data about which have properties such as
one person, place or thing

names sizes data types
ITQ1 Introduction to databases

Suggest ONE situation in which a
A database is used in each of the following situations:
database may be used in EACH of the
following school settings: • dialling a number from the contact list stored in a phone;
(a) in a classroom; • searching through a phone’s call log; and
(b) in the accounting (Bursar’s/ • searching a physical telephone directory for the number of the nearest
Treasurer’s Office) office. Domino’s location when you feel for a pizza.
(c) by the school’s Track and Field
team. Database concepts
database ❯ A database is collection of data stored in a set of related tables.
Using the example of a (cellular) phone, your contact’s name and phone
number are stored in a table called Contacts. Call records – date of call, time
call started, number called and call duration – are stored in a Call Records
table. Both these tables, Contacts and Call Records, are related as they both
have a phone number in common. A call made to a phone number that is
saved in your Contacts will show up in your Call Records with the person’s
name, otherwise only the number will show.
Institutions use electronic databases to store data about their employees,
customers, suppliers and other stakeholders. They depend on these databases
to provide answers from the data stored. These answers are provided using
ITQ2 queries. Without queries, it would be close to impossible to unlock answers
Name TWO related tables that are likely from large databases.
to be in a school database and suggest A database can contain one or more tables, each storing information about a
what data these tables would store. different subject.
In a simple database, you might have only one table. For example,
Nutcracker Gadget Store’s mailing list is kept in a table named Customers.
record ❯ A record is a collection of related data items.
The table below contains information about nine customers. Each of these
customers is represented by a single record (or row) in the table. Each record
consists of several various fields – a field for the lastname, a field for the
firstname, a field for a Customer No and so on. A record is also known as a
tuple.
field ❯ A field is a portion of a record of a specific data type in a database table,
containing one piece of information.
A table is a database object that you use to
store data about a particular subject, such
as customers, employees or products. It is a
list of rows and columns similar to those in
a spreadsheet. A table consists of records
(arranged in rows) and fields (arranged in
columns). A table is also known as an entity.
ITQ3
What is the name of the table shown in
Figure 16.1?
ITQ4
How many rows of data are displayed
in the table?
Figure 16.1 A Microsoft Access 2010 table containing customer data.
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Each table can contain many fields of different types of data, such as text,
numbers, dates and hyperlinks. For example, in our Customer table, the
lastname might be stored in a 15-character text field. Before you create fields,
try to separate data into its smallest useful parts. It is much easier to combine
data later than it is to pull it apart. In our example, instead of using a single
Customer Name field, we created separate fields for Last Name and First Name.
This will allow us to easily search or sort by First Name, Last Name later.
Similarly, instead of a single field for address, we separated it into the street
address, postal code and parish. The rule of thumb is: if you plan to perform a
query on an item of data, put that item in a field by itself. A field is also known
as an attribute.
For example, when adding a new phonebook contact, users are presented
with fields for Title, First, Last, Nickname, Picture, Company, Job title, E-mail,
Phone, Pager, Fax, Mobile and almost 10 other fields.
Activity 16.1 Exploring the fields that makes up a phonebook record

1 Copy and complete the following table. Make the table as wide as possible;
make the middle column at approximately 10 cm (4 inches) wide.
Field name Field description Data type
2 Open the Phonebook or Contacts on your phone (and select ‘New Contact’).
Write the names of the first 10 fields in column one. If you are using a
BlackBerry smartphone, the first two field names are Title and Firstname.
3 We will complete the table later.
Data types
A data type is a field property that indicates the
kind of data that the field stores. It must be set in Setting Type of data
the Table Design grid when you create the field.
See Figure 16.3. Text Text or combinations of text and numbers, as well as numbers that don’t require
calculations, such as phone numbers.
Memo Lengthy text or combinations of text and numbers.
Number Numeric data used in mathematical calculations.
Date/Time Date and time values.
Currency Currency values and numeric data used in mathematical calculations involving
data with one to four decimal places.
AutoNumber A unique sequential (incremented by 1) number or random number assigned by
Access whenever a new record is added to a table.
Yes/No Yes and No values and fields that contain only one of two values (Yes/No, True/
False, or On/Off).
Hyperlink Text or combination of text and numbers stored as text and used as a link to
another object or location.
Table 16.1 Data type settings and the type of data that may be stored.
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Activity 16.2 Exploring the fields that makes up a phonebook record

1 Go back to the table you created in your notebook for Activity 16.1.
2 Using Table 16.1 as your guide, suggest which field type is the most suitable
for storing data in each of the fields that you recorded.
ITQ5
3 Compare your suggestions with two of your classmates.
For each column in the table shown
in Figure 16.1, write the name of the 4 Justify the reason for your choice if there is a situation where your classmate
data type (setting) that was likely used has a different suggestion for the same field name. Discuss the matter until
during table creation. both of you agree on a suitable field type.
Advantages and limitations of databases

Database systems are powerful tools for manipulating data. When compared to
traditional files (which keep data in separate, unrelated tables), databases offer
a few advantages but also has some limitations.
We will discuss four advantages of using a database as compared to using
traditional files.
1 Speed. Features such as templates, wizard and forms allow for the speedy
creation and maintenance of various database elements (tables, queries and
reports);
2 Standardization. A standard interface as well as a standard way to reference
ITQ6 database objects make the database system easy to manipulate by the user;
The data sharing feature of a database 3 Ad hoc queries. Pairs of tables may be linked, enabling users to quickly
is often quite useful. It allows one search through a huge number of records, selecting only those rows that
user’s view of the database to be meet a criteria;
updated with details of a change made 4 Multiple views of the same data. Several users can have access to the same
by another user. Suggest TWO scenarios piece of data – for example, a customer’s address – and still use it in different
in which such a scenario may happen. ways. When one user changes a customer’s address, the new address
immediately becomes available to all users.
As you would expect, where there are advantages there are also
disadvantages. Whilst the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, the latter
still exist and are explained next.
1 Larger file size. In order to support a wide range of components such as
tables, relationships, indexes, queries and report templates, a database file
has to be large and occupies a great amount of disk space.
2 Greater impact of failure. In a non-database, file-oriented system, an error
will usually be confined to just one file. However, in a database, a user error
in one component may have a severe impact in other components, resulting
in irreversible data loss.
Creating and populating a database

To create a new database file, open Access 2010 and click the File tab. You can
now see the Microsoft Office Backstage View. The Backstage View is where
you manage your files and the data about them – creating, saving, printing and
setting options. Access 2010 creates files in the .accdb file format, which cannot
be opened by using versions of Access earlier than 2007.
Creating a new database

A Microsoft Access database stores tables, relationships, forms, queries and
reports all in the same file.
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Figure 16.2 The Backstage View in Access 2010. This is where you create a new file, save, print
and set options for a file.
How to create a database file

1 Click the File tab.
2 Type the desired file name in the File Name text box.
3 Click the create button.
Activity 16.3 1 Create a new database file named MailingList.

2 Save the file in your designated workspace.
Creating a table
When creating a table, you will need to know the table name as well as the
field properties (name, data type and size) for each column in the table.
How to Create a table in an existing database
1 Click the File tab.
2 If the database that you want was recently created, click Recent; or click Open.
3 Select the database that you want to open, and then click Open.
4 On the Create tab, in the Tables group, click Table Design. A new table is inserted in
the database and the table opens in Design View.
5 Type the first field name in the Field Name box.
6 Select the field type from the Field Type list.
7 Type the field size in the Field Size text box.
8 Repeat steps 5, 6 and 7 for each field in the table.
9 Save the table: click Save on the File tab and provide the table name (Customers)
when prompted. Press OK to complete the save operation.
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Type the field

name here.
Select the data

type from the
drop down list.
Type the field

size here.
Figure 16.3 Creating a table in Design View.
Activity 16.4 Creating a table

1 Create and save a new table named Customers in the MailingList database
using the field properties shown in Table 16.2.
2 Save the database.
Populating (adding data to) a table

Field name Field type Field size When we populate a table we put data into it. Access 2010 provides three ways
CustomerNo Text 5 for populating table:
Firstname Text 12 1 Using a data form.
2 Entering the data in a datasheet.
Lastname Text 15 3 Importing data from an external source such as an electronic spreadsheet.
Address Text 20 A datasheet:
• is the default data entry mode; double-clicking on a table name in the Table
CreditLimit Currency 12
objects menu opens a table for data entry in datasheet mode;
Country Text 20 • looks and feels like a spreadsheet; and
Table 16.2 Field properties for the • allows the user to enter data into a parent table as well as related tables, all
Customers table. within the same window, thereby simplifying the data entry process.
We will use the most common method – the Datasheet View – to enter our
data.
How to enter data in Datasheet View

1 Double-click the table in the Navigation Pane. The table will open in Datasheet View;
or
If the table is open in Design View, select Datasheet View from the View tab.
2 Enter data into the first field. Press the Tab key to move to the next field.
3 Repeat step 2 and 3 for each row of data.
4 When all the data has been typed, close the table by clicking the close window button
× on the title bar. The data will be automatically saved.
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Each row
contains data
about one
customer.
ITQ7
Examine the CustomerNo data carefully
in Figure 16.4.
(a) Suggest whether the data type used
is text or number. Data may be added to a table whilst it Each field
is in Datasheet View. Change to Design contains one type
(b) Justify your answer. View to make changes to the table structure. of data only.
Figure 16.4 The Customers table in Datasheet View.
Activity 16.5 Entering data in Datasheet View

1 Open the CUSTOMER table in DatasheetView.
2 Enter the data shown in Figure 16.4.
Modifying a table
During the lifetime of a database, it is usual for changes to be made to a table.
Common changes include:
1 the inclusion of additional fields;
2 the deletion of one or more field that are no longer needed;
3 changing field definitions (field size mostly, field type sometimes);
4 adding/removing a primary key.
In some cases, a user may be required to change the data type of a field.
Changing data types may have an impact on calculations, queries and reports
in the following ways:
• Calculations – if a Numeric field is changed to a Text field, you can still enter
numbers but the DBMS won’t perform calculations for these numbers.
• Queries – conditions that work with a numeric field may not work with a
text field.
• Reports – formatting issues may arise.
For example, suppose we wanted to add the following data to the Customer
table.
Lastname Firstname CustomerNo Address PostCode CreditLimit

Ragoodarbeersingh Alip 95510 12 Parry Street Stony Hill $85,000.00
Beharry Anchootwerpeth 95511 14 Eventide Row Chalmers $90,000.00
Park
Table 16.3 Additional records for the Customer table.
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At first glance, this appears to be a simple procedure where we open the

table in datasheet mode (or use a data form) and add the two records given.
This would have been so if the lastname provided for record 1 could actually fit
in the space assigned – it can’t – the data is 17 characters long whereas the field
width is only 15. Similarly, the length of the firstname in the second record is
longer than the field width.
To solve this problem, we have to change the respective field definitions.
More specifically, we have to:
a increase the width of the lastname field from 15 to 17; and
b increase the width of the firstname field from 12 to 14.
How to modify a Table Structure
1 Open the table in Design view.
2 Carry out one or more of the following tasks:
a To change the field properties of an existing field, click on the field to be modified
then press F6 then change the field property as required.
b To add a new field, type the name in the next available field name text box then
supply the other required data.
c To delete an existing field, select the row header of an existing field (similar to how
you select a row in Microsoft Excel), right-click to show the shortcut menu, then
select delete.
3 Save the changes.
Be extremely careful when deleting fields as this will permanently delete

any data that you have entered in that field. It may affect calculations, queries
and reports already designed that may be opened or run at a later stage. Also,
if the field is ‘involved’ in a relationship, the relationship first needs to be
‘broken-up’ after which the field may be deleted. We discuss relationships later.
Activity 16.6 Modifying the structure of the Customer table

1 Open the customer table in Design View.
2 Modify the fields as required to ensure that the data shown in Table 16.3 will be
stored.
Joining tables
A database is a set of related tables. The power of a relational database system
comes from its ability to quickly find and bring together information stored in
queries, forms, reports ❯ separate tables using queries, forms, and reports.
So far, we have been working with one table. Later in this section, we will
create a second table named TRANSACTIONS to store the date, transaction
amount and a field indicating whether the goods have been delivered. We
will then establish a relationship between our two tables – CUSTOMERS and
TRANSACTIONS. As you may have imagined, CUSTOMER will be the parent
in the relationship and TRANSACTIONS will be the child!
Exploring keys
A well-designed database will store data efficiently (without duplication),
eliminate inconsistent updates, and will provide accurate, speedy responses
to queries. Pairs of tables are joined or linked using a field that is common to
both tables – a primary key. Whilst the primary key is the most often used key
in a database, it is important that you know what the other keys are, and the
function they serve.
299
Type of key Description Example

Candidate A field that is considered a possibility for becoming the primary Firstname, Lastname, CustomerNo, Address and PostCode are
key. all candidates for the job of primary key.
Primary A field whose values are unique so can be used to access each The value stored in CustomerNo appears unique so it has been
record individually selected as the primary key
Alternate Any candidate field that was not used as the primary key. Firstname, Lastname, Address and PostCode are alternates.
Composite A combination of fields used to create a unique primary key. Many customers may share the same firstname or even the
same lastname; it is less likely that they will share the same
firstname and lastname. A composite key may be formed by
using both firstname and lastname as a key.
Foreign Appears in a table where it doesn’t really belong but it enables CustomerNo will be used as the foreign key in our Transactions
two tables to be linked. table.
Table 16.4 Types of database keys.
Selecting a primary key

In order to establish a relationship between a pair of tables, at least one table
should include a field that uniquely identifies each record stored in that table.
This specially chosen field is called the primary key. Once a primary key is set
for a table, the DBMS will ensure that a value is always stored in this field. The
DBMS will also prevent any duplicate values from being entered in the primary
key field.
Consider the field properties for the Customer table shown in Table 16.5.
Field Name Field Type Field Size Primary Key

CustomerNo Text 5 ✓
Firstname Text 12
Lastname Text 15
Address Text 20
CreditLimit Currency 12
Country Text 20
Table 16.5 Field properties for the Customer table.
Let us now work our way through identifying our candidate, primary,
composite and foreign keys.
ITQ8 1 Candidate keys. All the fields with the exception of CreditLimit and
Suggest why CreditLimit and Country Country are candidate keys. As candidate keys, they could uniquely
have not been named as candidate identify the record of which it is a part. Whilst it is possible that each of
keys. the 100+ customers of Nutcracker Gadget Store has a different firstname,
the possibility exists that this may not be so. A similar situation exists with
lastname. Similar to a telephone number, driver’s licence number or even a
passport number, a customer number is unique, making it the perfect choice
for a primary key.
2 Primary key. Having reviewed the possibility of each of the candidate keys
remaining unique, CustomerNo is the only field that will remain unique for
the life of the database (however long that is!). We have decided to choose
CustomerNo as our primary key.
3 Alternate key(s). All the candidate keys that remain after the selection of
the primary key are alternates – Firstname, Lastname and Address.
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4 Composite. By themselves, firstname and Lastname are unlikely to be

unique. If we never had a CustomerNo, we could choose to create a
composite key (firstname+lastname) and make it the primary key.
5 Foreign key. Now that we have a primary key (CustomerNo), we have to
make sure that we include this field as a foreign key in all other tables that
we want to link with the CUSTOMER table.
Setting a primary key

A primary key may be set at the time a table is being created or modified. A
primary key may be specified for a field that already contains data as long as
that field does not contain duplicate or null values.
How to set a Primary Key
1 Open the table in Design view.
2 Select the field that you want to make the primary key.
3 Select the ‘Primary Key’ option on the pop-up menu (right-click to activate)
OR
Click the ‘Primary Key’ button.
4 Observe the key icon in the row header next to the primary key (Figure 16.5b)
5 Save your changes.
STEP 3
Click the ‘Primary
Key’ button.
STEP 2
Select the field
that you want to
make Primary Key.
Figure 16.5a Another way to set the primary key using the Ribbon tools.
Figure 16.5b Primary key set to CustomerNo in Customer table.
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Activity 16.7 Create a second table

in the Mailing List
database based on the
specifications shown
in Table 16.4.
Joining two tables/Setting a relationship

Before you proceed to join two tables, ensure that:
1 Both tables share a common field.
2 One of the tables has this common field set as the primary key.
How to set a relationship
1 Open the relationships window (Database Tools ❯ Relationships).
2 Add the required tables by selecting from the Show Tables dialogue (Figure 16.6b).
3 Drag primary key (from the parent table) and release over foreign key (in the child table).
4 Confirm the options presented in the Edit Relationships dialogue (Figure 16.6c).
5 Repeat for EACH pair of tables.
Figure 16.6b All available tables are

presented for you to select the ones you
want. Figure 16.6a The Relationships tool on the Database tools toolbar.
Figure 16.6c Before clicking the create button, ensure that all the Figure 16.6d The line joining the two tables indicates a 1-to-many
boxes are checked; this will ensure that your database maintains its relationship between the CUSTOMER and TRANSACTIONS tables; each
integrity. Customer may have many transactions.
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Activity 16.8 Creating a relationship

Establish a relationship between the CUSTOMER and TRANSACTIONS tables.
Let us now join our two tables – CUSTOMER and TRANSACTIONS.

ITQ9 The relationship between CUSTOMER and TRANSACTIONS may be stated
Suggest one implication of leaving as ‘for each unique record in the Customer table, there may be zero, one or
the ‘Enforce Referential Integrity’ many related records in the Transactions table’.
box unchecked when creating a Based on the records in Figure 16.4, this means that a customer may:
relationship. • not yet have carried out any transactions;
• have carried out a single transaction; or
• have performed multiple transactions.
There are two other types of relationships: one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-
to-many. A one-to-one is sometime of little value in a DBMS whereas a many-
to-many is relatively difficult to implement. One-to-many relationships are the
most common.
ITQ10 Entering data in a child table

Suggest one reason why a DBMS Data may be easily entered in Datasheet View since each record in the child
prevents users from entering data in table (TRANSACTIONS) is already attached to its parent record (CUSTOMER).
the foreign key field in a child table. In fact, as a database safety feature, you are not required to enter the foreign
key field when adding data in the child table.
Click here reveal the

related record(s) in
the Transactions
table.
A blank record in the

Transaction table.
Note that the field
for CustomerNo is
not shown.
Figure 16.7 Microsoft Access provides a safe and easy way to add records to the child table
when using related tables.
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Activity 16.9 Adding data to a child table

1 Open the CUSTOMER table in the MailingList database.
2 Add the following records in the table below to the TRANSACTIONS table.
CustomerNo TrxDate Delivered TrxAmt

95501 13-Jun-16 Yes $897.65
95502 13-Jun-16 Yes $546.78
95502 14-Jun-16 No $987.65
95503 14-Jun-16 Yes $456.78
95503 15-Jun-16 Yes $135.79
95503 15-Jun-16 No $246.80
95505 14-Jun-16 Yes $975.31
95506 17-Jun-16 Yes $135.79
95509 18-Jun-16 No $224.66
Calculated fields
A calculated field is a field that is the result of a In Access 2010, you can create a calculated field in a table. This eliminates the
calculation using one or more existing fields.
need for a separate query to do calculations.
For example, each sales transaction attracts a sales tax which is computed at
a rate of 10%. A calculated field is ideal for computing this sales tax.
Note the following points about calculated fields:
1 The calculation cannot include fields from other tables or queries.
2 The results of the calculation are read-only.
How to create a Calculated Field
1 Open the table by double-clicking it in the Navigation Pane.
2 Scroll horizontally to the rightmost column in the table, and click the Click to Add
column heading.
3 In the list that appears, click Calculated Field, and then click the data type that you
want for the result.
a Access displays the Expression Builder.
b Begin typing the calculation that you want for this field, for example: [TrxAmt] *
0.1
c Note It is not necessary to precede the expression with an equal sign (=).
4 Click OK.
a Access adds the calculated field, and then highlights the field header so that you
can type a field name.
5 Type a name for the calculated field, and then press ENTER.
You will be given an opportunity to create a calculated field in Activity

16.23.
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Querying a database
The query feature of a database is one that provides it with its immense
capability to extract meaningful information from the data stored in related
tables.
On a daily basis, various members of staff of Nutcracker Gadget Store query
the company’s database to get answers to a range of questions. Some of these
queries include:
1 What is the full name and the address of the customer that has a specified
CustomerNo.
2 Which customers with addresses in Kingston?
3 Which transactions made after a certain date are yet to be delivered?
4 What is the total value of the transactions made during a particular period?
5 What is the value of the tax collected during a particular period.
Without the use of a query, it is tedious to get information from a database.
A query is a request for data results, for action on If a query is not used, database users will spend a lot of time extracting
data, or for both.
information that may end up having inaccuracies or may be incomplete.
Queries may be used:
1 to view data in a particular way;
2 to update a database;
3 to delete one or more records from a database; and
4 as a source of (data) records for reports.
select queries ❯ There are several types of queries; two of the most common being select
action queries ❯ queries and action queries.
Queries that are used to retrieve data from a table or to make calculations
A select query retrieves data from one or more are called select queries whereas queries that add, change or delete data are
tables and displays the results in a datasheet.
called action queries. Most of the queries that you will be asked to perform
during your studies will be select queries.
A select query may also be used to group records and calculate sums, counts,
averages, and other types of totals. Results from queries may also be sorted.
Determining the results of a search/query

It is not good enough to just be able to manipulate a DBMS to create and run
a query. A required skill when working with a DBMS is that you are able to
determine the results of a search. Before you run a query, you should have
an idea as to what kind of results to expect – when you have absolutely no
expectations, any result, correct or incorrect, will be acceptable. Ensure that
you practise with tables containing at least 25 records and three data types. We
have provided a wide range of exercises at the end of this chapter for you to do
so.
Viewing the SQL statements that powers your query

It is useful for you to know what happens behind the scenes when you create
Figure 16.8 Microsoft Access 2010 allows a query in design view or using the wizard. Right there in the background, the
users to look at their queries in five different DBMS writes the query using SQL – Structured Query Language.
ways. How to open a query in SQL view
1 Select the query in the Navigation Pane.
2 Click on the View drop-down list in the Views section of the Query Tool tab on the
Ribbon.
3 Select SQL View from the drop-down list. See Figure 16.10c.
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Performing a single table query

We will now perform some queries that will retrieve data from a single table.
The aim is for the DBMS to show only the fields (columns) we tell it we want
to see and only the rows of data that match the condition we specify. For all
the queries, we will use the Query Design feature.
Double-clicking any
item in this list will
add it to the Field
row. Add the asterisks
only if you want all
the field in the
current table to be
added.
The query is designed

in the area. The first
three rows (Field,
Table and Sort) all
have drop down lists.
The criteria that will be used to determine which rows are These checkboxes are automatically checked once a field
returned in the result set goes in these rows. Use only the is added to the column. Sometimes you may need to
row labelled ‘Criteria’ when performing a one-criteria query. uncheck a particular box so that the field will not show.
Figure 16.9 The Query design work area.
How to create a query using the Query Design tool

1 Go to the Query Design area of the ribbon.
Create ❯ Queries ❯ Query Design
2 Activate the Query Design work area and add the table(s) you need. See Figure 16.10a.
STEP 1
Click the Query
Design button. This
will activate the
‘Show Table’ dialogue.
STEP 2
Double-click the
name of the required
table to add it to the
query design area.
STEP 3
Close the dialogue
box after you have
added the table(s)
needed.
Figure 16.10a Activating the query design feature.
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3 Add the fields whose data you want to show to the design grid.
4 Indicate whether you want your data to be sorted or grouped (using the drop-down
list in the row labelled ‘Sort’).
5 Type in any criteria that you want the DBMS to use to restrict the data (the ‘result set’)
that will be presented (as rows of data).
Figure 16.10b A completed query design grid showing an unnamed query.
6 Save your query.

When pressed, the query will execute and the
results will be displayed in a datasheet.
Using the Views appropriately

Design View: create and change your query design.
Datasheet View: view the results of your query.
SQL View: view the underlying code that powers your query.
Figure 16.10c The Results group on the Query Tools tab of the Ribbon is used to view the
results in a wide range of ways.
7 Run your query and view the results in Datasheet View (see Figure 16.10c). If the
result does not appear correct, review steps 3–5 then step 7.
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Activity 16.10 Using a query to show all the data contained in a table
1 Open the MailingList database.
2 Design the query as shown in Figure 16.10b.
3 Save the query as ‘Customer Data’.
4 Run your query. Your results should look similar to the table in Figure 16.4.
In the next activity, we will restrict the number of fields that are displayed.
We will accomplish this by adding only the fields that we want to see to the
grid – firstname and lastname. Note that all the rows will still be presented in
the result set.
Activity 16.11 Showing only selected fields

1 Open the MailingList database that you previously set up.
2 On the Create tab, in the queries group, click Query Design.
3 In the Show Table dialogue box, on the Tables tab, double-click Customers.
4 Close the Show Table dialogue box.
5 Design the query as shown above.

6 Save the query as ‘Customer
name only’.
Run your query. Your results should
look similar to the table in the figure
alongside.
Now that we know how to perform basic select queries where all the rows
ITQ11 in the table are shown in the result set, we will now perform a query that
Write the SQL statement for the query in restricts the number of rows that we see. We will do this by adding a criterion
Activity 16.11. to the design grid. We will design a query that lists the first and lastname of the
customers whose lastname begins with the letter ‘H’.
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Figure 16.11 In this query, the Lastname field appears twice in the grid. Note that that we have
cleared the ‘Show’ check box in the Lastname that has the criteria.
Our next query will be somewhat similar to the one we completed in
ITQ12 Activity 16.12. In some cases, we want to list all the data that is available about
a particular customer. In this case, we want to see the data for the customer
Write the SQL statement for the query in
whose customer number is 95505. As you can imagine, only one row of data
Activity 16.12.
will be presented.
Activity 16.12 Perform a select query to list all customers whose last
name begins with ‘H’
1 Design the query as shown in Figure 16.11.
2 Save the query as ox, type ‘Customers lastnames with H’.
3 Run your query. Your results should look similar to the table in the figure below.
All our queries so far have involved text fields. In the next query, we will
design a query using a criterion that involves a numeric field. We will show
(the rows of data for) customers with credit limit greater than $50,000.
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Activity 16.13 List the customer whose CustomerNo is ‘95505’

1 Open the MailingList database.
2 Add the Customer table to the query design workspace.
3 Instruct Access to show all the fields from the current table. See Figure 16.10b.
4 Add CustomerNo field to column 2 of the grid.
5 In the Criteria row of the CustomerNo column, type 95505 then press the Tab key.
Observe that when you press the Tab key a set of quotations is automatically
added to what you’ve typed.
6 In the Query Name Box, type ‘CustomerNo 95505’.

7 Run the query. Does your result appear similar to the one above? Check to
ensure that you have only one row of data and six columns, not seven. If you
have seven columns then it is likely that you did not uncheck the ‘Show’ box in
the column containing the criteria.
Activity 16.14 List customer names and credit limit for

CreditLimit > $50,000
1 Create a query based on the information presented below.
2 Save the query as ‘CreditLimit Greater than 50000’.

3 Run the query.
4 Record the results in your notebook.
5 Compare your results with the results obtained by two of your classmates. Are
all the results similar? If no, work collaboratively to locate and correct the error.
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Activity 16.15 Looking at a query in SQL View

1 Copy the following table in your notebook.
Query SQL statements
2 Open the query created in Activity 16.14.

3 Write the SQL statement in the space provided in the table.
Performing a multi-table query

Customer Table Transactions Table
Up to this point we have performed queries using a single table only. A query
Firstname TrxAmt involving two or more related tables is just as simple to perform as the queries
we have done so far. In this next activity, we want to list all the transactions
Lastname
whose transaction value is greater than a certain amount. We want to know
Table 16.6 The fields that are to be the name of the customer as well as the transaction amount.
included in the multi-table query. The fields we are interested in as shown in Table 16.6.
Activity 16.16 Performing a query that includes one condition and

fields from two related tables
2 Save the query as

‘Transactions greater than
$500’.
3 Run the query.
4 Record the results in your
notebook.
5 Is your result similar to the
one shown alongside?
6 If no, try to locate and
correct your error.
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Queries involving dates

All the queries we have done so far have involved text and numeric fields. We
will now perform a query that involves a date. A query involving a date as the
criteria is not much different from text or numeric criteria. To ensure that your
query gives you an accurate result, the date must be written in the format set
on your computer. If you are using a Windows-based operating system, you
can check the date format in the Regional Settings options in control panel.
Activity 16.17 Performing a query that includes a date

(Note that the date is enclosed in a pair of pound (#) symbols.)
2 Save the query as ‘14 June transactions’.

3 Run the query.
5 Is your result similar to the one shown below?
If no, try to locate and correct your error.
Queries involving Yes/No and date fields

Yes/No fields are very powerful as they allow database users to easily include
or exclude rows in their result set. In this next activity, we want to list all the
transactions that are yet to be delivered. We want to know the name and
address of the customer as well as the transaction date.
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Activity 16.18 Performing a query that includes a date

1 Create a query based on the query design grid shown below.
2 Save the query as ‘Outstanding deliveries’.

3 Run the query.
6 If no, try to locate and correct your error.
Multiple search conditions

We have been designing and running queries that required us to use only one
row and one column in the design grid. In the next four activities, we will
utilise multiple columns and multiple rows.
In the next activity, we want to list all customers with transactions that
were done on any of two dates – June 19, 2013 OR June 21, 2013. Note that
the query involves two different criteria for the same date so we will type each
criterion in a different row in the same (TrxDate) column.
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Activity 16.19 Performing a query with multiple search condition

2 Save the query as ‘Transactions on 14 June OR 15 June’.

3 Run the query.
In the next activity, we want to list all customers with credit limits
(CreditLimit) greater than $50,000 OR transaction amounts (TrxAmt) less than
$500.00. Note carefully how we have used the ‘or’ row in the query design
grid.

2 Save the query as ‘Transactions on 14 June OR 15 June’.

3 Run the query.
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Customer satisfaction is very important to the management of Nutcracker

Gadget Stores and as such the Customer Service Manager runs an Outstanding
Deliveries query at the end of each week to determine which deliveries are still
outstanding. For example, she may want to find out which transactions made
during the week (TrxDate >= 13 June 2016 AND TrxDate <= 19 June 2016),
destined for a Kingston address (PostalCode Like ‘K*’) are undelivered at the
end of the week (Delivered = NO).

1 Create a query based on the query design grid shown below. Note carefully that
four columns each has an entry in their criteria row, however, only two of these
will be shown in the result set.
2 Save the query as ‘Outstanding Kingston deliveries for week ending 19 June 2016’.
3 Run the query.
Exercise 16.1 Design and run queries for each of the following:
1 List customer names and addresses (Firstname, Lastname, Address and
PostCode) for customers that made purchases (TrxAmt) of less than $500
between the dates (TrxDate) 15 June 2016 and 18 June 2016.
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2 All the customers who are NOT located in Kingston (PostalCode) with
outstanding deliveries (Delivered).
Action queries – update and delete queries

An action query is a query that makes changes to or moves many records
in just one operation. There are four types of action queries: delete, update,
append, and make-table.
delete query ❯ A delete query deletes a group of records from one or more tables.
A delete query may be used to delete records from a single table, or from
multiple tables in a one-to-many relationship, if cascading deletes are enabled.
For example, a user could use a delete query to remove a customer and his/
her transactions. With delete queries, you always delete entire records, not just
selected fields within records.
update query ❯ An update query makes global changes to a group of records in one or
more existing tables.
Increase each customer’s credit limit (CreditLimit) by 10 percent.
This is what is regarded as an unrestricted update – no conditions governing

which records we should update have been given. Alternatively, we could have
increased the credit limit only for a particular set of customers. For example,
we could increase the credit limit for customers with credit limits > $50,000.
Activity 16.22 Use an update query to increase the value of all

transactions by 10%
1 Open a new query in Design view.
2 Select the Transactions table.
3 Change the query type from ‘Select Query’ to ‘Update Query’; observe that a
new row labelled ‘Update to’ has been added to the design grid.
(To get started with an update query, (i) change the query type to Update,
observe that (ii) the usual rows (iii) change and the Sort row is replaced by
‘Update to’. The ‘Show’ checkboxes have disappeared as there is no need to
show anything because this is an action query – changes will be made to the
actual data in the Transactions table.)
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4 Add the TrxAmt field to the first column of the Query Design grid.
5 In the ‘update to’ row, write the expression that will be used to compute the
new values for each record in the table: [CreditLimit] * 1.1.
6 Run the query ONCE. A dialogue box will ask you to confirm that you want to
update the rows.
Calculating statistics and grouping query results

Most DBMS packages support built-in statistics such as Count, Sum, Max
(largest value), Min (smallest value) and Average. These statistics may be
calculated for group of records. Grouping means creating groups of records that
share some common characteristic, for example, a common CustomerID.
One of the most common queries is a count query. For example, the
management of Nutcracker Gadget Store may want to know:
1 How many transactions were done during the period 13–19 June 2016;
2 How many deliveries were done during the same period;
3 Which customer had the largest number of transactions during the week.
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Activity 16.23 Produce a list of the customers who carried out

transactions during the week
1 Open a new query in Design view.
2 Add the Transactions table to the grid then add CustomerNo to the first column.
Click here to show/hide
column totals in the query results.
Observe that a new row – Total – has

been added to the design grid and
each column now has a Group by
drop-down list.
3 Click the Totals Show/Hide button to show the Total row for each column in the
Query Design grid.
4 Add the fields to the grid as shown above.

5 Run the query.
6 Match your results with the results below.
ITQ13
List ANY FIVE items in the ‘Group by’
drop-down list.
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Activity 16.24 Count the number transactions carried out

during the week. Design and run a query
based on the design grid shown.
Activity 16.25 Count the number

transactions carried
out transactions during
the week with a value
greater than $500.
Design and run a
query based on the
design grid shown.
Sorting
It is sometimes beneficial for us to present our query results in an organised
manner.
To list the records in a query’s results in a particular way, the records need
to be sorted. The field on which records are sorted is called the sort key.
Records may be sorted on more than one field – the more important field is
called the primary sort key and the less important field is called the secondary
sort key.
In Access, the user only needs to specify the sort order (in the Sort row
of the design grid) for the sort key fields. When using multiple sort keys in a
query, the sort key on the left in the design grid will be the major (primary)
sort key and the sort key on the right will be the minor (secondary) sort key.
In the next activity, we will add three new customers to our Customer table
then sort the list on two sort keys – first by Lastname, then by Firstname.
Activity 16.26 Sorting a table on primary and secondary sort keys

1 Add the following data to the Customer table:
Firstname Lastname CustomerNo Address Postcode CreditLimit

Melanie Hosein 95512 25 Weaver Close Kingston 19 $25,000
Zak Hosein 95513 25 Weaver Close Kingston 19 $25,000
Earnest Hussey 95514 $25,000
2 Sort the table on Lastname in ascending order, then by firstname, also in

ascending order.
3 Save the query as ‘Customer List (sorted alphabetically)’
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4 Run the query.
Secondary
sort key
Primary
sort key
Note that all the lastnames are sorted in alphabetical order and that all the
firstnames within a particular lastname (Hosein) are also sorted alphabetically.
Exercise 16.2
a Create a database named ASSIGNMENT1 containing a single table named
STUDENTS based on the following structure:
Fname Type Size Description
Lname Text 15 Student’s last name
Fname Text 12 Student’s first or given name
DOB Date Student’s data of birth
Siblings Number Number of brothers and/or sisters the student has
b Enter the following data into the table.
STUDENTS
Fname Lname DOB Siblings
Amelia Morris 30/01/1997 1
Candy Maitland 18/08/1997 2
Casper Wickham 06/03/1998 3
Denice Miller 22/09/1998 4
Eldon Liddle 10/04/1999 0
Eric Ferron 27/10/1999 4
Ikwo Campbell 29/02/2000 3
Jayde Jovan 03/07/2000 2
Jheanell Kay 05/11/2000 1
Kemar May 10/03/2001 2
Lanesa June 26/09/2001 3
Marc Tomlin 14/04/2002 4
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STUDENTS
Fname Lname DOB Siblings
Nigel Neil 31/10/2002 5
Rashid Cawley 19/05/2003 4
Rochelle Gee 21/09/2003 3
Sasha-Gay Webster 08/04/2004 2
Shari-Ann Revise 25/10/2004 1
Stephanie Faith 13/05/2005 0
Terron Biggs 29/11/2005 1
Trudi-Anne Moodle 03/04/2006 2
c Design queries to accomplish the following:

i List the first name, last name and date of birth of all students in
alphabetical order.
ii List the first name, last name and date of birth of all students with two
siblings.
iii List the first name and last name of all students whose first names
begin with ‘A’, ‘B’ or ‘C’.
iv List the first name and last name of all students whose last names end
with ‘e’.
v List the last names and dates of birth of all students who are older than
15 years of age.
vi List the names and dates of birth of all students born in the 1990s.
vii Count the number of students in the database that has no siblings.
viii Determine the highest number of siblings that any student has.
ix Determine the average number of siblings.
x Increase the number of siblings for each student by one.
Generating a report
Reports are a great way to organise and present data from your Microsoft
Access database. A report is made of a title, one or more report headings and
data. Reports enable you to format your data in an attractive and informative
layout for printing or viewing on screen.
Reports provide many ways to organise, categorise, and even summarise
your data. Reports range in complexity from a simple list – such as a customer
list – to a detailed sales transaction report, complete with data grouping and
summary data such as total sales. When developing a report, the first question
you need to consider is, what do you want the report to do? Having answered
this question, you will be better able to determine:
1 what fields will be included in the report;
2 which table(s) must be used to supply the fields required;
3 whether grouping and/or sorting is required;
4 what summary data to include; and
5 how best to lay out the report – page orientation, report title, headings, etc.
Like queries, Microsoft Access allows you to create a report using either the
design tool or the wizard.
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We will use the wizard because it will guide you, step by step, through the
process of creating a full-featured report. The wizard provides facilities for:
1 Selecting a group of fields from one or more tables/queries (the data
source).
2 Adding grouping levels.
3 Sorting the records.
4 Adding summary statistics (Sum, Max, Min and Average).
5 Presenting the report in various formats.
After you have generated your report using the wizard, you may fine-tune
aspects of it in Design View. For example, you may choose to
1 add a second line to the report title;
2 change the size, spacing and positioning of the objects.
The resulting report may be viewed on screen, sent to a printer or exported
to a file.
In the next activity, we will create a report titled ‘Customer Listing’, which
lists each customer’s name, customer number and address. The list will be
sorted in alphabetical order by lastname, then by firstname.
Activity 16.27 Creating a basic report using one table

Activate the Report Wizard button in the report group on the Create tab of the
Ribbon.
1 Select the fields you want on your report.
Click ‘Next’.
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2 Click ‘Next’ since we do not want any grouping.
Click ‘Next’.
3 Retain all the defaults for the layout of the report.
Click ‘Next’.
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4 Type the title of your report – ‘Customer Listing’ – then click ‘Finish’.
5 Check to ensure that your report looks like the one shown below.
Congratulations! You have created your first Microsoft Access report.
Creating a report with grouping and summary data

Grouping data and sorting data to make it more visibly meaningful are key
benefits of reports. Reports let people take in the big picture at a glance.
Although reports enable you to ‘pretty up’ your data and presenting data in
many different ways, reporting don’t alter the underlying data in the tables in
your database. In the next activity, we will prepare a report which present the
Weekly Sales Report for Nutcracker Gadget Stores, grouped by customer.
Nutcracker Gadget Store produces a two different weekly sales report:
1 sales by transaction date showing subtotals as well as a grand total;
2 sales by customer.
In the next activity, we will produce the first of the two weekly reports –
Weekly Sales by Transaction Date. Here are the specifications:
• Include the following FIVE fields: TrxDate, Firstname, Lastname,
CustomerNo and TrxAmt
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• Group by TrxDate
• Sort data on Lastname then Firstname, both in ascending order
• Provide a subtotal on TrxAmt (for each day) and a GrandTotal for the entire
report
• Use a two-line report title:
Weekly Sales by Transaction Date
Week ended 19 June 2016
Activity 16.28 Creating a report with grouping and summary data

1 Activate the Report Wizard button in the report group on the Create tab of the
Ribbon.
2 Select the fields listed below.
a Note that the order in which the fields are selected is important; this is the
order they will be placed on the report.
b Select TrxDate from the Transactions table, then Firstname, Lastname
and CustomerNo from the Customer table. Finally, select TrxAmt from the
Transactions table then click ‘Next’.
3 Choose to view your data by ‘Transactions’ then click ‘Next’.
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4 Select ‘TrxDate’ as the grouping level.

a Your screen should appear similar to the one below.
b Open the ‘Grouping Options’ dialogue.

c Select ‘Day’ from the ‘Grouping Intervals’ drop-down list then close the
dialog box.
d Click ‘Next’ to move on to the ‘Sorting and Summary Information’ dialogue box.
5 Retain all the defaults for the layout of the report then click ‘Next’.
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6 Type the first line of the title of your report – ‘ Weekly Sales by Transaction
Date’ – then click ‘Finish’
a The report will open in Design View. Type the additional line(s) of text
required to make your report title complete.
To create a multi-line report title:

1. Position your cursor to the right of the last character in the text box
containing the report title then press Ctrl + Enter.
2. Type the other line(s) of the report title.
3. Preview the report.
7 Check to ensure that your report looks like the one shown below.
Congratulations! You have created your second Microsoft Access report.
Multi-line
report line.
The information
in the report is
grouped by day.
Summary data
Data within each in the form of
group sorted a sum of the
by lastname. transaction
amounts for
each day.
Exercise 16.3 You have been given an Economics assignment to compare the
per capita GDP in CARICOM member states and produce a report.
1 Create a database named EXERCISE 2 containing two tables: MEMBERS
and CODES. You are expected to select appropriate field names, data
types and sizes for your fields. You should also identify and use appropriate
primary keys where necessary.
2 Establish a relationship between the two tables.
3 Enter the data shown above into the tables created.
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MEMBERS CODES
Country Member Population GDP Country Country
Code State Code
AI No 11,430 AI Anguilla
AG Yes 63,863 1579.8 AG Antigua and Barbuda
BB Yes 268,792 5628.6 BB Barbados
BZ Yes 232,111 2046.8 BZ Belize
BM No 62,059 BM Bermuda
VG No 16,115 VG British Virgin Islands
KY No 39,020 KY Cayman Islands
DM Yes 69,625 595.7 DM Dominica
GD Yes 102,598 864.9 GD Grenada
GY Yes 751,223 1649.0 GY Guyana
HT Yes HT Haiti
JM Yes 2,607,632 21538.4 JM Jamaica
MS Yes 4,517 77.1 MS Montserrat
LC Yes 157,490 1490.2 LC Saint Lucia
KN Yes 46,325 777.9 KN St Kitts and Nevis
VC Yes 106,253 761.2 VC St Vincent and the
Grenadines
SR Yes 492,464 1964.5 SR Suriname
BS Yes 303,611 13618.8 BS The Bahamas
TT Yes 1,262,366 23025.1 TT Trinidad and Tobago
4 Design queries to accomplish the following:
a List the Member States of CARICOM. Save this query as Member
States. Only the following fields should included: Country, Population
and GDP.
b Using Member States query, create a calculated field that stores the
per capita GDP for each country. Note that per capita GDP = GDP /
Population. Sort the query on the calculated field in descending order.
5 Create reports based on the following specifications:
Report 1 Report 2
Report title: CARICOM Member Listing CSEC Ecomomics Assignment
Per Capita GDP of CARICOM Member States
Fields to show: Country, Member State Country, Population, GDP, Per Capita GDP
Group by: Member State None
Sort on: Country Per Capita GDP (descending)
Group by: Count Average
Exercise 16.4 The Biology teacher at Possibility High School has asked you to
create a database to be used to handle the reporting requirements for her termly
projects. The data to be used to test the database is given on the next page.
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ASSIGNMENT STUDENT
Assignment Assignment Maximum Student name Assignment ID Assignment Submission Date Score
ID Due Date Score Ula Upchurch B101 13/03/2013 69
B101 13/03/2013 100 Muriel Marotta B102 14/03/2013 72
B102 14/03/2013 100 Adriene Albury B103 12/03/2013 75
B103 15/03/2013 100 Chad Courtois B101 13/03/2013 78
Cindi Clevenger B102 14/03/2013 81
Astrid Alejandre B103 15/03/2013 84
Evelynn Courtois B101 12/03/2013 87
Melda Mcdonalds B102 13/03/2013 90
Hassan Holoman B103 14/03/2013 74
Jeffie Jung B101 12/03/2013 77
Alphonse Avant B102 16/03/2013 80
Elfrieda Earle B103 13/03/2013 83
Randy Rozell B101 12/03/2013 86
Trudie Trivett B102 14/03/2013 89
Marquerite Mohan B103 16/03/2013 92
Myrtle Mire B101 14/03/2013 76
Brandie Berg B102 14/03/2013 79
Carin Casper B103 13/03/2013 82
Kristi Knoles B101 12/03/2013 85
Latonia Lomas B102 14/03/2013 69

1 Create a database named EXERCISE 3 containing two tables: STUDENT
and ASSIGNMENT. You are expected to select appropriate field names,
data types and sizes for your fields. You should also identify and use
appropriate primary keys where necessary.
2 Enter the data into the tables created.
3 Establish a relationship between the two tables.
a List the Assignment ID, Student Last name, Date Assignment Due and
Date Assignment Submitted of all assignments that were submitted after
the due date. Save query as LATE.
b Use a calculated field to compute the revised score for all late
assignments after a 10% penalty is applied. Include Assignment ID,
Student Last name and Score. Save query as PENALTY.
5 Design a report that lists all the late assignments grouped by assignment.
The report should include all the fields from both tables and the records
should be sorted by last name. Include a count of the total number of late
assignments in each group.
The report should be centred and should read as follow:
Possibility High School Science Department
Biology Project Grade Report
Easter Term 2013
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Exercise 16.5 You are required to:

1 Create a database named EXERCISE4 containing three tables:
VEHICLES, FEES and OWNER. You are expected to select appropriate
field names, data types and sizes for your fields. You should also identify
and use appropriate primary keys where necessary.
2 Establish relationships among the tables.
3 Enter the data into the tables created.
VEHICLES FEES
Vehicle Registration Vehicle Make Registration Taxpayer Vehicle Registration
Number Type Expiry Date ID Type Fee
A101 Car BMW 09-Apr-13 1101 Bike 100.00
A107 Car Honda 04-May-13 8808 Car 250.00
A194 Car Audi 29-May-13 4404 Truck 500.00
B101 Car Nissan 23-Jun-13 7340
CC558 Truck Isuzu 18-Jul-13 5569
CC788 Truck Mack 12-Aug-13 1101 OWNER
CC369 Truck Leyland 06-Sep-13 8808 Taxpayer Last Government
First name
004B Bike Honda 01-Oct-13 4404 ID name Employee
104B Bike Kawasaki 26-Oct-13 7340 1101 John Black Yes

904X Bike Jing 20-Nov-13 5569 8808 Everald Gray No
D692 Car Honda 15-Dec-13 1101 4404 Joe Green No
E744 Car Audi 09-Jan-14 8808 7340 Winston Brown No
E221 Car Nissan 03-Feb-14 4404 5569 Bruce White Yes
E207 Car Audi 28-Feb-14 7340
X994 Car Nissan 25-Mar-14 5569
G334 Car Toyota 19-Apr-14 5569
F587 Car Toyota 14-May-14 5569
G009 Car Isuzu 08-Jun-14 1101
CC998 Truck Mack 03-Jul-14 1101
CC008 Truck International 28-Jul-14 1101

a List the name of the owner of the vehicle with registration number
904X.
b List the vehicles owned by the person with taxpayer id = 5569.
c List the names of all truck owners.
d List the total registration fees to be paid by John Black when his current
registrations expire.
e List the vehicle registration numbers, vehicle type, make, owners’ name and
registration expiry date of all vehicles whose registration will expire during
the second half of 2014.
f List all vehicles that are not trucks that are owned by government
employees.
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5 Create a report based on the following specifications:

Report title: Registration Expiry Date
Fields to show: Vehicle Registration Number, Vehicle Type, Make, Registration
Expiry Date, Owner First name and Owner Last name
Sort on: Registration Expiry Date
Summary
• A database is collection of data stored in a set of related tables. A Microsoft Access database stores tables,
relationships, forms, queries and reports all in the same file.
• When compared to traditional files (which keep data in separate, unrelated tables), databases offer a few
advantages but also has some limitations.
• A table is a database object that stores data about a particular subject. A table is also known as an entity.
• Each table can contain many fields of different types of data such as text, numbers, dates and hyperlinks.
• A record is a collection of related data items whereas a field is a portion of a record in a database table, containing
one piece of information.
• Each has to be of a particular data type that indicates the kind of data that the field stores.
• When creating a table, you will need to know the table name as well as the field properties (name, data type and
size) for each column in the table.
• Microsoft Access uses forms to put data into its tables, queries to extract data from tables and reports to allow
users to view data.
• A query is a request for data results. Queries that are used to retrieve data from a table or to make calculations are
called select queries.
• A pairs of tables is joined or linked using a primary key, a field that is common to both tables.
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 Additional answers should aligned indicating; numeric values
be accepted where correct. Record- would have been right aligned.
keeping in relation to: (a) attendance ITQ8 Many customers can have
registers and gradebooks (b) financial the same credit limit and it is likely
records (c) performance of athletes, that all the customers may be from
equipment, training roster. the same country. A field that stores
ITQ2 STUDENT (student ID, last similar values will not be useful as a
name, first name, date of birth, sex, primary key.
date of admission) and TEACHER ITQ9 When unchecked, the DBMS
(teacher ID, last name, first name). will not check to ensure that each
ITQ3 Customers. child record has a parent record.
ITQ4 9. ITQ10 A user may enter incorrect
ITQ5 Lastname, Firstname, data; by not allowing this data to be
CustomerNo, Address and PostCode: entered, the integrity of the database
text; Creditlimit: currency. is maintained.
ITQ6 (i) In a school setting, the ITQ11 SELECT Customers.
form teacher could update a student’s Lastname, Customers.Firstname
attendance record at the same time FROM Customers.
the record is being viewed by the ITQ12 SELECT Customers.
vice principal; and (ii) during online Lastname, Customers.Firstname
shopping, the quantity of an item that FROM Customers WHERE
the buyer has in his shopping cart (((Customers.Lastname) Like ‘H*’)).
may change to reflect that the item is ITQ13 ANY FIVE from the
no longer in stock. following: avg, count, exp, first, last,
ITQ7 (a) The data type is text. max, min, stdev, sum, var.
(b) The values in the table are all left
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Group activities
1 You and three of your best friends have been employed for the summer at Nutcracker Gadgets Store. Your first task is
to conduct a customer satisfaction survey at the recently opened branch in Rodney Bay, St Lucia.
You are expected to:
a Design a database table to store the following data:
i date of visit to the store;
ii client’s name;
iii customer service ticket number;
iv amount of money spent;
v number of minutes it took for job to be completed.
b Write queries to list:
i the names of all customers who spent over $500;
ii the ticket number of all customers whose job took more than 60 minutes to complete.
2 The 4-H Club at your school has asked your group to design a database to store its membership records.
Each member of the group should:
a Interview one member of the executive (President, Vice-President, Secretary and Treasurer) to determine what
data they need to store to get their duties done.
b Develop a list of fields (field names, data types and sizes) for storing the data needed by the person they have
interviewed.
As a group:
i Collaborate to design a table using Access.
ii Develop a list of AT LEAST THREE queries that may be answered from the database.
iii Enter AT LEAST 20 sample records.
iv Write the queries listed in (d) above and run these queries.
3 Your friend Jada has designed a database table in Access consisting of three fields as described in the table below:
Field name Data type Size
Name Text 30
Phone number Number
Twitter user name Text 20
She intends to use a query to extract data about her friends as the need arises. For example, she wants to find the
Twitter user name for a friend by searching for that friend’s phone number. Jade is not sure whether her table design is
suited to the purpose and she now seeks the assistance of you and your pair.
a Examine the table structure and think about what you intend to say to Jada.
b Discuss your thoughts with the other group members.
c Collaborate to write a response to Jada that will be sent via SMS text message.
332
Multiple-choice questions (MCQs) Questions 5–9 are based on the following table.
1 Which statement best describes a database?
(A) A collection of tables
(B) Tables that are in sequence
(C) Tables of related information
(D) A collection of related tables
2 Possibility High School maintains a database
containing tables related to its students and the
subjects offered. Which of the following represents a 5 In what view is the table being displayed?
table within the database? (A) Design
(A) A student’s name (B) Datasheet
(B) A student’s record (C) Normal
(C) All the personal data on students (D) Print preview
(D) The age of a student 6 How many records are displayed in the table?
3 Which is ONE difference between the alphanumeric (A) 6
and numeric data types? (B) 7
(A) Alphanumeric represents quantities, unlike (C) 8
numeric, which represents labels only (D) 9
(B) Alphanumeric represents labels and quantities, 7 How many fields are in the table?
unlike numeric, which represents labels only (A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 8 (D) 9
(C) Alphanumeric does not represent quantities,
8 How many different field types are used to store the
unlike numeric, which represents quantities
data?
(D) Alphanumeric represents labels, unlike
numeric, which represents quantities only (A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5
9 Consider the following statements and state which are
4 Which is ONE difference between a logical and an
TRUE.
alphanumeric data type?
I The CustomerNo field type is Text
(A) Alphanumeric can represent data from an
II The CustomerNo field type is Numeric
unlimited set, unlike logical, which can
III Data in text fields is left aligned
represent one of two values only
IV Data in numeric fields is left aligned
(B) Alphanumeric can represent composite data,
(A) I and III.
unlike logical, which can represent single data
(B) I and IV.
values only
(C) II and III.
(C) Logical can represent data from an unlimited
(D) II and IV.
set, unlike alphanumeric, which can represent
one of two values only 10 How many records would be selected if the query
(D) Logical can represent composite data, unlike ‘Select * FROM Customers WHERE CreditLimit >=
alphanumeric, which can represent single data 40000’ is run?
values only (A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 8 (D) 9
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1 The trade promotion agency in St Luago uses a database named INVESTMENTS to store data related to applications
for licenses to operate in the country. The database contains two tables: COUNTRY and APPLICATIONS.
Ccode Cname
BB Barbados
TT Trinidad and Tobago
SV St Vincent and the Grenadines
SL St Lucia
Table 1 COUNTRY
AppID Ccode ProjectType InvestmentAmt Duration ForeignStaff
A100 TT Agriculture $10,000,000 16 No
B200 BB Mining $4,000,000 4 Yes
C325 SV Retail $1,500,000 8 No
D450 SL Financial $8,000,000 12 No
Table 2 APPLICATIONS
a Copy and complete the following table to state the data types of the fields indicated: [4]
Fieldname Data type
AppID
InvestmentAmt
Duration
ForeignStaff
b Name the primary key for the country table. [1]
c Name the field that would be used to join the two tables. [1]
d State the technical term for the field referred to in part (c). [1]
e Write queries to:
i List ALL projects with investment amounts greater than two million dollars. [2]
ii List the country that submitted the application that requires foreign staff. [2]
iii Create a calculated field to store an ApplicationFee which is 0.5% of the InvestmentAmt. [2]
iv List the following fields: Cname, ProjectType and InvestmentAmt. [2]
2 The Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) maintains a database with two tables (shown below) to store information
about vehicles and their manufacturers.
MId MName CountryOfOrigin

F400 Ford USA
H200 Honda Japan
K300 Kia South Korea
T100 Toyota Japan
Table 1 MANUFACTURER
VehicleID MId FuelTankCapacity DieselFuel
X1295 T100 67 Yes
YA692 H200 75 No
GB904 F400 80 No
RY127 K300 40 Yes
Table 2 VEHICLE
a Name ANY TWO candidate keys in the MANUFACTURER table. [2]
b Name the primary key in the MANUFACTURER table. [1]
c List the steps required to modify the structure of the vehicle table to include a field named ManufactureDate. [3]
334
d Suggest a reason for the inclusion of the Mid-field in the VEHICLE table. [1]
e Write queries to:
i List all manufacturer’s names and VehicleID for vehicles with fuel tank capacities > 50 litres. [3]
ii List all VehicleID for vehicles with fuel tank capacities <= 70 litres and type of fuel used is Diesel.
f Each vehicle that uses diesel fuel is entitled to a discount of $0.10 for each litre of fuel purchased. Assuming
that four full tanks of fuel are purchased monthly, write a calculated field to compute the rebate due to each
eligible driver. [3]
g If the vehicle table is sorted on the VehicleID field in DESCENDING order, what is the fuel capacity of the
vehicle at the bottom of the sorted list? [1]
h A report was generated for the VEHICLE table and the records grouped by the Mid-field. State the name of
ANOTHER field that could be used to group the records. [1]
3 The table below shows the structure of a table named PHONE.
Field Data Type Field Description

StockCode Text A 4-character code assigned to each phone.
MakeModel Make and model of phone, For example, Samsung Galaxy S IV.
ReleaseDate Date on which the phone was released.
ScreenSize The size of the phone screen in inches.
4G Indicates whether phone supports 4G data.
Table 1 PHONE
a State an appropriate data type for EACH of the fields: MakeModel, ReleaseDate, ScreenSize and 4G. [4]
b State which field is the most suitable candidate for the primary key. [1]
c Write a query to obtain:
i The names of ALL phones released after January 1, 2014; [2]
ii The StockCode and MakeModel of all 4G capable phones. [3]
4 The following is a list of customers, their phone numbers and the amount of phone credit they are to receive in a free
credit promotional activity.
Ivy-Blue Jones $100 625-1125
Blue-Sky Carter $200 624-8902
Jens Floralze $200 625-0128
Azure Toledo $250 691-2258
a Copy and complete the following database structure to store data in the format given. [3]
Field Data Type Field Description
b State the feature of the DBMS that:

i Offers a faster alternative to entering data in Datasheet View; [1]
ii Prints data in a specified format; [1]
iii Selects and displays rows of data that meets a specified format. [1]
c Write the criteria to search the database table for ALL persons who are due to receive more than $200. [1]
335
17
17 • Information integration
Information
integration
By the end of Use data from Microsoft Access in Microsoft Excel

this chapter
Use data from Microsoft Excel in PowerPoint
you should
be able to:
Prepare a mail merge using an external data source
Concept map
Information integration
happens in processes such as
mail merge data import data export copy & paste
that uses data from for example

that shares data between
Data source in: Pasting a chart from Pasting a chart from

Access 2010 Applications: Excel 2010 PowerPoint 2010
Excel 2010 Access 2010 into a into a
Excel 2010 PowerPoint 2010 document Word 2010 document
Using data from Microsoft Access in

Microsoft Excel
You may want to work with Access data in an Excel workbook in order to
ITQ1 take advantage of the data analysis and charting features, the flexibility in
State TWO reasons why a user may data arrangement and layout, or the many functions that are not available in
want to integrate information from Access.
a Microsoft Access database into There are several ways to bring data into Excel from Access. You may:
Microsoft Excel. i copy data from an Access datasheet and paste it into an Excel worksheet,
ii connect to an Access database from an Excel worksheet,
iii export Access data into an Excel worksheet.
We will discuss method (i).
How to copy access data into Excel
From Access, you can copy data from a datasheet view and then paste the data into an
Excel worksheet.
1 Start Access, and then open the table, query, or form that contains the records that
you want to copy to Excel.
2 On the Home tab, click View, and then click Datasheet View.
3 Select the records that you want to copy.
4 On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Copy.
5 Start Excel, and then open the worksheet into which you want to paste the data.
6 Click in the upper-left corner of the worksheet area where you want the first field name
to appear.
7 On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Paste.
Figure 17.1 A customer table in Access showing data selected and ready for copying.
<PHOTO>[INSERT IMAGE 337]
Figure 17.2 Data has been copied from an Access table, sorted and then functions used to count
the number of customers and compute the average credit limit.
Activity 17.1 Copy the table created in Figure 17.2 to Excel. Create a graph comparing
CreditLimit of all the customers.
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Using data from Microsoft Excel in Microsoft

PowerPoint
It is said that a picture says a thousand words. When making presentations, we
often use tables, graphs and charts to help us tell our story. In the next activity,
we will copy content from our spreadsheet for use in our presentation.
How to copy a selection of cells from Excel onto a PowerPoint
slide
To paste a copy of a selection of Excel data onto your PowerPoint slide, do the following:
1 In Excel, open the Excel workbook that contains the information that you want to copy.
2 Select and copy the data that you want.
3 In PowerPoint 2010, click the slide where you want to paste the copied worksheet data.
4 On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the arrow below Paste.
5 Under Paste Options, do one of the following:
a Select Keep Source Formatting if you want to copy the data as a PowerPoint table,
but want it to keep the appearance of the original Excel spreadsheet.
b Select Use Destination Styles if you want to copy the data as a PowerPoint table,
but want it to assume the appearance of the PowerPoint presentation.
c Select Embed if you want to copy the data as information that can be edited in
Excel.
d Select Picture if you want to copy the data as an uneditable picture.
e Select Keep Text Only if you want to copy all the data as a single text box.
Figure 17.3 A selection of cells copied

from Excel and pasted into PowerPoint as an
uneditable picture.
Perform a mail merge using an external data

source
If a company like Apple wanted to send a letter or an e-mail to every iTunes
user to inform them of an important update, they could begin the e-mail ‘Dear
Member’ and then send it to everyone. However, many companies like to
build a strong relationship with their customers and feel that a more personal
approach will support this. So they would rather begin the letter or e-mail
338
‘Dear Kevin’ or ‘Dear Miss O’Connor’. This might involve many customers so
writing each individual name would take a long time. A Mail Merge can be
used to import the required information from a database or spreadsheet into
the correct place in a letter. So a letter written ‘Dear <Customer_Name>‘ will
be converted into a personal message for each customer on the list with just
the click of a button.
mail merge ❯ Mail merge is a word processing tool that facilitates the creation of
form letters, mailing labels, envelopes, directories, and mass e-mail and fax
distributions.
You use mail merge when you want to create a set of documents, such as
a form letter that is sent to many customers. Each document has the same
kind of information, yet some of the content is unique. For example, in letters
to your customers, you can personalize each letter to address each customer
by name. The unique information in each letter comes from entries in a data
source.
main document ❯ A main document is the file that contains the text and graphics that are
the same for each version of the merged document.
merge field ❯ A merge field is a placeholder that you insert in the main document.
data source ❯ A data source is a file that contains the information to be merged into a
document. For example, the list of names and addresses you want to include
in a mail merge. A data source must be connected to a source document before
ITQ2 you can use the information in it. A data source may be:
Briefly describe TWO mistakes that • created by typing a new list in a word processor document
could be made by a clerical assistant
• selected from Microsoft Outlook contacts
who is manually addressing hundreds
of form letters for transmittal by • selected from an existing list in a database (Access) or spreadsheet (Excel).
postal mail.
(a)
(b)
Figure 17.4 (a) Main document with merge fields, numbered 1–6, as placeholders for the data
that will appear when the individual letters are produced. (b) This Access table is the data source.
ITQ3
How many recipients are in the data file
shown in Figure 17.4b?
Activity 17.2 Create a data source based on the information in Figure 17.4b.
339
A B C D E
1 Title Lastname Firstname Address Postcode
2 Mr Douglas Akeem 1 Itsy Road Kingston 10
3 Ms Castille Jasmine 15 Elgin Road Kingston 17
4
5
6
7 Mr Akeem Douglas
1 Itsy Road
8
Kingston 10
ITQ4
Name the three documents associated
with a mail merge.
Dear Mr Douglas,
Figure 17.5 Data from the data source is merged with the form letter to produce a set of merged
documents.
The mail merge process entails the following overall steps:

1 Set up the main document. The main document contains the text and
graphics that are the same for each version of the merged document – for
example, the return address in a form letter.
2 Connect the document to a data source. A data source is a file that contains
the information to be merged into a document. For example, the names and
addresses of the recipients of a letter which are stored in an Access database.
3 Refine the list of recipients or items. Microsoft Word generates a copy of
the main document for each recipient or item in your data file. If you want
to generate copies for only certain items in your data file, you can choose
which items (or records) to include.
4 Add placeholders, called mail merge fields, to the document. When you
perform the mail merge, the mail merge fields are filled with information
from your data file.
5 Preview and complete the merge. You can preview each copy of the
document before you print the whole set.
You use commands on the Mailings tab to perform a mail merge.
How to set up the main document
1 Start Word. A blank document opens by default. Leave it open. If you close it, the
commands in the next step are not available.
2 On the Mailings tab, in the Start Mail Merge group, click Start Mail Merge.
3 Click Letters.
340
How to choose a Microsoft Access database data file

1 On the Mailings tab, in the Start Mail Merge group, click Select Recipients.
2 Click Use Existing List, and then locate the file in the Select Data Source dialogue box.
After you connect your main document to a data file, you are ready to type the text of the
document and add placeholders that indicate where the unique information will appear in
each copy of the document.
How to add mail merge fields to the document

1 Position the insertion point where you want the merge field to appear.
2 Click Insert Merge Fields in the Write and Insert Fields group.
3 Select the field you want from the list of available merge fields.
Activity 17.3 1 Set up the main document as shown in Figure 17.4a.

2 Connect the Access database created in Activity 17.2 as the data source.
3 Add the mail merge fields in the locations shown in Figure 17.4a.
Preview, complete the merge, and print the documents

After you add fields to your main document, you are ready to preview the
merge results. When you are satisfied with the preview, you can complete the
merge. You can print the merged documents or modify them individually. You
can print or change all or just a subset of the documents.
How to preview the merge

To preview, do any of the following in the Preview Results group of the Mailings tab:
1 Click Preview Results.
2 Page through each merged document by using the Next Record and Previous Record
buttons in the Preview Results group.
3 Preview a specific document by clicking Find Recipient.
How to print the merged documents

1 On the Mailings tab, in the Finish group, click Finish & Merge, and then click Print
Documents.
2 Choose whether to print the whole set of documents, only the copy that is currently
visible, or a subset of the set, which you specify by record number.
Activity 17.4 1 Complete the merge.

2 Preview and print the letters for Mr Ventura and Dr Wilson only.
341
Figure 17.6 The letters that will be mailed to Mr Ventura and Dr Wilson.
Summary
• You may want to work with Access data in an Excel workbook in order to take advantage of features offered in
Excel that are not available in Access.
• One of the easiest ways to integrate information in Microsoft Access into Excel is by copy and paste.
• Mail merge is a word processing tool that facilitates the creation of form letters, mailing labels, envelopes,
directories, and mass e-mail and fax distributions.
• You use mail merge when you want to create a set of documents, such as a form letter that is sent to many
customers.
• Each document has the same kind of information, yet some of the content is unique.
• The unique information in each letter comes from entries in a data source.
• External data sources include Microsoft Access databases and Microsoft Excel workbooks.
•
Answers to ITQs ITQ1 Any TWO of the following ITQ2 (i) the name/address may
reasons: (i) to take advantage of the be incorrectly written, for example,
data analysis features (ii) to use the writing 25 instead of 52; (ii) recipients
charting feature (iii) to take advantage may be duplicated/omitted.
of the flexibility in data arrangement ITQ3 Main document, data source,
and layout (iv) to use the many merged document.
functions that are not available in
ITQ4 Nine.
Access.
342
Examination-style Questions TEST BANK
Multiple-choice questions (MCQs) 5 Based on the figure and the items labelled I–IV below,
Instructions: Each item in this test has four suggested which of the following statements are true?
1 The mail merge component that serves as a
placeholder for unique data is called a ____________. Address
(A) data source Block
2
(B) merge field
Dear Name
(C) merge document
(D) source document
2 Which of the following are valid reasons to integrate
information from Microsoft Access into Microsoft
Excel?
I To perform complex queries
II To perform complex computations 1
III To utilise advanced formatting capabilities
IV To create graphs and charts
(A) I, II and III only
(B) II, III and IV only
(C) III and IV only I The document shown is a merged document.
(D) I, II, III and IV II The block of text identified as ‘1’ will appear the
3 All the following are external data sources for a mail same in all documents.
merge EXCEPT ____________.
III The data items identified as ‘2’ will be different
in each merged document.
(A) a table in an Access database IV The data items identified as ‘2’ should never
(B) a query in an Access database appear within the block of text identified as ‘1’.
(C) a Word table (A) I and IV only
(D) an Excel worksheet (B) II and III only
4 The correct sequence that will result in a mail merge (C) III and IV
being accomplished is: (D) I, II, III and IV
I Set up the main document 6 Which paste option should you use if you want to copy
II Add mail merge fields the data as a PowerPoint table but want it to assume
III Preview and complete the merge the appearance of the PowerPoint presentation?
IV Connect the document to a data source (A) Keep Source Formatting
V Refine the list of recipients or items (B) Use Destination Styles
(A) I, II, III, IV, V (C) Embed
(B) I, II, IV, V, III (D) Keep Text Only
(C) IV, I, II, III, V
(D) I, IV, V, II, III
343
The Purchasing Manager of Pattern and Gain Food Store is sending off Request for Quotations to its suppliers. Use the
mail merge feature of your word processor to prepare letters for each supplier.
1 Create the following data source. Save it as SupplierList. [6]
CompanyName Address City Country StockCode
Beans and Peas Limited 24 First Street Belmopan Belize AX-2158
Sanjay’s Rice Processors 35 Second Avenue Georgetown Guyana HJ998
Bara Trading 46 Third Place Arima Trinidad TY-9000
Seal Seafood 57 Fourth Way Castries St Lucia K-123
Island Spices Plus 78 Jing Street St George’s Grenada 4099
2 Create the following main document, taking care to insert the merge fields where indicated. Save the document as
RequestForQuotes. [6]
Pattern & Grain Food Store

109 Halifax Street
Kingstown, St Vincent and the Grenadines
pattern109@vincysurf.net
<insert current date here>
<<Company Name>>
<<Address>>
<<City>>
<<Country>>
Dear Sirs:
Please provide the price per case for your product identified in your
catalogue as <<StockCode>>. Also, kindly indicate the quantity or net
weight per case as well as the shipping dimensions. Please quote all
prices in United States dollars.
Your usual speedy response is anticipated.
Sincerely,
Mutu K. Baruk
Purchasing Manager
3 Merge the two documents to a new document named PurchaseRequisitions. [2]

4 Print the contents of all three files: SupplierList, RequestForQuotes and PurchaseRequisitions [3]
344
18 Mastering the
School-Based
Assessment
By the end of describe the requirements of an SBA
this chapter
outline the distribution of marks for components of the SBA
you should
be able to:
practice the skills that must be demonstrated in the SBA
assemble documentation for your SBA.
Concept map
School-based assessment
takes form of a project consisting of
word processing spreadsheet program design and database

assignment assignment programming assignment assignment
An important part of the requirements of the syllabus is the School-Based

Assessment or SBA. The SBA requires you to apply the skills you have learnt
in a realistic project. In this chapter we look at some techniques for tackling the
SBA and ensuring you produce a high-scoring project.
Requirements of the School-Based Assessment

The School-Based Assessment (SBA) is an important component of the CSEC
Information Technology examination. It is worth 30% of the overall total
marks and designed to provide students with the opportunity to demonstrate
their problem-solving and programming skills as well as their ability to use
productivity tools effectively in:
i entering, manipulating and presenting text data;
ii simulating a worksheet;
iii entering data, performing simple analysis on data and presenting data using
a database management tool.
The SBA consists of one practical project consisting of four related
components, prepared and marked by the teacher in accordance with CXC
guidelines. The productivity tools components will include:
Word processing
✓ No more than two word processed documents.
✓ One document must be a letter for mass mailing, the other may be
chosen from but not limited to reports, faxes, simple brochures, flyers and
newspaper articles.
18 • Mastering the School-Based Assessment
Spreadsheet
✓ A maximum of THREE major tasks consisting of no more than THREE
requirements.
✓ The creation of no more than TWO charts.
Database Management
✓ THREE tables or files.
✓ FOUR queries including TWO calculations within queries.
✓ ONE report, with grouping and sorting involving TWO or THREE tables.
Mark allocation
The Project will carry 90 marks which will account for 30% of the final
grade. Your teacher will assign the project for your SBA which will include a
programming element (30 marks) as well as database (20 marks), spreadsheet
(20 marks) and word processing (20 marks) elements.
Some tips to help you master the SBA

1 Stay organised: Keep everything related to your SBA in a file jacket or a
ring binder.
2 Keep backups: Ensure that you have a recent backup of your file in case
the unexpected happens.
3 Get a full understanding of the project: Make time to sit down quietly
and read through the project carefully. Read through it again and try to
understand fully what is involved in the project. Seek guidance from your
teacher and jot these down in your folder.
4 Know your mark scheme: Check your syllabus or the mark scheme later
in this chapter to get an idea of the skills that are being assessed.
5 Plan ahead: Identify what tasks you have to complete, in which order they
will be attempted and when they are due.
6 Beat deadlines: Don’t just try to meet deadlines, beat them! Finally,
allocate a time for completing each task.
7 Follow instructions: Follow all instructions carefully. If you are in doubt,
seek clarification!
Practice your way to a high SBA score

A good way to develop the skills you will need to complete a high-scoring SBA
is to practice SBA. We have provided two opportunities for you to do so:
1 A fully-worked sample SBA on the CD-ROM that is packaged with this
book; and
2 The Possibility High School SBA assignment later in this chapter.
Fully-worked SBA on CD-ROM

We suggest that you tackle the SBA on the CD-ROM on your own. A good
idea is to attempt each component as you complete the related topic in
class. Because we have provided step-by-step guidance for all the project
components, you will be able to check your progress as you go along.
Possibility High School SBA Project

The project which starts on the next page is as real as it gets. A good time to
attempt this project is during the summer break between Forms 4 and 5.
346

(PSRZHULQJDQGHQDEOLQJVWXGHQWVWRDWWDLQQHZKHLJKWV
CXC CSEC® Information Technology (General Proficiency)
Paper 03 – School-Based Assessment (SBA)
Submit by last Wednesday in March of your exam year

*** CONFIRM DATE WITH YOUR TEACHER ***
Weighting of Paper: 30%
BACKGROUND
National general elections have been a recurring feature among the democratic territories of the
Caribbean. Every year, in one territory or another, citizens exercise their right to elect a government of
their choice. However, the exercise is not without its attendant challenges of data management.
Thousands of votes are cast on the day of the elections and an anxious, waiting public demands speed,
efficiency and accuracy in the determination of results.
Four parties contest the elections: the New Nation Party (NNP), the Luago Labour Party (LLP), the
United Democratic Movement (UDM), and the National Coalition for Reconstruction (NCR).
Elections are contested to determine representatives in six constituencies (East, West, Central, North-
west, South-west and Luago Bay). The representative being the candidate who gets the most votes in
his/her constituency. The parties field candidates in every constituency except for the NCR, which
fields candidates in just three of the six constituencies.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

In preparation for the actual exercise, the St Luago Elections Commission has hired you to simulate the
elections exercise as a test run, prior to the actual elections which are to take place shortly in your
country. You are required to utilise suitable word processing, spreadsheet, database
management as well as a programming application to design and implement computer-based
solutions to the tasks involved in the simulation of the election process.
347
SPREADSHEET ASSIGNMENT
You are required to design a spreadsheet that will store data on the parties, constituencies and candidates’ votes and
generate information that would enable the efficient and timely processing of the election results.
Test data:
9 Number of electors registered in each constituency ranges from 5,125 to 11,250.
9 Percentage of spoilt ballots varies; assume between 0.5% and 2.5% for each constituency.
9 Voter turnout in each constituency projected to be between 41% and 84%.
Computations:
9 number of votes cast = number of electors * % voter turnout
9 spoilt votes = percentage of spoilt ballots * number of votes cast
9 general votes = votes cast – spoilt votes
9 total votes received = general votes + special votes
Additional information
A noted pollster supplies a rating which is a value from 1 to 4 and is determined by the results of a recent poll
conducted in each constituency. Apart from the candidate’s rating, the pollster also supplies the
per cent (%) of votes each candidate is likely to receive, based on the popularity rating. The actual number of votes
received is that percentage of the general votes.
Task A Spreadsheet design and construction

1) Design a spreadsheet that stores the details for all candidates and constituencies. It should accept the
candidate’s name, party acronym, rating, per cent (%) of votes, and number of votes received. It should also
store the number of electors, voter turnout percentage, number of votes cast, spoilt ballots, general votes and
the percentage of spoilt ballots as a percentage of the votes cast. Enter data for each candidate in each of the
eight constituencies.
2) Votes cast by Special Voters (security forces and Election Day workers) must be recorded and counted. The
special votes for each constituency are divided equally among the candidates in that constituency. Modify your
spreadsheet to reflect:
(i) the number of special votes cast in each constituency
(ii) the number of special votes received by each candidate
(iii) total votes received by each candidate in each constituency
(iv) for EACH constituency, the total number of special votes, and the total number of votes received
by candidates.
3) Insert a column that indicates whether a refund is due to a candidate. This column should state ‘Refund Due’ or
‘No Refund’. A refund is due if the candidate’s total votes received equals or exceeds 20% of votes cast in the
constituency. Save your spreadsheet as Elections 01.
348
Task B Data extraction and sorting

1) Sort the data in the spreadsheet on constituency (in ascending order) then by total votes received
(in descending order).
2) Using an appropriate spreadsheet feature, extract all data for the Central constituency to a new area of your
spreadsheet. Save your spreadsheet as Elections 02.
Task C Presentation of results

1) Generate an appropriate bar/column graph that compares the votes received by each party
by constituency. Name this graph ‘Votes by Constituency’.
2) Generate a pie-chart that compares the parties by name (acronym) and the total number of votes each received
in the election. Each slice of the chart must be labeled to show the number of votes received and the % of
votes received overall. Name this chart ‘Vote Distribution by Party’.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT ASSIGNMENT
You are asked to use a suitable application to manage data on candidates nominated to contest seats in the general
elections. Three tables/files must be used to store the data. Relevant personal data on each candidate should be
stored, including name, address, date of birth, sex, profession, constituency, party acronym and total votes received.
Each candidate pays a deposit of $5,000. (This deposit is refunded should the candidate garner 20% or more of the
votes cast in his constituency.)
Task A Database design

Constituency data must also be maintained, including the constituency name, number of electors, number of votes
cast, and number of special votes. The name and acronym of each party must also be stored. Data must be sourced
from the spreadsheet section of your project.
Task B Queries
You should test your database by generating queries to find the following.
1) The candidate name, party acronym, number of electors and number of votes received for candidates in
constituencies with more than 6,500 voters and where the candidates received less than 500 of the votes cast.
2) Special votes expressed as a percentage (with 2 decimal places) of the overall number of voters in each
constituency. Show constituency name, special votes and the calculated field.
3) All male candidates who are less than or equal to 40 years old and who received more than 40% of the votes
cast in their respective constituencies. You must also show the dates of birth, name, number of votes received
as well as the number of voters.
4) Calculate the sum of the deposits to be refunded to each party (only candidates who received 20 percent or
more of votes are eligible for refund). List the party name, call letters and sum refunded to each party.
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Task C Reporting
Generate a report which lists the final results of the election based on the following specifications:
1) Fields: constituency, party acronym, number of votes received, name and sex of candidates.
2) Sort order: constituency (primary), number of votes received (secondary).
3) Summary data: total number of votes and average number of votes cast in each constituency.
4) Title: ‘St Luago Electoral Commission: Official Results of the National Elections’ on two lines.
WORD-PROCESSING ASSIGNMENT
You are required to prepare three documents for use before, during and after the elections. These include:
x a letterhead to use for all official correspondence
x a nomination form to be completed and submitted by each candidate
x an official business letter containing the official election results which must be dispatched to
each candidate.
Task A Nomination Form

Design the nomination form which should allow for the entry of relevant data on the candidate, including the
constituency which he intends to contest. The form will be printed on A4 paper with appropriately sized margins.
Centre the St Luago Elections Commission’s logo at the top of the form.
Task B Letter
1) Using a suitable feature of your word-processing application, and data from the database section of your
project, create a letter for mailing to candidates. The letter should be done on the commission’s letterhead
which should have the name of the Electoral Commissioners in the footer. The text in the footer must be
centre aligned.
2) The content should include:

(i) Date 20 November 201x
(ii) Salutation Use the title, first name and last name of the candidate
(iii) Body
x 1st paragraph: congratulate and thank the candidate (insert candidate’s name in
the letter) for the manner in which he/she conducted his/her campaign and
invite him/her to view the complete listing of results.
x 2nd paragraph: Insert the report ‘Official Elections Results’ from your database
into the document at this point.
x 3rd paragraph: congratulate the winner and the winning party and invite
‘unsuccessful candidates who qualify for a refund of their nomination fee should
visit the head office of the Commission to collect their refund’.
(iv) Closing Chairman of the St Luago Elections Commission
(v) Typist initials Use your initials
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PROBLEM-SOLVING AND PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION ASSIGNMENT
Task A Algorithm development

1) Develop an algorithm to determine the winning candidate for a constituency in the national elections.
The algorithm must accept as input the names of the four candidates and the number of votes each candidate
receives. The successful candidate is the one who received the most votes. Document your algorithm using
both pseudocode and one or more flowcharts.
2) Print the name of the winner and the number of votes received.
Task B Test and validate algorithm

Design and execute a trace table that accepts vote data at a polling station in a constituency. Data should include
special votes, general (valid) votes and spoilt votes. Votes should be cast for any one of four parties, DAP, WNA,
UPM or PDR. The table should trace the increment of each vote category and determine which party secured the
majority of votes.
Note: The table should have at least ten iterations and should end when a specific value is entered.
Task C Program implementation

Write a well-documented Pascal program to implement the algorithm in (1) above.
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SUBMISSION GUIDELINES
Submit the following:

1) A cover page with your name and candidate number, school name and centre number, name of
examination (CSEC® Information Technology) and year of examination.
2) A table of contents.
3) A list of any assumptions made whilst completing the assignments.
4) EACH of the documents specified in the table below:
Word processing Spreadsheet
(i) Nomination form (i) Printout of spreadsheet 1
(ii) Data source/Database table listing (ii) Formula sheet for spreadsheet 1
(iii) Blank letterhead (iii) Printout of spreadsheet 2
(iv) Primary document showing merge (iv) Formula sheet for spreadsheet 2
fields (v) Printout of spreadsheet 3
(v) Letters addressed to the first, second (vi) Formula sheet for spreadsheet 3
and last candidates ONLY (vii) Bar/column chart
(viii) Pie chart
Database Programming
(i) Database table listings (i) Pseudocode
(ii) Queries in SQL view (ii) Flowchart(s)
(iii) Output of queries (iii) Trace table
(iv) Report (iv) Fully documented source code
(v) Database documenter report showing (v) Test data
table structures and relationships (vi) Screen shot(s) showing output
Useful tips for submitting your SBA

9 Sequence the documents in the order indicated.
9 Make sure that the page numbers in the document match the numbers in the
Table of Contents:
x Remove page numbers BEFORE printing documents from
various applications
x Number each page AFTER printing with a fine-point black
ink pen.
9 Use a coloured separator page between each section (word processing,
spreadsheet, database, programming).
9 Bind your completed SBA securely. Comb or spiral binding is a great idea!
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Key skills and mark allocation

Word processing
Key Skills Mark Allocation

Formatting for presentation 2
• justification
• single and double line spacing
• paragraph styling (indent, hanging, block)
Formatting for emphasis 2
• bold
• italics
• borders and shading to highlight and give emphasis
• font and point size
Other features 1
• use of spell checker/search and replace/grammar check
• search and replace
Page Layout 2
• set margins
• change page orientations
• change paper size
• text orientation
Headers/footers/endnotes 1
Tables 2
Multiple page/book fold/columns 2
Use of graphics 1
Clarity of itemization
• insert/delete (word, sentence, paragraph document) 1
Block operations – move/copy/cut and paste 1
Defining appropriate fields in the document 1
Creating primary document 1
Creating secondary document appropriately 1
Performing the mail merge 2
Total 20
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Spreadsheet

Demonstrating awareness of the existence of appropriate formulas 1
Use of appropriate formulas to solve numeric problems 2
Replicating formulas 1
Use of range names, relative and absolute addressing formats 2
Copying data
Moving data
2
Use of formatting features to allow clarity of display
Inserting page breaks appropriately
Deleting and inserting rows such that formulas remain unaffected
Setting up primary and secondary key fields 1
Creating appropriate charts to represent data 3
bar, pie, line, from spreadsheet data
Labelling charts appropriately 1
Comparing different series of data on a single bar chart or line graph 1
Conceptualizing a solution using the spreadsheet
select appropriate column and row labels 1
Layout spreadsheet to permit easy additions and deletions 1
Use constants in cells, instead of placing values directly in formula 1
Organising spreadsheet so that data can easily be interpreted 1
Extracting data to allow summary information 2
TOTAL 20
Database management

Defining fields and selecting appropriate data types to create tables 3
Identifying appropriate primary keys 1
Adding/deleting/sorting/ modifying records or tuples 2
Deleting fields and changing field definitions 1
Searching database
Use three tables, two tables one table in queries to generate new tables 3
Use multiple conditions 2
Producing calculated fields 2
Generating report on specified fields 2
Grouping on fields 1
Sorting on fields 1
Using summary features, for example, count and sum 2
Total 20
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Programming

Problem is clearly defined 1
Start of solution 1
Definition of variables
• identify variables 1
• initialise variables 1
Processing
• request for data 1
• storing data 2
• appropriate and logical use of control structures: 2
✓ selection statements
✓ looping constructs
✓ output results
End of solution 1
ALL variables correctly identified and used 1
Appropriate test data 1
Data set complete
• data set test ALL areas for robustness 2
• [data set test SOME areas] [1]
Change in values correctly demonstrated 1
Program compiled (1) 1
Output (2)
output is 2
• correct for ALL values in teacher’s data set
• [Output is correct for SOME values in the teacher’s data set] [1]
Appropriate use of features of the language (2)
appropriate choice of data types for ALL variables 2
[appropriate choice of data types for SOME variables] [1]
Appropriate use of control structures (7)
appropriate initialisation of variables 1
appropriate use of sequence 1
appropriate use of if-then-else construct 2
[inefficient use of if then construct] [1]
appropriate use of looping construct to manipulate arrays and perform other 3
tasks
[inefficient or inappropriate use of loop construct] [1]
Clarity of program (3)
• program documentation through variable names; author of program; date 1
created; simple statement of task program solves
• readability (correctly indented; logical flow of control; easy to follow) 1
• user friendly. 1
Total 30
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Answers to multiple-choice
questions
1 A 2 D 3 C 4 B 5 C 1 B 2 D 3 A 4 B 5 A
6 D 7 C 8 B 9 C 10 C 6 C 7 D
Chapter 2 Chapter 10 (program design)
1 D 2 D 3 D 4 C 5 A 1 B 2 A 3 A 4 B 5 D
6 B 7 B 8 B 9 C 10 B 6 C 7 B
1 D 2 D 3 D 4 C 5 A 1 C 2 D 3 A 4 C 5 B
6 C 7 C 8 C 9 A 10 B 6 C 7 C 8 B 9 C 10 A
11 C 12 C 13 B 14 C 15 A
Chapter 4
1 B 2 C 3 A 4 A 5 D Chapter 12
6 B 7 D 8 D 9 B 10 A 1 C 2 D 3 B 4 D 5 A
6 D 7 C 8 A 9 C 10 D
Chapter 5
1 D 2 B 3 A 4 D 5 B Chapter 13
6 D 7 A 8 D 9 B 1 C 2 D 3 A 4 D 5 C
6 C 7 B 8 B 9 C 10 A
Chapter 6
1 D 2 B 3 B 4 C 5 D Chapter 14
6 D 7 D 8 D 9 B 10 B 1 B 2 D 3 C 4 B 5 D
1 D 2 B 3 B 4 C 5 D 6 D 1 C 2 A 3 B 4 A 5 D
7 D 8 C 9 D 10 B 11 B 6 D 7 C 8 D 9 D 10 A
1 C 2 B 3 C 4 D 5 C 1 D 2 C 3 C 4 A 5 B
6 B 7 A 8 D 9 B 10 C 6 D 7 A 8 A 9 A 10 B
1 D 2 C 3 A 4 C 5 D 1 B 2 B 3 C 4 D 5 B
6 C 7 B 8 A 9 C 10 A 6 B
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Glossary
.htm / .html file extensions that tell operating bit string a group of ordered binary digits such as
systems that a document is a web page. A web ‘0001 1001’ which could represent a number, a
browser should be used to view these files. character or a string of characters
8-bit store a 1-byte word, which has a word size of 8 block operations the ability to move sections of text
from one part of a document to another
absolute cell address a cell address that does not blog a diary maintained by its author on the World
change when a formula is copied and pasted to other Wide Web. Also called a web log
cells Bluetooth a wireless protocol for exchanging data
access time the time interval between the moment over short distances from fixed and mobile devices,
the command is given to transfer data from the disk using radio waves
to main memory and the moment this transfer is Boolean expression an expression that evaluates to
completed either true or false
action queries queries that add, change or delete data Boolean operator a word (AND, NOT and OR)
add-ins the addition of components that allows used to operate on the truth value of one or more
software to be customised to a user’s preference conditions
add-on card a separate card that can be connected broadband technology that provides bandwidth
to or installed on a motherboard to enable more greater than that provided by ordinary telephone
features, for example a sound card lines, i.e. greater than 64 kilobits per second
algorithm a set of instructions that, if followed in broadcast sending out a message to all other
sequence, will lead to a solution of a problem computers on a network
animation (presentation) visual effects, such as buffer a waiting area for data being transferred
graphics, titles or bullet points, applied to individual between a very fast processor and a slow device
items on a slide rather than to the slide itself bulletin board an electronic forum that hosts posted
application software the category of software that messages and articles related to a common subject
performs specific end-user tasks to inform, entertain byte a collection of eight bits
or solve everyday problems
archive files created or received by an institution or cables media used to connect all computer
organisation that are stored because of their value components together. Also known as wired media,
assembly language a second generation program coaxial, twisted pair and fibre optic
language that used short words to represent an cathode ray tube (CRT) a type of monitor where
operation to be performed. The memory address an electron beam moves through a vacuum tube to
is expressed as decimal numbers instead of binary display information on the screen
numbers CD-ROM (compact disc read-only memory) a
assignment operator code used to store a value to pre-pressed compact disc that contains data accessible
an array location to, but not writable by, a computer
automated data capture a process where data is cell address the column letter and the row
directly entered into a computer with little or no user number can be used to uniquely identify a cell in a
intervention spreadsheet
central processing unit (CPU) part of the computer
backing storage see secondary storage that interprets and carries out the basic instructions
bandwidth the speed at which data can be that operate a computer
transmitted over a communications channel clipboard a temporary area where applications can
barcode scanner a specialised optical mark reader store items for future use
that ‘visually’ interprets barcodes. Also called a command-driven interface a user interface that
barcode reader requires the user to type command statements to
binary number system a number system with the access the access system resources
base of 2 numbers computer a machine capable of executing
bistable devices a simple electronic device that has instructions on data
only two states, 1 or 0 computer-aided instruction (CAI) see computer-
bit a binary digit, taking a value of either 0 or 1 aided learning
357
Glossary
computer-aided learning (CAL) the use of device driver a small program that contains specific
computers in the classroom to teach, or assist in details about the printer
teaching, a subject device interface a connection between the rest of
computer fraud the use of computers to illegally the system and the device itself. IDE, SATA, SCSI
obtain money, goods or services and USB are popular device interfaces used in
computer security risk any event, action or general-purpose computer systems to attach
situation, intentional or unintentional, that could lead storage devices
to the loss of data and computer systems direct access an information storage and retrieval
computer system a complete computer installation technique in which a storage device allows data to
including hardware, software, users, procedure and be read from or written to the actual area of the data
data storage media without having to interact with any
condition an expression that includes a relational other areas of memory
operator and the two operands on which it operates diskette a 1.44 megabyte storage device where the
constant data item with a name and a value that data in stored on a magnetised platter protected with
remains the same during the execution of a program a hard outer case
criterion A Boolean expression used to filter records DIV the integer division operator that discards the
in a database to be included in the results of a query fractional part (remainder) of the result
customised software software that can be dot matrix printer produces one character at a time
customised to a user’s liking through the selection of by striking an inked ribbon on paper to create the
options or preferences, or the addition of components impression
custom-written software software that is created downloading the transfer of a copy of a file from
by programmers on behalf of a company to meet its a distant computer to a local computer using data
unique requirements. Also called custom software communication links
cylinder a unit of storage in hard drives consisting drag-and-drop an alternative to cut-and-paste when
of the set of tracks that occupy the same position on move text from one place to another
opposite sides of each disk surface dry run a way to demonstrate that the algorithm
works with a given set of input data
data facts about people, places, things and events DVD (digital versatile disc) a popular optical disc
that have been collected through observation or storage media format. Also called a digital video disc
measurement
database a collection of data stored in a set of related educational software software that has distinct
tables requirements for delivering evaluations (tests) and
data communication the transfer of information tracking progress through material
from one computer to another electronic eavesdropping the act of illegally
data integrity ensures the accuracy, completeness and intercepting electronic messages as they are being
internal consistency of the data stored in a database transmitted over a computer network
data security the identification and assessment of electronic mail (e-mail) an application that allows
computer security risks users to send an electronic message over a network
data type a classification or category of various to anyone with an e-mail address and access to a
types of data that states the possible values that can computer system
be taken, how they are stored and what range of e-mail message an electronic message that is usually
operations are allowed on them text-based but may include images, sounds and video
data source a file that contains the information to be clips as attachments
merged into a document endnote a note at the end of the document, often
decimal number system a number system that uses used for references
10 digits: 0 through 9 enterprise software addresses the needs of
defragmentation a procedure in which all the organisation processes and data flow, often in a large
files on a hard drive are erased and rewritten on distributed environment
the disk so that all parts of each file are written to erasable programmable read-only memory
neighbouring sectors (EPROM) a chip that can be programmed and
delete query a query run to delete a group of records reprogrammed with a special electronic device
from one or more tables expert systems application programs that perform
design template a starting point for a slide or tasks usually undertaken by human specialists
document with some pre-defined items already in external documentation written text that
place accompanies computer software
358
Glossary
extranet an intranet that has been selectively opened HTML (HyperText Markup Language) a language
to strategic allies (including customers, suppliers and that includes a set of tags that can be added to the
research associates) text in a web page that enables a web browser to
display the web page correctly
fibre optic a type of cable that transmits data using HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) a protocol
light used to request and transmit files, especially web
field part of a record which contains a single piece of pages and web page components, over the Internet or
information other computer networks
filtering selecting rows in a spreadsheet that meet a human-readable document a document that is
given criteria easily read by the user but is not in a form that a
firewall a program that restricts access to a computer computer can automatically accept as input
from a network connection hyperlink an icon, information object, underlined or
fixed-head disk a disk storage device in which the otherwise emphasised word or phrase that displays
read–write heads are fixed in position, one to a track. another document (or resource) when clicked on
The arms to which they are attached are immovable with a mouse
flash memory cards/flash drives small, convenient,
portable storage devices with a capacity of 2 to 64 identifier the name given to variable or a constant by
gigabytes the programmer
flowchart a pictorial way of representing an identity theft when criminals obtain and use
algorithm using a set of standard symbols someone else’s personal details to impersonate them
footnote a note at the end of the page, often used to immediate access storage see main memory
clarify or comment on the text on the page impact printer employs a striking or hammering
form a document with a prearranged structure where mechanism to produce output
information can be entered in the specified blank fields information data that has been organised and
formatting (storage) a process, facilitated by the presented so that underlying patterns become clear
operating system, during which a storage medium is information processing the acquisition, recording,
prepared for data storage organisation, retrieval, display, and dissemination of
formatting (word processing) a process during information
which the layout and appearance of elements in a information worker software software that creates
document are changed and manages information, often for individual
FTP (file transfer protocol) a protocol used to projects within a department
transfer files between FTP servers and clients inkjet printer a versatile printer that uses ink to
function a formula can include functions that perform output high-quality documents
specific mathematical calculations, e.g. square root input data entered into the computer via some form
of input device such as a keyboard, microphone,
general-purpose computer a computer that consists mouse, or scanner
of hardware and software suitable for undertaking a input device any peripheral that facilitates the entry
wide range of tasks of data and instructions into a computer
general-purpose software software that is flexible input media the material, means or mechanism used
and can be used for a variety of different tasks to convey the data from its source to the computer
system
hard copy a permanent printed output from the integer a whole number that is either greater than
computer zero, zero or less than zero
hardware the parts of the computer we can feel and internal documentation a set of notes included
touch with the source code as comments
header and footer an area at the top and bottom of Internet a public, global (wide area) network based
a page containing text or pictures, repeated on every on the TCP/IP protocol
page in the document intranet a private computer network designed to
hexadecimal (hex) a number system with a base of 16 meet the needs of a single organisation or company
high-level language a machine-independent, that is based on Internet (TCP/IP) technology
problem-oriented language where the source code is I-P-O chart a table that shows the inputs, the
written in statements that closely resemble English processing steps and the outputs related to a
home page an initial page designed to greet viewers particular problem
of a website IRC (Internet relay chat) a messaging system
hosting making a website available on the World that allows users to ‘chat’ with other people on the
Wide Web Internet using text messages
359
Glossary
Label (spreadsheet) a set of alphanumeric characters multimedia artist someone who works with text,
used to identify the content of one or more cells still images and moving images and provides creative
language generation programming languages that input into the process of creating effective web pages
allow computer systems to understand instructions.
There are five language generations narrowband communication technology that
language level a rough measure of the ratio of source provides bandwidth less than or equal to 64 kilobits
code to machine code per second
laser printer a printer that utilises heat, light and natural language processing uses grammar and
photoconductivity to output high-quality semantic rules to improve the accuracy of speech data
documents entry systems
least significant digit (LSD) the rightmost digit in negative integer an integer that is less than zero
any number network a communications, data exchange and
linking a process during which a system software resource-sharing system created by linking two
component, a linker, builds a complete executable or more computers using established standards or
program from component object programs protocols so that they can work together
liquid crystal display (LCD) a flat panel display that newsgroup an online discussion group or forum
uses a liquid crystal solution and an electrical signal to specifically focused on a particular area of interest
display information on the screen non-impact printer a printer create output on
literal a value written exactly as it is meant to be media (paper or plastic) using a range of different
interpreted technologies such as: laser inkjet, thermal transfer
logic error a mistake in the design of the program, and dye sublimation
such as a branch to a wrong statement, or the use of
an incorrect or inappropriate mathematical formula object code the executable code produced by a
low-level language a machine-dependent language compiler
where the source code is written in machine code or octal number system a number system where the
assembly language base is 16
ON-bits the binary digit 1 or 1-bit. See bit
machine code the first generation of computer operand a data value that is provided as a part of
language which is understood by computer systems. a processing operation and may be a literal value,
It is considered their native language variable or constant
machine-readable documents documents that can operating systems a group of programs that work
be read directly and understood by the computer interactively to manage the resources of a computer
mail merge the facility that allows organisations to system
create mail shots output device any device that displays, plays or
main document the file that contains the text and prints the results of processing operations or status
graphics that are the same for each version of a messages related to that processing
merged document
main memory the functional unit of a computer that packaged software mass-produced, copyrighted
stores data being processed by the CPU. Also known software that meets the needs of a wide variety of
as memory, immediate access storage and primary storage users, not just a single user or company
manual data entry a process during which data is page-printer a printer that uses pre-cut sheets of
entered into a computer by a user paper
mass storage see secondary storage Pascal a third generation language that supports
media development software software that structured programming and algorithm concepts
generates print and electronic media for a commercial peripheral device computer devices that are not
or educational setting essential to the operation of the computer, such as
merge field a placeholder that is inserted in a main printers, CD-ROM drives, external hard drives, etc.
document pixel a picture (pix) element (el) is an individual dot
MOD the integer remainder operator that gives the of colour. A computer screen is made up of thousands
fractional part (remainder) of the result of pixels of colour that make up the picture
most significant digit (MSD) the leftmost digit in placeholder anything that shows the space reserved
any number on a slide for a piece of text or artwork
moving-head disk a disk storage device in which plotter printer a large-format hard copy output
one or more read–write heads are attached to a device that produces high-quality graphical output
movable arm that allows each head to cover many on different types of materials, commonly paper and
tracks of information vinyl
360
Glossary
podcast an audio broadcast using the Internet that the power is switched off. Also known as backing
can be played on an iPod or similar device storage, mass storage or storage
point-to-point a direct communication channel sectors a section of a disk that stores hundreds of
between two computers on a network bytes of information
pop-up menu a menu that appears on your display select queries queries that are used to retrieve data
screen at the point where your mouse is positioned. It from a table or to make calculations
is usually activated by a right-click sequential access an information storage and
portability a measure of the ease with which a retrieval technique where the computer must move
storage media can function on different computer through a sequence of stored data items to reach the
systems desired one
positional value the value of a digit in a number sequential search a method for finding a particular
depending on its position or place value in a list until the desired one is found by
presentation a set of slides that are displayed in checking every one of its elements, one at a time and
order in sequence
problem a discrepancy between what is required and slide layout template a pre-defined layout of items
what exists on a slide
problem solving the thought process that requires slide master stores information about the theme and
a critical analysis of the situation (the problem) and slide layouts of a presentation
careful consideration of possible ways of overcoming slide show the view that takes up the full computer
the problem screen, like an actual slide show presentation
processes an independently executing program and slide sorter view an exclusive view of your slides in
its data thumbnail form
processor see central processing unit (CPU) slide transition the way one slide replaces another
program a sequence of instructions that a computer soft copy a temporary form of output, as produced by
can interpret and execute a visual display unit or audio output device
program execution the process during which a software package a set of application programs that
computer performs the instructions of a program can be purchased together
programmable read-only memory (PROM) a software piracy the unauthorised copying and/or
read-only memory (ROM) chip programmed at the distribution of copyrighted software. This includes
factory for use with a given computer copying, downloading, sharing, selling or installing
propaganda a form of communication that is aimed multiple copies onto personal or business computers
at influencing the attitude of a community towards software program a general term for the
some cause or position various kinds of programs, installation files and
pseudocode a way of documenting the solution to a documentation that together are used to operate
problem using simple structured instructions computers and related devices
solution a procedure consisting of a set of instructions
query a question that can be answered by using the that, if followed in order, achieve the required result
data stored in the database source code the original program code, written by
the programmer, and input to the compiler
READLN the term used to read data from the source documents original documents that contain
keyboard into an array input data
read-only memory (ROM) a primary storage device speaker notes notes added to the presentation slides
that stores data and programs that cannot be changed as a reference for the presenter.
record (database) contains information about a specialised applications applications that perform
particular individual, item or entity uniquely designed tasks
relational operator ‘greater than’, ‘greater than or special-purpose computer a computer that
equal to’, ‘equal’, ‘not equal’, ‘less than or equal to’ performs a small range of tasks and contains features
and ‘less than’ uniquely designed for use in a particular industry or
report an easy and elegant way to present the contents application
of a table or the result of a query as a document speed a measure of how quickly data is transferred
run-time error a program flaw detected during after a request is made
program execution, which may or may not cause the spreadsheet an application program that performs
program to terminate abnormally automatic calculations, often used for accounting
storage see secondary storage
secondary storage a non-volatile storage medium storage capacity the maximum amount of data that
which stores program instructions and data even after can be stored on a storage medium
361
Glossary
stylus a special pen, usually used with a pad and value (spreadsheet) data in the form of
tablet, to provide a more natural way of inputting alphanumeric characters that may be manipulated
handwriting and drawings variable a named storage area where the contents
surveillance computer fraud that involves can be changed
electronically observing a user’s activity on the verification checking that the data has been
computer input correctly to ensure that the data entered in
syntax the rules of the computer language the computer system matches that on the source
syntax errors errors in the way we use the document
programming language visual display unit/monitor (VDU) the hardware
system software the category of software used to component of a computer system that handles the
operate and maintain a computer system, including display of information that users see
the operating system, utility programs and program voice band a communication channel that allows the
language translators transmission of human spoken communication
voice response unit (VRU) accepts the human voice
test data a set of carefully selected data values used as machine-readable input and produces output using
to determine whether an algorithm or program works synthesised speech
as intended VoIP (voice-over IP) the use of Internet-based
title locking (freeze panes) when window panes technologies to transmit voice-grade data over the
are frozen so that selected rows and columns remain Internet
in view.
touchscreen a screen that is operated by touching the web browser special-purpose application software
surface to select an option or icon that runs on an Internet connected computer and
trace a testing technique used to observe a program uses the HTTP to connect with web servers
flow and its impact on variable values web developer a person who creates web sites, often
trace table a grid used to record the variables, test using a web-authoring package
data and results obtained during a dry run or testing web log see blog
track a fixed number of sectors that are placed in a web master the person responsible for maintaining
concentric circle on the surface of a disk and updating existing websites
translator a system’s program that converts a program web page a document written in HyperText Markup
written in source code to machine code. Compilers, Language (HTML) that may contain text, sound,
assemblers and interpreters are all translators images, video clips, hyperlinks and other components
Trojan horse a stand-alone malicious file or program web server a special-purpose application software that
that often masquerades as a legitimate file or accepts requests for information, framed according to
program. It does not attempt to inject itself into other the HyperText Transport Protocol (HTTP), processes
files these requests and sends the requested document
truth table a table that shows all possible truth- website a group of web pages that belong together
values for an expression, derived from the truth- and are linked to each other using hyperlinks
values of its components Wi-Fi a marketing term created by the Wi-Fi Alliance,
turnaround document a document that has been a non-profit industry group that tests products to
output from a computer, extra information added to ensure that they comply with particular industry
it, and then returned to become an input document wireless standards. These standards relate to a range
typographical error a typing error, for example a of protocols governing wireless LAN
missing letter or an extra letter communications
wireless media radio waves (wireless transmissions)
update query (database) a function that makes that include satellite, microwave and infrared
global changes to a group of records in one or more word a group of two or more bytes that represents
existing tables the size of a unit of information that is stored in one
uploading transferring a file from one computer location and manipulated by the processor in one
to another computer on a network using data instruction cycle
communication links word size the number of bits that make up a word
user interface the combination of hardware workbook (spreadsheet) a collection of related
and software that helps people and computers spreadsheets that are saved as one file
communicate with each other worksheet a single working area in a spreadsheet
file, consisting of a grid of lettered columns and
validation a process that ensures that data entered numbered rows
into a database form, a web form or a computer WRITELN the term used to write data from an array
program conforms to the correct data type location to an output device
362
Index
4GL 170 biometric systems 37

8-bit store 63 bistable devices 16, 18
bit 14
absolute cell address 269, 281 bit string 63
access time (storage) 20–1, 23 block operations 210–12
accidental data damage 109–10 blog 58
action queries 305, 316–17 Bluetooth 49, 50, 55
add-ins 86 Boolean expression 153
add-on card 42 Boolean operator 152–3
algorithm 140–1 Braille keyboards 31
developing algorithm to solve simple problems 145–61, broadband 51, 54
176, 351 broadcast communication 51
dry run testing 157–9, 183, 351 buffer 21
source code generation 171 bulletin board 57
ways of representing 141–4 BVI Boat Hire case study 137, 138
alternate key, database 300 byte 14
animations 232, 233, 234
antivirus software 78, 79, 114, 117 cables 49, 50
application software calculated fields 304, 328, 329
in business and industry 127–30 candidate key, database 300
data security and 116–17 careers see employment
versus system software 84–5 cathode ray tubes (CRT) 38
types 78, 85–7, 124 CD-ROM (compact disk read-only memory) 19, 23, 24
archive, data 19, 23, 119 cell address 251, 255
areas, computing 147 absolute cell address 269, 281
arithmetic computations 145–9, 177–8 relative cell address 266–7
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) 6, 7, 9, 151 central processing unit (CPU)
arrays description 6, 7, 9
basic operations on 187–8 process management 83
declaring in Pascal 186–7 and random access memory 16
definition 185–6 chain printer 41
designing 186 character formatting 216–17, 218, 224
searching 189–90 charts (spreadsheets) 276–8, 281, 282, 336
traversing 188–9, 190 Chrome 56, 247
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Clip Art 206
Interchange) code 73 clipboard 210, 211–12, 337, 338
assembler 169, 170, 171 coaxial cable 49, 50
assembly language 169, 170 column chart 276, 278, 281, 282
assignment operator 143, 174, 175–6, 187, 188 columns, word processing 203–5
assignment statement 175–6 command-driven interface 81, 84
audio output devices 42 communication
automated data capture 30, 36 modes of 51–2
averages 147–8, 178 using network-based tools 57–8
compiler 170, 171, 176
backing storage 8 composite key, database 300, 301
backing up data 19, 20, 116, 118–19 computations, arithmetic 145–9, 177–8
bandwidth 51 computer
bar chart 276, 277, 282 definition 3–4
barcode scanner or reader 33, 96 interpreting specifications of 8–9
batch processing systems 84 see also computer system
binary-coded decimal (BCD) integer representation 69–70 computer-aided design (CAD) 128–9
binary number system 63–5, 66 computer-aided learning (CAL) 130
addition and subtraction 67–9, 71–2 computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) 128–9
Ascii code 73 computer fraud 111
363
Index
computer games 131 datasheets 297–8, 307, 336–7

computer security risk 108 dates, in spreadsheets 260–1
computer system debugging programs 157, 185
categories of 4–6 decimal number system 63–6, 67, 69, 70
concept map 2 decision symbols 142, 144, 151
major components of 6–9 defragmentation 21, 79
protecting 114–18 delete query 316
condition 151, 152, 156, 157, 181 design template 233
condition-controlled loops 156, 182–3 desktop computer system see computer system
conditional statements 151, 174, 180 device driver 82
constant 138, 139, 146, 151, 177 device interface 21, 22
content access software 85 device management 82
control unit, processor 6, 7, 8, 9 digital cameras 32
count-controlled (FOR...DO) loops 155, 158, 182 direct access (storage) 20, 100–1, 102
credit card fraud 112 discounts, computing 148–9, 179, 180–1
criterion diskettes 19, 22, 23, 24
databases 306, 308–9, 312, 313 DIV integer division operator 149, 179
spreadsheets 279, 280 document scanners 30, 32
custom-written software 85, 86 documents
customised software 86 creating 199–202
cut, copy and paste functions 208, 210, 211, 236–7, 251, editing 208–15
336–7, 338 formatting 216–24
cylinder (storage) 19, 20 human-readable document 30, 36, 95–7
importing 201–2
data machine-readable document 30, 33, 35, 36, 96–7
concept map 91 turnaround document 97
definition 92 dot matrix printer 39, 40, 41
information and 92–3 downloading 48
sorting 274–6, 281, 319–21 drag-and-drop 208, 211, 254
sources see data source DreamWeaver 86, 244
in spreadsheets 260–1, 274–6, 279–84, 349 dry run algorithm test 157–9, 183, 351
types 294, 298 DVD (digital versatile disk) 19, 23, 24, 100–1
verification and validation 97–9
data collection 29, 30 e-lancing 127
data communication 48–53 e-mail message 57, 111, 211
data integrity 108–9 E-readers 4, 6
data processing 83–4 education, computers in 130
data security educational software 85
common vulnerabilities and threats 109–11 electronic eavesdropping 113
countermeasures 108 electronic mail (e-mail) 57, 78, 111
and data integrity 108–9 embedded computers 4, 6
data misuse 111–13 employment
importance of 107–8 career opportunities in IT 125–7
operating systems and 81 impact of IT on 124–5
operational procedures 118–19 telework 131
protecting computer systems 114–18 encryption 114, 117
data source 29, 30, 95–7, 336–41 endnote 223
data type 138, 139, 140 enterprise software 85
array 186, 187 entertainment, computers and 3, 6, 131
database EPOS see point-of-sale (POS) systems
adding data 303–4 erasable programmable read-only memory
concept map 292 (EPROM) 17, 18, 23
creating a new database 295–7, 349 expert systems 129
description 293–5 external documentation 172
keys 299–301, 302, 303 extranet 53, 108
mail merge 339, 340, 341, 350
querying a database see query (database) fibre-optic cable 49, 50
report generation 299, 321–31, 350 field 293–4
School-Based Assessment 346, 349–50, 354 calculated fields 304, 328, 329
using Microsoft Access data in Microsoft Excel 336–7 file management 81–2
see also tables, databases file organisation and access 100–2
364
Index
filtering (spreadsheets) 279–81 information

Find and Replace feature 215 data and 92–3
Firefox 53, 56, 247 storage of inaccurate 112
firewall 114, 117, 118 information integration 336–42
fixed-head disk 21, 22 information processing 93–4
flash memory cards/flash drives 6, 8, 19, 23, 24, 82 information worker software 85
flat panel displays 38 infrared transmission 49, 50
floating point numbers 140 inkjet printer 39, 40, 41
flowchart 137, 142–3, 146–50, 154, 155, 176, 351 input 29
folders 82 input devices
fonts 197, 216, 217, 220, 224 categories of 30
footers 221–2, 233, 350 concept map 28
footnote 223 description 6, 8, 29
foreign key, database 300, 301, 302, 303 in the home 31–2
formatting (storage) 19, 22 in industry 34–6
formatting (word processing) 216–24 operating system and 82
forms 299 in the retail trade 32–4, 83, 127–8
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) 53–4, 248 in specialised applications 37, 128–9
full-duplex transmission 51–2 input media 29
function 252, 267–8, 270 input/output symbols 143–4, 146
insert mode, word processing 208–10
games consoles 4, 6 integers 69–73, 140
general-purpose computer 4, 5–6 division 149–50, 179
general-purpose software 85, 86 integrated software 87
Google Gmail 57, 60 internal documentation 172
Google Hangout 32, 54 Internet
graphical user interface (GUI) 79, 80–1, 170 concepts 47, 53–5
graphics, word processing 206–7 definition 53
graphics pads 31, 35–6 Internet domain name 56–7, 248
graphs 276–8, 281, 282, 336 Internet Explorer 56, 85, 245, 247
interpreter 170, 171
intranet 53
hacking 110, 111
IRC (Internet relay chat) 57
half-duplex transmission 51–2
IT departments 125, 126
hard copy 38
iteration 145, 155
hard disks 19, 21, 22, 24, 100–1
hardware Java 170, 171
description 6–7 jobs see employment
failure of 109 joysticks 31, 131
networking 49
hardware support, careers in 125–6 keyboards 31, 199
headers 221–2, 233, 279 specialised 33–4
headsets 32 keys, database 299–301, 302, 303
hexadecimal (hex) number system 66–7
high-level language 170 label (spreadsheet) 258
home page 56, 244–5 language generation 169
hosting 248 language level 169, 170
.htm/.html file extensions 244 laser printer 39, 40, 41
HTML (HyperText Markup Language) 56, 244 least significant digit (LSD) 63–4
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) 53, 56 light-pens 37
human-readable document 30, 36, 95–7 line chart 277
hyperlink 56, 246–7 line printer 39
linking, software 171
I-P-O chart 137, 138, 141, 160 Linux operating system 85
icons 80–1 liquid crystal displays (LCD) 38
IDE (Integrated Device Electronics) 21, 22 literals 138, 144, 151
identifier 139 local area networks (LANs) 48, 55
identity theft 112 logic error 180, 183, 184, 185
immediate access storage 6, 8, 16, 24 loops see condition-controlled loops; count-controlled (FOR...
impact printer 40 DO) loops
indexed-sequential access files 101–2 low-level language 170
365
Index
Mac OS operating system 78, 79 moving-head disk 21, 22

machine code 169, 170, 171 multimedia artists 127
machine-readable document 30, 33, 35, 36, 96–7 multiprocessing 83
magicJack phone service 3 multiprogramming 83
magnetic ink character reader (MICR) 35, 36 multitasking 83
magnetic stripe card reader 33
magnetic tape 19, 20, 23, 24, 100 name, array 186, 187
mail merge 338–42, 350 narrowband 51
main document 339–41 natural language processing 130
main memory negative integer 69–72
description 6, 8 networks 48–50
see also random access memory (RAM) communicating via 57–8
mainframe computers 84 newsgroup 57
malware (malicious software) 110–11 Nintendo Wii 6, 50, 131
manual data entry 30 non-impact printer 40
mass storage 8 normal view, presentations 234
media development software 85 number systems 63–7
merge field 339, 341 Nutcracker Gadget Store
metropolitan area networks (MANs) 48 data storage 15
mice 31, 80–1 databases 293, 300, 305, 315, 317, 324–5
microphones 32 input devices 34–5, 37
Microsoft Access printers 39
adding data 303 time-sharing 84
creating a new database 295–6
description 170, 293 object code 171, 184
keys 301 octal number system 65–6, 67
mail merge 339, 340, 341 ON-bits 64
populating a table 297–8 online processing systems 84
querying a database 305–20 OpenOffice Impress 232, 234
reports 321–7 OpenOffice Writer 78, 86, 196
tables 299, 302 Opera 56
using Access data in Microsoft Excel 336–7 operand 151
see also database operating systems 78, 79
Microsoft Excel 85, 86, 251 data security and 116
data extraction 279–84 functions of 79–83, 85
starting 253 optical character reader (OCR) 35, 36
using Excel data in Microsoft PowerPoint 338 optical disks 23
using Microsoft Access data in 336–7 optical mark reader (OMR) 34–5, 36
workbook, creating and setting up 254–78 Organization Chart 238
see also workbook; worksheet output devices
Microsoft FrontPage 86, 244 concept map 28
Microsoft PowerPoint description 6, 8
creating a presentation 232, 235–9 operating system and 82
description 232–4 types of 37–42
printing a presentation 237–9 overtype mode, word processing 208–10
using Microsoft Excel data in 338
Microsoft Windows 21, 78, 79, 85, 118 packaged software 78, 85, 86
Microsoft Word 78, 86, 87, 196, 197 page formatting 216, 219
columns and tables 203–6 page-printer 40
document creation 199–202 paragraph formatting 216, 217, 218, 224
document editing 208–15 Pascal
formatting 216–24 checking and testing programs 183–90
graphics 206–7 declaring arrays in 186–7
introduction to 198–9 description 170, 171
mail merge 338–42 writing programs in 173–83, 351
spelling and grammar checking 213–14 passwords 117, 118
web page creation 244 perimeters, computing 147
microwave transmission 49, 50 peripheral device 7, 29
MOD integer remainder operator 149, 179 physical security 114–16
most significant digit (MSD) 63–4 pie chart 277
motherboards 7, 21, 109 pixel 38
366
Index
placeholder 232, 233, 236, 339, 340, 341 queries involving dates 312–13
plotter 41, 128 School-Based Assessment 349–50
podcast 58 single table query 306–11
point-of-sale (POS) systems 33, 34, 83, 127–8 sorting queries 319–21
point-to-point communication 51
pointers 81 radiowave communication 49
pop-up menu 80 random access memory (RAM) 8, 14, 16, 17, 18, 82
portability (storage) 23, 24 read-only memory (ROM) 16–18
positional value 63 READLN 175, 177–8, 188
Possibility High School SBA Project 346–52 real time processing systems 84
power surges 109 record (database) 293
presentations recreation, computers in 3, 6, 131
concept map 231 relational operator 151–2, 153
creating a presentation 232, 235–9 relative cell address 266–7
description 130, 232–4 remote control 37
presentation views 234 Repeat feature 212–13
printing a presentation 237–9 report (database) 299, 321–31, 350
using Microsoft Excel data in Microsoft PowerPoint 338 reserved words, programming 175, 180
primary key, database 298, 299, 300–1, 302 resolution, VDU 38–9
primary storage robots 129
description 14, 15 routers 48, 49
versus secondary storage 14 run-time error 183, 184, 185
types of devices 16–18
printers 39–41 Safari 56, 247
printing a presentation 237–9 SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) 21, 22
privacy, violation of 112 satellite transmission 49, 50
problem 136 School-Based Assessment
problem-solving 135–6 concept map 345
algorithm see algorithm key skills 353–5
constants and variables 138–40 mark allocation 346, 353–5
problem partitioning 137–8 practice exercises 346–52
School-Based Assessment 351 requirements 345–6
steps in 137, 140 tips for mastering the SBA 346
process symbols 143, 144 science, computers in 129–30
processes 83 SCSI (Small Computer Systems Interface) 21, 22
processor see central processing unit (CPU) secondary storage
program 78 accessing 20–1
program design 136, 137, 138–9, 145–61 buffer 21
program execution 83, 158, 171, 184 comparing technologies 23–4
program implementation defragmentation 21
checking and testing programs 183–90 description 6, 8, 13
concept map 168 device interfaces 21, 22
five steps 171–2 media 18–20, 22–3
program documentation 172 versus primary storage 14
School-Based Assessment 351, 355 sectors (storage) 19, 20, 22
writing programs in Pascal 173–83, 351 select queries 305, 308–9
programmable read-only memory (PROM) 17, 18 selection construct 145, 150–1
programming languages sensors 37
language generations 169–70, 171 sequence instructions 145
language levels 169, 170 sequential access (storage) 20, 100–1
propaganda 113 sequential search 189
pseudocode 137, 141–2, 145, 150, 170, 176–83, 351 serial access files 101
punctuation marks, programming 174 sign and magnitude integer representation 69, 70–1
simplex transmission 51–2
QBASIC (Quick Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction size, array 186, 187
Code) 170 Skype 32, 54, 86
query (database) 299, 305–17 slide 130, 232–4, 235–7, 239, 338
action queries 305, 316–17 slide layout 232, 233, 236
grouping results 317–19, 324–31 slide master 233
multi-table query 311 slide show view (presentations) 234
multiple search conditions 313–16 Slide Sorter view (presentations) 234, 235
367
Index
slide transition 232, 233, 234 text messages (SMS) 3, 4, 48, 57, 149
smartphones 3 time-sharing processing systems 84
soft copy 38 title locking (freeze panes) 262
software package 78, 85, 86 top-down stepwise refinement 159, 160
software piracy 113 top-level domain name 56–7
software program 78 touchscreens 33
software suites 87 trace 157, 158
solution 136 trace table 158–9, 183, 351
Sony PlayStation 6, 131 track (storage) 19, 20, 22
sorting (data) 274–6, 281, 319–21 translator, programming language 78, 170, 171
source code 170, 171, 172, 184–5 Trojan horse 110, 111
source documents 30, 32, 36, 96 truth table 153
speaker notes 234 Turbo Pascal 171, 176
special-purpose computer 4, 6 turnaround document 97
specialised applications 85, 86 twisted pair cable 49, 50
speed (data transfer) 23, 24 two’s complement integer representation 69, 71–3
spelling and grammar checking 213–14 typographical error 98
spreadsheets
data extraction 279–84, 349 Undo feature 212–13
description 251–3, 255 uniform resource locator (URL) 56–7, 247
School-Based Assessment 346, 348–9, 354 update query (database) 316
software for 85, 86, 251 uploading 48
using Microsoft Access data in Microsoft Excel 336–7 USB (Universal Serial Bus) 21, 22, 82
using Microsoft Excel data in Microsoft PowerPoint 338 user interface 80–1
workbook, creating and setting up 254–78, 336–7 utility programs 79
see also workbook; worksheet
spyware 110 validation 98, 99
SQL (Standard Query Language) 170, 305 value (spreadsheet) 258
storage 8 variable 138, 139–40, 144, 146, 150, 151, 157–8, 177, 180
concept map 13, 62 verification 98
manipulating units of 15–16 viruses 110–11, 117
of text data 73 visual display unit/monitor (VDU) 38–9
see also primary storage; secondary storage voice response unit (VRU) 34, 35
storage capacity 14–15, 24 voiceband 51
storage device 14, 16–18 VoIP (Voice-over IP) 54
storage medium 14, 18–20, 22–3 volatile memory 16, 18
stylus 35
surveillance 113 web browser 4, 56
symbols, flowchart 142–4 web cameras 32, 37
syntax 150, 171, 175–6 web developers 127
syntax errors 174, 180, 183–4, 185 web log 58
system software 78–9 web master 127
versus application software 84–5 web page
description 55, 56, 243
tables, databases designing 244–7
calculated fields 304, 328, 329 web server 56
creating 296–7 website 56
description 293–4 creating and hosting 248
joining tables and setting relationships 299, 302–4 publishing 247
modifying 298–9 testing 247
populating 297–8 WhatsApp messaging 3, 57
tables, word processing 205–6 Wi-Fi 48, 49, 55
taxes, computing 148–9, 179 wide area networks (WANs) 48
TCP/IP protocol 53 WIMP (windows, icons, menus and pointer) interface 80
technology, computers in 129–30 wireless media 49, 50, 55
telework 131 word 15, 63
terminal symbols 142–3 word processing/processors
test data 137, 157, 158, 184, 185 advantages of using 198
text columns and tables 203–6
adding to a presentation 236–7 concept map 195
selecting 210–11 definition 196
storing as data 73 document creation 199–202
368
Index
word processing/processors continued data extraction 279–84

document editing 208–15 data in 260–1, 274–6
features of 196–7 deleting 256
formatting 216–24 editing 257–8, 269
graphics 206–7 formatting 262–5, 273–4
mail merge 338–42, 350 formulas in 252, 265–74
School-Based Assessment 345, 350 importing files 282–4
software for 78, 85, 86–7 inserting a new worksheet 254
spelling and grammar checking 213–14 referencing another worksheet 282
word size 15, 63 renaming 254–5
WordArt 207, 233, 236 the World Wide Web (WWW) 55–7, 58, 247–8
WordPerfect 86, 87, 196 worms 110
workbook 251, 253 WRITE 142, 174, 175, 178, 179
creating and setting up 254–78, 282 WRITELN 174, 175, 177–8, 188
worksheet 251, 252, 253 WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) formatting 197,
cells, columns and rows 259–60 200, 244
charts 276–8, 281, 282
369

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2nd Edition Howard Campbell 2nd Edition

Information Technology for CSEC© Examinations

Howard Campbell is a trained teacher, software developer and author

CONNECT WITH US: I S B N 978-0-230-42694-8

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CSEC IT Cover Final.indd 1 24/07/2014 15:37

CSEC IT IFC.indd 1 11/08/2014 15:25

CSEC® is a registered trade mark of the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC).

About this book vi

Part 1: Theory 8 Data security 107

Binary addition 67 Introduction to problem-solving 136

Binary subtraction 69 BVI Boat Hire 137

Representing integers 69 Problem partitioning (Creating an I-P-O chart) 137

Storing text data 73 Constants and variables 138

Data extraction 279 Index 363

Section 6: Word processing,

Section 4: Applications and

presentation and web page

hardware and software

and program design

Objective 11 78 172 213 274 321

Objective 13 83 232 276

A list of objectives at the beginning of

The concept maps represent knowledge Concept map

knowledge integration. You can use them

The expanded IT Portfolio now provides

A wide assortment of game-based and

8 • Data security 8 • Data security

Grandfather, father and son.

Sign in to Online Banking Archiving data

Suggested Summaries of the key facts from

ITQ1 Where you see this icon, you will

By the end of  deﬁne what a computer is

perform major functions include major components

processing input storage output CPU: secondary storage: input/output

Activity 1.1 1 Copy the following table to your notebook.

Application area How is it used

computer ❯ A computer is a machine capable of executing instructions on data.

Categories of computer systems

Activity 1.3 1 Revisit the website of Apple Inc.

Product description General-purpose (G) or Reason for placing product in the

General-purpose computer systems

Figure 1.3 A typical desktop computer

Table 1.2 Major functions of general-purpose computer systems.

Figure 1.4 Block diagram showing

Activity 1.4 1 Locate an unlabelled, full-colour picture of a general-purpose computer system.

Special-purpose computer systems

Components of a typical computer system

Table 1.3 Functions of major hardware components of general-purpose computer systems.

INPUT MEMORY OUTPUT

DVD drive CD-ROM drive

The central processing unit

secondary storage❯ Secondary storage

Interpreting computer specifications

NGS Platinum Performance

Table 1.5 Interpreting computer speciﬁcations.

Examination-style questions TEST BANK

may be differ in terms of

primary memory: secondary storage speed capacity portability method of access

In Chapter 1 we discussed how CPU and main memory work together to

How do primary and secondary storage differ?

Characteristic Primary Secondary

How is storage capacity measured?

By the end of deﬁne what a computer is