Aquaculture Research, 2007, 38, 827^837 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2109.2007.01731.

Growth performance and feed utilization of Nile tilapia

Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) and tilapia
galilae Sarotherodon galilaeus (Linnaeus, 1758)
fingerlings fed plant protein-based diets

Asraf Mohamed A-S Goda1, M E Wafa1, E R El-Haroun2,3 & M A Kabir Chowdhury2,4

1
Fish Nutrition Research Laboratory, National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), Cairo, Egypt
2
Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
3
Fish Nutrition Research Laboratory, Animal and Poultry Science, Ontario Agriculture College, Guelph University, Guelph,
Ontario, Canada
4
World Fish Center, Batu Maung, Bayan Lepas, Penang, Malaysia

Correspondence: A M A-S Goda, 28 Niseem Asaad Street-Medan El-Afdal-Shobra, Cairo, Egypt. E-mail: goda_ashraf@yahoo.com

Abstract retention (ER) showed signi¢cant di¡erences

This study was designed to determine the e¡ect of
complete substitution of ¢sh meal (FM) by three plant
protein sources including extruded soybean meal
(SBM), extruded full-fat soybean (FFSB) and corn
gluten meal (CGM) on growth and feed utilization of
Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus and tilapia galilae
Sarothrodon galilaeus. Four isonitrogenous of crude
protein (ca. 28.0%) and isocaloric (ca.19 MJ kg
1) ex-
perimental diets were formulated. The control diet
(diet 1) was prepared with FM as the main protein
sources. Diets 2^4, each FM control diet, were com-
pletely substituted with SBM (diet 2), FFSB (diet 3)
and CGM (diet 4). L -lysine and DL -methionine were
added to plant protein diets to cover the nutritional
requirements of tilapia. Each treatment was allocated
to three net pens and fed for 17 weeks. Nile tilapia
fed the control diet showed signi¢cantly higher
(P  0.05) values for ¢nal body weight (FBW), feed
intake (FI), weight gain (WG) and speci¢c growth
rate (SGR), whereas ¢sh fed the diet with CGM
achieved the lowest values. Tilapia galilae fed SBM
diet recorded the highest (P  0.05) values for
growth performance. Better feed conversion ratio
(FCR) for both Oreochromis niloticus and Sarothrodon
galilaeus was observed when ¢sh were fed SBM diet,
whereas the worse FCR was recorded for FFSB diet.
Feed utilization parameters including protein pro-
ductive value (PPV), fat retention (FR) and energy
(P  0.05) for both the species fed di¡erent dietary
protein sources. The present results suggest that, for
Nile tilapia, both SBM and FFSB supplemented with
DL -methionine and L -lysine can completely replace
dietary FM. Meanwhile, S. galilaeus fed SBM diet ex-
hibited comparable growth and feed utilization with
those ¢sh fed a ¢sh-meal-based diet.
Keywords: corn gluten meal, ¢sh meal, full-fat
soybean, soybean meal, Nile tilapia, tilapia galilae
Introduction
Recently, ¢sh meal (FM) has become the most expen-
sive protein ingredients in aquaculture feeds. Many
developing countries have realized that, in the long
run, they will be unable to a¡ord FM as a major pro-
tein source in aquafeeds. Currently, one of the chal-
lenges that ¢sh nutritionists face is to partially or
totally replace FM with less expensive, untraditional
animal and/or plant protein sources. Many studies
have shown considerable success in partially repla-
cing FM with soybean meal (SBM) and other soybean
products in diets for various ¢sh species (Davis, Jirsa
& Arnold 1995; Olli, Krogdahl & Vabeno 1995; Boo-
nyaratpalin, Suraneiranat & Tunpibal 1998; Quartar-
aro, Allan & Bell 1998; Arndt, Hardy, Sugiura & Dong
1999; HernaŁndez, Mart|¤ nez, Jover & Garc|¤ a Garc|¤ a

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Journal Compilation r 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 827
Plant protein-based diets for tilapia ¢ngerlings A M A-S Goda et al.
2007). Other studies showed that higher inclusion le-
vels of solvent-extracted soybean and full-fat soybean
(FFSB) meals reduce growth performance and feed
utilization (Riche,Trottier, Ku & Garling 2001; Riche
& Garling Jr 2004). Meanwhile, some authors re-
ported that total replacement is possible (Shiau,
Kwok, Hwang, Chen, & Lee 1989; El-Saidy & Gaber
1997, 2002; Muzinic, Thompson, Metts, Dasgupta &
Webster 2006; Goda, El-Haroun & Chowdhury
2007). These con£icting results may attribute to the
variation of environmental culture conditions (e.g.
controlled laboratory conditions vs. pond culture
conditions), water quality (e.g. green water ponds vs.
clear water in glass aquaria or ¢breglass tanks), sali-
nity and feed processing (pelleted vs. extruded) (Ta-
con, 1996; Mendoza, De Dios, Vazquez, Cruz, Ricque,
Aguilera & Montemayor 2001; Chowdhury, Yi, Lin &
El-Haroun 2006; Amaya, Davis & Rouse 2007).
Egyptian aquaculture has developed rapidly in re-
cent years. Tilapia is one of the most widely cultured
species in Egypt. The total aquaculture production of
tilapia increased from 24 916 metric tonnes in 1990
to 486 000 metric tonnes year
1 (General Authority
for Fish Resources Development 2006) and ac-
counted for 55% of the total production (876 000 me-
tric tonnes year
1). In Egypt, a growing number of
farmers are adopting intensive culture technology,
increasing the demand for high-quality tilapia feed.
At present, the high-quality commercial tilapia feeds
almost entirely depend on FM as their major protein
source. This dependency has been driving the feed
price unreachable to small farmers as the interna-
tional market price of FM has almost doubled in the
past few years. A priority area of research in aquacul-
ture nutrition is the reduction and possible elimina-
tion of FM and ¢sh oil from practical diets (Craig
2004). Tilapia species are mainly herbivores and om-
nivores and can satisfy up to 50% of their amino acid
requirement from natural food if available in inten-
sive farming system (Chowdhury et al. 2006;
Chowdhury, Bose, Bureau & Dey (in press)). Samocha,
Davis, Saoud and De Bault (2004) reported that
the use of plant protein ingredient in tilapia
diets helps the nutritionists to reduce the cost of ¢sh
production.
Among the plant protein sources considered in
aquaculture diets, SBM is the most widely used in-
gredient. It has been preferentially used for replace-
ment of FM due to its high-protein content, relatively
well-balanced amino acid pro¢le, reasonable price
and steady supply (Storebakken, Shearer & Roem
2000). Another soybean product commonly referred
828 Journal Compilation r 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Aquaculture Research, 38, 827^837
Aquaculture Research, 2007, 38, 827^837
to as FFSB is produced by the heat treatment of whole
soybeans. This product has a crude protein content of
approximately 38% (as-fed basis) and a lipid content of
approximately 18%, providing high levels of linoleic
and linolenic acids (Lim & Akiyama 1992). Corn
gluten meal (CGM), the product that remains after
the extraction of starch from corn, is another
commercially available plant-based product. Besides
its high-protein content, CGM is low in ¢bre, has no
antinutritional factors and an adequate indispensable
amino acid pro¢le except for its content for arginine
and lysine (Amerio, Vignali, Castelli, Fiorentini &
Tibaldi 1998).
In Egypt, the most economically important species
of tilapia are Oreochromis niloticus, O. aureus and Sar-
othrodon galilaeus (FAO 2004). The choice of species
for culture depends mainly on fry and ¢ngerling
availability, growth rate and environmental toler-
ance. Nile tilapia has the highest growth rate under
warm water temperature. Tilapia O. aureus grows
nearly as fast as O. niloticus, whereas S. galilaeus
grows at the slowest rate under warm water tempera-
ture and especially under Egyptian production con-
ditions, but this species with O. aureus has the
greatest cold tolerance (Rakocy 1989). Under Egyp-
tian production conditions, relatively little research
has been focused on dietary requirements of S. gali-
laeus due to the slow growth rate and uneconomic
culture of this strain using diet with FM compared
with the O. niloticus or O. aureus.
This study was designed to investigate the e¡ect of
complete substitution of dietary FM with three plant
protein sources (SBM, FFSB and CGM) on growth
performance and feed utilization of Nile tilapia O. ni-
loticus and tilapia galilae S. galilaeus ¢ngerlings.
Materials and methods
Experimental ¢sh and culture techniques
The experiment was conducted at the Experimental
Fish Farm at El-Kanater El-Khayria, National Insti-
tute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), Delta
Barrage, Kalubiya Governorate, Egypt. Nile tilapia O.
niloticus and tilapia galilae S. galilaeus were obtained
from El-Kanater El-Khayria, Fish Research Station
Farm (¢ngerlings size were production by natural
spawning of these ¢sh farm breeders stock) and
stocked into four (42 m3) cement ponds (two ponds
for each tilapia species). Each cement pond was
divided into six equal parts by nettings (7 m3 each)
and stocked with 70 ¢sh (stocking density
r 2007 The Authors
Aquaculture Research, 2007, 38, 827^837 Plant protein-based diets for tilapia ¢ngerlings A M A-S Goda et al.

10 ¢sh m
3). The average initial body weight was Table 1 Formulation and chemical composition of the
32.3  1.1 and 31.2  1.8 g for O. niloticus and S. gali- experimental diets
laeus, respectively. The ¢sh from each tilapia species
were divided into 12 groups with three replicates in Diets

each diet. Fish were acclimatized to experimental FM SBM FFSB CGM

conditions for 2 weeks before the start of the experi-
Ingredient
ment. Fish were fed a commercial tilapia diet (Zoo-
Fish meal, herring 28 – – –
Control Company, 6 October City, Cairo, Egypt) Soybean meal – 43 – –
during this period. The actual experimental period Full fat Soybean – – 47 –
extended for 17 weeks (119 days). Concrete net pens Corn gluten meal – – – 30
were supplied with freshwater from the Darawa Irri- Yellow corn 43 19 17 41
Wheat bran 23 31 32 22
gation Baranch of Kalubiya Governorate, Egypt, with
Soybean oil 4 4 1 4
a turnover rate of 0.3 m3 day
1 pond
1, and ¢sh were L-lysine – 0.5 0.5 1
held under natural light conditions (12:12 h light:dark DL-methionine – 0.5 0.5 –
schedule). From each experimental treatment, ¢sh Vitamin and mineral Premix 2 2 2 2
were weighed collectively every 2 weeks, and the Total 100 100 100 100
Proximate composition (dry matter basis)
amount of daily diet was adjusted accordingly. How-
Dry matter (%) 89.9 89.9 88.6 89.7
ever, at the beginning of the experiment, 10 ¢sh from Crude protein (%) 28.7 28.4 28.2 28.4
each species were anaesthetized with t-amyl alcohol, Lipid (%) 9.4 8.1 10.6 8.7
sacri¢ced and used for assessment of the initial Total carbohydratew (%) 53.0 57.2 51.6 56.2
proximate body composition. In addition, at the Ash (%) 8. 8 6.4 9.6 6.7
Gross energy (MJ kg
1)z 19.6 19.7 19.7 19.8
end of the experimental trial, six ¢sh from each
Digestable energy (MJ kg
1)‰ 13.7 13.8 13.8 13.9
experimental treatments of both tilapia species Protein: energy ratio (mg kJ
1) 14.6 14.4 14.3 14.3
group were used to assess the ¢nal proximate body
Vitamin and mineral mixture each 1-kg of mixture contains:
composition.
4800 I.U. Vit A, 2400 IU cholecalciferol (vit. D), 40 g Vit E, 8 g Vit
K, 4.0 g Vit B12, 4.0 g Vit B2, 6 g Vit B6, 4.0 g pantothenic acid,
8.0 g nicotinic acid, 400 mg folic acid, 20 mg Biotin, 200 gm Cho-
line, 4 g Copper, 0.4 g Iodine, 12 g Iron, 22 g Manganese, 22 g
Experimental diets Zinc, 0.04 g selenium. Folic acid, 1.2 mg; niacin, 12 mg; D-calcium
pantothenate, 26 mg; pyridoxine HCl, 6 mg; ribo£avin, 7.2 mg;
Four isonitrogenous (ca. 28.0% crude protein) and
thiamin HCl, 1.2 mg; sodium chloride (NaCl, 39% Na, 61% Cl),
isocaloric (ca. 19.0 MJ kg
1) diets were formulated 3077 mg; ferrous sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O, 20% Fe), 65 mg; manga-
(Table 1). A diet containing FM as the main source of nese sulphate (MnSO4, 36% Mn), 89 mg; zinc sulphate (ZnSO4.7
protein was considered as the control diet. Three H2O, 40% Zn), 150 mg; copper sulphate (CuSO4.5H2O, 25% Cu),
tested diets were totally (100%) substituted for diet- 28 mg; potassium iodide (KI, 24% K, 76% I), 11mg; Celite
AW521 (acid-washed diatomaceous earth moisture-silica),
ary FM protein from control diet with extruded
1000 mg.
SBM, extruded FFSM and CGM, respectively. Lysine wTotal carbohydrates calculated as [100
(moisture-protein1fat
and methionine were added at a level of 0.5% for 1ash)].
SBM and FFSB diets, and only 1.0% of lysine was zCalculated using gross calori¢c values of 23.63, 39.52 and
added for CGM diet to cover the ¢sh nutritional re- 17.15 kJ g
1 for protein, fat and carbohydrate, respectively ac-
cording to Brett (1973).
quirements (NCR 1993). The FM (999 Con-Kix Fish
‰Digestible energy was estimated by applying the coe⁄cient of
Meal, Triple Nine Fish Protein a.m.b.a., Thybor
n, 70% of Gross energy according to (Hepher et al. 1983).
Denmark) used in this study was obtained from the FM, ¢sh meal; SBM, soybean meal; FFSB, full-fat soybean; CGM,
ZooControl Company. All feed-grade ingredients in- corn gluten meal.
cluding SBM, FFSB, CGM, wheat bran, yellow corn
and soybean oil were already purchased from local
markets [Animal Production Islamic Company (API- USA). The proximate composition of all experimental
CO), Dokki-El-Giza, Egypt]. Diets were processed by diets is presented in Table 1. Amino acid composition
blending the dry ingredients into a homogenous mix- of the experimental diets are presented in Table 2.
ture, and then the mixture feed was passed through a During the experimental trial, all ¢sh were fed their
laboratory pellet mill at the National Institute of respective diets at a level of 3% of body weight. The dai-
Oceanography and Fisheries, Cairo Governorate, ly ration was divided into three equal amounts and of-
Egypt (a California Pellet Mill, San Francisco, CA, fered three times a day (09:00,11:00 and 14:00 hours).

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Journal Compilation r 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Aquaculture Research, 38, 827^837 829
Plant protein-based diets for tilapia ¢ngerlings A M A-S Goda et al. Aquaculture Research, 2007, 38, 827^837

Table 2 Essential amino acid composition of tested diets mined GE to DE according to Hepher, Liao, Cheng
(% of dietary protein) and Haseih (1983).

Diets NRC
(1993)
Amino acids FM SBM FFSB CGM requirement Growth indices

Arginine 5.45 5.33 5.92 3.02 4.20 Weight gain (WG), speci¢c growth rate (SGR), feed
Histidine 2.16 2.05 3.53 1.63 1.72 conversion ratio (FCR), protein productive value
Isoleucine 3.75 3.58 4.26 3.38 3.11 (PPV), fat retention (FR) and energy retention (ER)
Leucine 9.49 11.9 13.61 12.62 3.39
were calculated using the following equations:
Lysine 5.76 6.41 6.26 5.63 5.12
Methionine1cystine 3.64 4.64 4.63 3.62 3.22 WG ¼Final body weight ðgÞ
Phenylalanine1tyrosine 5.46 6.66 5.71 5.77 5.54
Initial body weight ðgÞ
Threonine 3.02 2.14 2.59 3.02 3.75
Tryptophane 1.66 2.79 1.90 4.09 1.00 SGR ¼ ½ðln FBW
ln IBWÞ  100 period
1
Valine 5.03 3.58 4.54 4.09 2.8
where FBW is ¢nal body weight (g); IBW is initial
FM, ¢sh meal; SBM, soybean meal; FFSB, full-fat soybean; CGM, body weight (g); ln 5 natural logarithmic.
corn gluten meal.
FCR ¼ Feed intake ðgÞ=Weight gain ðgÞ

PPV ¼½Retained protein ðgÞ=Protein intake ðgÞ

Water quality
Water-quality parameters, such as temperature,
dissolved oxygen (DO), pH and ammonia, were
monitored to ensure that water quality remained well
within the limits recommended for the ¢sh. Water
temperature was recorded daily using a mercury ther-
mometer suspended at 30 cm depth. Dissolved oxygen
was measured using YSI model 56 oxygen meter (Yel-
low Springs Instrument,Yellow Springs, OH, USA) and
pH using a pH metre (Orion pH meter, Abilene, TX,
USA). Ammonia and alkalinity were measured at
weekly intervals according to APHA, AWWA & WPCF
(1989).
Analytical methods
The chemical composition of ¢sh and diets samples
was determined according to procedures of AOAC
(1995). Analyses of samples were made on dry matter
basis after drying the samples in an oven (105 1C) for
24 h. Ash content was measured using incineration
at 550 1C for 12 h, crude protein using the micro-
Kjeldhal method, N%  6.25 (using a Kjeltech autoa-
nalyzer, Model 1030, Tecator, H˛gans, Sweden), and
crude fat was measured using Soxhlet extraction
with diethyl ether (40^60 1C). Gross energy (GE) con-
tent of diet and carcass samples was calculated ac-
cording to gross caloric values of Brett (1973) by
applying the factor 23.6, 39.5 and 17.2 kJ g
1 of crude
protein, crude fat and total carbohydrate, respec-
tively. The digestible energy (DE) was estimated by
applying the coe⁄cient of 70% to convert deter-
 100
FR ¼ ½Retained fat ðgÞ=Fat intake ðgÞ  100
ER ¼½Retained energy ðkJÞ=Energy intake ðkJÞ
 100
Statistical analysis
The data for each tilapia species were separately
analysed by ANOVA using MSTAT-C version 4 software
(MSTAT-C 1987). Duncan’s multiple range test was
used to compare di¡erences between individual
means when signi¢cant ANOVA F-values were deter-
mined (Duncan 1955). Treatment e¡ects were consid-
ered signi¢cant at (P  0.05).
Results
Over the17-week feeding period, no signi¢cant di¡er-
ences were observed in the water-quality indices be-
tween the experimental treatments. The water-
quality parameters were within the acceptable range
for both tilapia species (Hepher & Pruginin 1981). The
water temperature ranged from 23.8 to 28.5  0.8 1C,
DO from 5.0 to 6.0  0.9 mg L
1, pH from 7.0 to
8.1  0.5, ammonia from 0.23 to 0.32  0.04 mg L
1
and alkalinity from 177 to 182 mg L
1.
The results of the ¢nal body weight (FBW), WG,
feed intake (FI), SGR and FCR for two tilapia species,
are presented in Table 3 and Figs 1^3. Nile tilapia fed

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830 Journal Compilation r 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Aquaculture Research, 38, 827^837
Aquaculture Research, 2007, 38, 827^837 Plant protein-based diets for tilapia ¢ngerlings A M A-S Goda et al.

Table 3 Growth performance of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus and Tilapia Sarothrodon galilaeus fed the di¡erent protein
sources diets

Initial body Final body Specific Feed

weigh weight Feed intake Weight gain growth rate conversion
(g fish
1) (g fish
1) (g fish
1/17 weeks) (g fish
1/17 weeks) (% day
1) ratio

O. niloticus
FM 30.6  0.2 323.6  0.4a 530.7  3.2a 293.0  0.4a 1.97  0.3a 1.8  0.1b
SBM 31.8  0.3 307.9  0.8b 487.5  2.5b 276.1  0.2b 1.89  0.8b 1.7  0.3c
FFSB 33.1  0.5 299.7  0.1b 527.9  2.3a 269.6  0.3bc 1.84  0.3b 2.0  0.4a
CGM 33.6  0.2 266.0  0.4c 424.4  4.9c 232.4  0.3c 1.73  0.2c 1.8  0.3b
S. galilaeus
FM 31.3  0.1 172.3  0.5b 286.5  5.6bc 141.0  0.32b 1.42  0.3b 2.0  0.2b
SBM 30.8  0.2 190.7  0.5a 313.9  7.5a 159.9  0.40a 1.52  0.2a 1.9  0.2c
FFSB 31.7  0.3 164.7  1.1c 281.1  5.0c 133.9  0.16c 1.37  0.1c 2.1  0.1a
CGM 31.1  0.2 170.3  1.2b 284.3  6.9bc 139.2  0.13bc 1.42  0.4b 2.0  0.1b

Means in the same column sharing the same subscript are not signi¢cantly di¡erent (P  0.05).
FM, ¢sh meal; SBM, soybean meal; FFSB, full-fat soybean; CGM, corn gluten meal.

360

330 FM diet
300 SBM diet
FFSB diet
270
CGM diet
240
Body weight (g)

210

180

150

120

90

60

30
Figure 1 Changes in body
weight (g) of Nile tilapia ¢n- 0
gerlings fed di¡erent experi- 0 19 38 57 77 96 108 120

mental diets. Period (Days)

FM diet showed the highest values (P  0.05) of FBW
(323.6 g), FI (530.7 g ¢sh
1/17 weeks),WG (293.0 g/17
weeks) and SGR (1.97% day
1). Meanwhile, ¢sh fed
CGM diet recorded the lowest values (P  0.05) of
FBW (266.0 g), FI (424.4 g ¢sh
1/17 weeks), WG
(232.4 g/17 weeks) and SGR (1.73% day
1). However,
S. galilaeus fed diet with SBM recorded the highest
signi¢cant values (P  0.05) for FBW (190.7 g), FI
(313.9 g ¢sh
1/17 weeks),WG (159.9 g/17 weeks) and
SGR (1.52% day
1). Meanwhile, ¢sh fed FFSB diet
showed the lowest values (P  0.05) for FBW
(164.7 g), FI (281.1g ¢sh
1/17 weeks), WG (133.9 g/17
weeks) and SGR (1.37% day
1). The worst FCR were
observed for both O. niloticus and S. galilaeus when
fed diet containing FFSB (2.0 and 2.1, respectively)
compared with ¢sh fed diets with FM, SBM and CGM
(P  0.05). Meanwhile, O. niloticus and S. galilaeus fed
diet with SBM recorded the best FCR (P  0.05) va-
lues (1.7 and 1.9, respectively).
The in£uence of di¡erent dietary protein sources
on protein, fat and energy intake, PPV, FR and ER of
both tilapia species, are shown in Table 4 and Fig. 4.
The highest dietary protein (137.2 g ¢sh
1/17 weeks)
and energy intake (9.4 MJ ¢sh
1/17 weeks) were re-
corded for Nile tilapia fed diet with FM, whereas ¢sh
fed with FFSB showed the highest value (P  0.05) of
fat intake (59.5 g ¢sh
1/17 weeks). The protein, fat
and energy intake were signi¢cantly (P  0.05) low-
er when Nile tilapia were fed the CGM diet, and
these values associated with the highest values of

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Journal Compilation r 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Aquaculture Research, 38, 827^837 831
Plant protein-based diets for tilapia ¢ngerlings A M A-S Goda et al. Aquaculture Research, 2007, 38, 827^837

210

FM diet
180
SBM diet
FFSB diet
150 CGM diet
Body weight (g)

120

90

60

30

Figure 2 Changes in body

0 weight (g) of tilapia Sarothro-
0 19 38 57 77 96 108 120 don galilaeus ¢ngerlings fed
Periods (Days) di¡erent experimental diets.

2.5 O. niloticus PPV, FR and ER (37.5%, 61.8% and 23.4%, respec-

S. galilaeus tively). In contrast, tilapia S. galilaeus fed SBM diet
2 recorded the highest values (P  0.05) for dietary
protein (80.6 g ¢sh
1/17 weeks) and GE intake
SGR ( % days)

1.5 (5.6 MJ ¢sh
1/17 weeks). In accordance with the Nile

tilapia, tilapia galilae fed with FFSB showed the high-
1 est value (P  0.05) of fat intake (26.4 g ¢sh
1/17
weeks). The values of PPV (Fig. 4) and ER were signi¢-
0.5 cantly (P  0.05) higher for ¢sh fed either FM or SBM
diets, whereas ¢sh fed CGM diet showed the highest
0 value for FR.
FM SBM FFSB CGM The whole proximate body composition is shown
Experimental diets in Table 5. No signi¢cant di¡erence (P  0.05) in
Figure 3 E¡ect of dietary protein sources on speci¢c whole-body moisture content was observed for both
growth rate (SGR) of Nile tilapia and tilapia Sarothrodon Nile tilapia and S. galilaeus fed di¡erent dietary pro-
galilaeus ¢ngerlings. tein sources. Meanwhile, Nile tilapia fed diet with

Table 4 Feed utilization of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus and Tilapia Sarothrodon galilaeus fed the di¡erent protein sources
diets

Protein intake Fat intake Gross energy intake Protein productive Energy
(g fish
1/17 weeks) (g fish
1/17 weeks) (MJ fish
1/17 weeks) value Fat retention retention

O. niloticus
FM 137.2  0.1a 45.0  0.6b 9.4  3.5a 33.1  0.9b 49.7  1.1b 20.9  1.2b
SBM 124.3  0.1b 35.3  0.5cd 8.6  4.4b 29.6  0.8c 48.0  1.3b 17.8  1.4c
FFSB 132.0  0.6ab 59.5  0.7a 9.2  3.1ab 32.9  0.4b 34.4  1.0c 19.9  0.7bc
CGM 107.4  0.9c 33.1  0.4d 7.5  5.1c 37.5  0.3a 61.8  1.4a 23.4  1.1a
S. galilaeus
FM 74.0  0.9b 24.3  0.2bc 5.1  5.9b 32.7  0.5a 18.6  1.3c 17.1  1.0b
SBM 80.6  0.7a 23.1  0.1bc 5.6  4.1a 32.6  0.2a 41.4  1.6ab 17.7  1.7a
FFSB 70.3  0.5c 26.4  0.5a 4.9  2.8c 30.3  0.7ab 31.6  1.5b 17.0  0.9b
CGM 72.3  0.8c 22.1  0.7c 5.0  6.3b 29.3  0.7b 45.2  1.3a 15.5  0.9c

Means in the same column sharing the same subscript are not signi¢cantly di¡erent (P  0.05).
FM, ¢sh meal; SBM, soybean meal; FFSB, full-fat soybean; CGM, corn gluten meal.

r 2007 The Authors

832 Journal Compilation r 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Aquaculture Research, 38, 827^837
Aquaculture Research, 2007, 38, 827^837 Plant protein-based diets for tilapia ¢ngerlings A M A-S Goda et al.

CGM diet had the highest signi¢cant (P  0.05) Discussion

values of whole-body crude protein (17.2%), lipid
In the present study, high growth rate and feed utili-
(8.7%) and GE (755.3 kJ100 g
1). The lowest whole-
zation were consistently observed throughout the
body ash values (P  0.05) for Nile tilapia were ob-
trial for both tilapia species fed extruded SBM. These
served with FFSB and FM diets. Regarding S. gali-
results are in agreement with previous studies re-
laeus, ¢sh fed diet with FM and CGM recorded the
ported in other species when the SBM and FFSB diets
highest signi¢cant (P  0.05) values of whole body
were supplemented with L -lysine and DL-methionine
crude protein and fat (17.2% and 7.2% respectively).
(Tacon, Jauncey, Falaye, Pantha, MacCowan & Staf-
Meanwhile, the highest body GE value (P  0.05)
ford 1983; El-Sayed 1989; Wee & Shu 1989; Shiau, Lin,
was showed when S. galilaeus were fed the CGM diet
Yu, Lin & Kwok1990; El-Dahhar & El-Shazly1993; Da-
(643.7 kJ 100 g
1). The lowest whole-body ash con-
vis et al.1995; Ng, Hung & Herold1996; El-Saidy & Ga-
tent (P  0.05) for S. galilaeus was observed with the
ber 1997, 2002; Coyle, Tidwell & Webster 2000).
FFSB diet.
Higher growth performance and feed utilization ob-
tained in the present study for tilapia fed diets con-
tained SBM and FFSB derived from dry extrusion. It
appeared to be an adequate method to inactive the
heat-labile anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) known to
be present in raw seed and improved a large part of
40
Nile tilapia the carbohydrate component by gelatinization of
S. galilaeus
35 starch for metabolism. Recently, Samocha et al.
30 (2004) and El-Sayed (2006) reported that co-extru-
25 sion of feed ingredients has been considered as a rea-
PPV (%)

sonable option to improve the nutritional quality of

20
SBM when used as a replacement ingredient in ¢sh
15
and shrimp diets. Amaya et al. (2007) reported that
10 commercial extrusion may play an important role in
5 improving the overall nutritional quality of diets in-
0
cluding high levels of plant sources of Paci¢c white
FM SBM FFSB CGM shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Otherwise, incorpora-
Experimental diets
tion of high levels of FFSB into the diets for tilapia
Figure 4 E¡ect of dietary protein sources on protein pro- may be causing reduction in the ¢sh growth perfor-
ductive value (PPV) of Nile tilapia and tilapia Sarothrodon mance and feed utilization. This is primarily due to
galilaeus ¢ngerlings. high lipid levels typically included in the diet of tila-

Table 5 Whole body proximate composition of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus and Tilapia Sarotherodon galilaeus fed the
di¡erent protein sources diets

Gross energy
Moisture (%) Crude protein (%) Lipid (%) Ash (%) (kJ 100 g
1)

O. niloticus
FM 72.0  0.1 15.4  0.5b 7.6  1.0ab 5.0  0.2b 664.3  2.5b
SBM 75.5  0.3 13.3  0.7c 6.1  0.7b 5.1  0.1b 555.4  4.2c
FFSB 71.1  0.5 16.2  0.8ab 7.7  0.1ab 5.0  0.5b 687.1  1.9b
CGM 68.5  0.4 17.2  0.9a 8.7  0.1 a 5.6  0.2a 755.3  2.5a
S. galilaeus
FM 72.2  0.1 17.2  0.7a 5.2  0.5c 5.4  0.8b 612.0  1.3c
SBM 71.4  0.1 16.5  0.6b 6.0  0.1b 6.1  0.3a 627.0  3.6b
FFSB 74.1  0.2 15.9  0.1bc 6.2  1.0b 4.8  0.9c 620.7  1.3b
CGM 72.3  0.4 15.2  0.7c 7.2  1.1a 5.3  0.7b 643.7  2.7a

Means in the same column sharing the same subscript are not signi¢cantly di¡erent (P  0.05).
FM, ¢sh meal; SBM, soybean meal; FFSB, full-fat soybean; CBM, corn gluten meal.

r 2007 The Authors

Journal Compilation r 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Aquaculture Research, 38, 827^837 833
Plant protein-based diets for tilapia ¢ngerlings A M A-S Goda et al.
pia when used high replacement levels (410%) of
FFSB. Lim (2002) reported that tilapia do not tolerate
as high a dietary lipid as other ¢sh (carp, trout and
cat¢sh) that utilize oil supplements quickly and
e⁄ciently. Chou and Shiau (1996) reported that 5%
dietary lipid appeared to be su⁄cient to meet mini-
mal requirement of juvenile tilapia hybrid O.
niloticus  O. aureus. Several hypotheses might ex-
plain the poor tilapia utilization of lipids, for example
weak lipase system in tilapia or de¢cient absorption
mechanisms (Hanley 1991).
The present results showed that both Nile tilapia
and tilapia galilae fed CGM recorded the lowest va-
lues of WG and SGR compared with ¢sh-meal-based
diet. These results suggest that the decrease in ¢sh
performance indices may attribute to more limiting
amino acid than lysine in CGM diets. Calculated ami-
no acid indicated that the diet containing CGM was
de¢cient in arginine, histidine and threonine com-
pared with the ¢sh requirement (NRC 1993). It ap-
pears that de¢ciency of these amino acids could be
responsible for the lower performance of ¢sh fed
CGM diet compared with control FM diet. Otherwise,
D’Mello (1993) reported that amino acid imbalance in
CGM had been found to be involved in reducing FI
and growth performance in higher vertebrates. This
also possibly caused a reduction of FI in spite of the
presence of inosine known to be a gustatory feeding
stimulant in turbot Scophthalmus maximus (Mitchell
& Mackie 1983). However, the data agree with the
¢nding of Pereira and Oliva-Teles (2003) who re-
ported that signi¢cant decreases were found for both
growth rate and feed utilization with the highest re-
placement level (80%) of dietary FM by CGM for gilt-
head sea bream Sparus aurata (L.) this reduction was
most likely due to a dietary amino acid imbalance.
Growth indices of O. niloticus were better than that
of S. galilaeus. It should be noted that the FBW, WG,
SGR, FCR and ER of Nile tilapia in the present study
are better than those of the S. galilaeus and may be
due to the di¡erences in feeding habits and nutri-
tional requirements between the two species. Like
other ¢lter-feeding ¢sh, S. galilaeus consumes both
phytoplankton and zooplankton (Trewavas 1973).
Hambright, Blumenshine and Shapiro (2002) re-
ported that in natural environmental condition
(Lakes), most of the annual net growth for S. galilaeus
occurred during spring. Periods of negative growth
occurred during late summer early fall, probably be-
cause of high water temperatures (approaching
30 1C) and relatively low plankton biomass. Similar
to the ¢ndings of this study, Bishei and Khalil (1997)
834 Journal Compilation r 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Aquaculture Research, 38, 827^837
Aquaculture Research, 2007, 38, 827^837
and Kheir and Mohammed (2001) reported that there
was lower growth potential of S. galilaeus cultured in
earthen ponds than that of O. niloticus when fed diet
with 30% CP. This may be due to scarcity of phyto-
plankton and planktonic crustaceans in the rearing
ponds, which are the main natural food for S. gali-
laeus and also that O. niloticus feed on the arti¢cial
feed more vigorously than S. galilaeus do.
Concerning proximate whole-body composition,
crude protein, lipid and GE contents of Nile tilapia
fed diet with CGM were higher compared with other
plant protein sources. Meanwhile, the highest body
protein content was observed for S. galilaeus when
¢sh fed FM diet. The highest lipid and GE contents
were recorded for ¢sh fed CGM. These results agreed
with the ¢ndings of El-Saidy and Gaber (2003) and
Abdelghany (2003). In this study, the lowest ash con-
tent was observed with diet containing FFSM for
both tilapia species. Elangovan and Shim (2000) have
reported a signi¢cant reduction of ash content in ¢sh
fed with SBM, presumably related to the presence of
phytic acid, which reduces the availability of several
minerals such as calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron and
phosphorus (Lanari, D’Agro & Turri 1998; Storebak-
ken, Shearer & Roem 1998). The same trend was ob-
served by HernaŁndez et al. (2007) for sharpsnout
seabream (Diplodus puntazzo).
The processing and drying techniques for soybean
in the last few years have been immensely improved.
Modern processing technologies have overcome
many of the obstacles and ANFs in most plant protein
sources (Oliva-Teles, Gouveia, Gomes & Rema 1994),
not only by denaturing ANFs and solvent extracting
much of the unsuitable lipid, but also by improving a
large part of the carbohydrate component by gelatini-
zation of starch in the SBM and FFSB that increased
the availability of total dietary GE for metabolism for
¢sh. This study showed that this technology has im-
proved the suitability of SBM and FFSB as plant pro-
tein ingredients for tilapia species. Moreover, the cost
of protein ingredients is an important consideration
when formulating diets for ¢sh. In Egypt, Herring FM
costs approximately 9000 Egyptian pounds (LE) -
metric tonnes
1 ($US 1579), SBM (feed grade) costs
approximately 1520 LE metric tonnes
1 ($US 267),
FFSB (feed grade) costs 1800 LE metric tonnes
1
($US 314) and CGM (feed grade) costs approximately
2700 LE metric tonnes
1 ($US 470). However, most
of the studies have evaluated FM substituted in tila-
pia feeds from biological or nutritional viewpoints.
Little attention has been paid to the economic analy-
sis of these protein sources. Only a few studies have
r 2007 The Authors
Aquaculture Research, 2007, 38, 827^837 Plant protein-based diets for tilapia ¢ngerlings A M A-S Goda et al.
been considering economic bene¢t of replacing FM,
and these indicating that the unconventional protein
sources were more economical compared with FM.
The advantage of using plant alternative protein
sources in tilapia species diets lies not necessarily in
their nutrient composition, but in their local avail-
ability and low prices.
Conclusion
The present data con¢rmed that Nile tilapia is able to
utilize plant-based diets, either SBM or FFSB as a
main source of dietary protein superior to the FM,
even at the total replacement levels. Meanwhile, S. ga-
lilaeus obtained higher growth and appeared to uti-
lize SBM diet more e⁄ciently as a main protein
source than FM and FFSB. Otherwise, for both tilapia
species, CGM as a sole source of protein needs to be
supplemented with three limiting amino acids (argi-
nine, histidine and threonine) at a higher replace-
ment level, and this deserves further analyses.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Prof Dr Ragab Abdel Regal and
Prof Dr Mamdouh T. Kheir for his assistance.We also
thank Mr Mohamed A. Mansour, the Director of Zoo-
Control Company, 6 October City, Cairo Governorate,
Egypt and Prof Dr Osama El-Husseiny, the chairmen
of Animal Production Islamic Company (APICO),
Dokki-El-Giza, Egypt, for the ingredients used in this
study. Furthermore, the authors express their sincere
thanks to the Animal Production Department, Fa-
culty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Egypt, for pro-
viding technical laboratory and National Institute of
Oceanography and Fisheries for providing the place.
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