The Rise of Islamic Archaeology

Author(s): Stephen Vernoit

Source: Muqarnas , 1997, Vol. 14 (1997), pp. 1-10
Published by: Brill

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.com/stable/1523232

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 STEPHEN VERNOIT

THE RISE OF ISLAMIC ARCHAEOLOGY

chronology
Islamic archaeology emerged as an independent field ofby coming after Christianity. This outlook
was modified
inquiry about one hundred years ago.' It developed rela-somewhat around the mid-nineteenth

tively late compared with other branches century when there emerged, under the influenc
of archaeol-
ogy, but has since gained considerable momentum. At a secular understanding of the rise a
Auguste Comte,
the outset, the excavation of Islamic sites wasdevelopment
character- of Islamic civilization. Comte applied
ized by a desire to recover artifacts, especially
notionasofthat
progressive evolution directly to history,
ensured funding and sponsorship for projects. Inhistorical
that the the role of Islam was seen to belong to
twentieth century, however, the discipline "medieval"
of Islamicphase in the development of mankin
archaeology has become more rigorous, and Muchthe late-
Orientalist scholarship in the second half of th
nineteenth-century emphasis on recovering nineteenth
artifacts has
century was inspired by this vision. A sec
been superseded by an outlook based on aapproach
more com-to Islamic civilization can be found, for exa
prehensive examination of the material remains of the
ple, in thewritings of Alfred von Kremer and A
past. While undergoing this methodological change in
Sprenger.3
the twentieth century, Islamic archaeology also
Outrespon-
of this theoretical background there arose in t
ded to a variety of local conditions uniqueearly
to itnineteenth
alone. century the belief that art and archi
The purpose of this essay is to highlight some of the the spirit of past historical epochs
ture embodied
issues and values that have guided the direction also reflected
of the differences between races and cultures.
relatively young discipline. However, historical knowledge of Islamic art and archi-
Islamic archaeology as it emerged in thetecture late nine-
was still rudimentary at that time. It was gener-
teenth and early twentieth centuries was based allyupon two
believed that in Arabia, where the Islamic faith orig-
strands of inquiry. The first of these was an interest
inated, in traditions were negligible, but after three
artistic
the historical significance of art. In the eighteenth centuries cen-
of expansion, during which Hellenic, Persian,
tury, Joachim Winckelmann had indicated in andthe
othercon-
traditions intermingled, Islamic architecture
text of the classical world that there was a link between emerged as a distinct style. The mosque of Ibn Tulun in
art and an assumed way of life, an idea that gave a new Cairo, founded in 876, was considered by some com-
poignancy to recovering the remains of the past. By mentators
the to be the earliest extant example of the
early nineteenth century G.W.F. Hegel's attempt to sys- Islamic style.
tematize a universal history for all the "fine" arts pro-The uncritical application of evolutionary theories to
vided the basis on which the history of art emerged the as astudy of art and architecture, however, led to numer-
distinct discipline. The other strand of inquiry was the ous shortcomings. The architectural historian James
development of Orientalist studies from the late eigh- Fergusson, for example, believed that the style of archi-
teenth century.2 These two strands of inquiry did not tecture employed by Muslims was "a pointed arch style,
come together until the late nineteenth century, how- without pillars or entablatures, and with a system of
ever; before then, the study of the art and archaeology ornamentation peculiar to itself."4 While these require-
of Islamic lands failed to attract significant critical inter-
ments were fulfilled by the Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem,
est.
he could not accept that the Dome of the Rock was
One of the principal reasons for this delay can be than a Christian monument taken over by Mus-
other
lims,
found in Hegel's portrayal of the historical evolution ofand he reached the erroneous conclusion that it
art, in which Asia was relegated - following the ideas
was of
the Church of the Holy Sepulchre built by Emperor
Winckelmann- to a significance only in pre-Greek
Constantine (r. 306-37). Fergusson's mistake lay in his
times, with ancient Persia credited with the first histor-
assumption that the architectural style of a monument
ical consciousness. In Hegel's opinion Islam merited was
lit- an accurate guide to the state of civilization and
even the race of its builders.5
tle attention, although it did frustrate his historical

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2 STEPHEN VERNOIT

Many commentators, influenced by the 1857-58,

idea ofandhistor-
the transfer of power from the East Ind
ical evolution, assumed that there was aCompany Christianto the Crown, the Archaeological Survey
input
throughout the entire tradition of Islamic India was
art established
and archi- (1862), and under Viceroy an
tecture. A.C.T.E. Prisse d'Avennes, the author of L'art Governor-General George Curzon (r. 1898-1905) th
arabe (1877), pointed out that the architect of thelegislature passed the Ancient Monuments Preservation
mosque of Ibn Tulun was a Copt.6 Max Herz, the direc- Act (1904), which ensured the upkeep of monumen
tor of the Museum of Arab Art in Cairo, argued that aand protected against the traffic in antiquities.9 El
Byzantine architect was responsible for the Mamluk
where, archaeological exploration was encouraged b
mosque of Sultan Hasan.7 However, this historical out- the formation of requisite organizations. Biblical
look also had a positive aspect in the late nineteentharchaeology in Palestine was promoted by the foundin
and early twentieth centuries, as French, German, and of such organizations as the Palestine Exploration Fun
Austrian scholars made inquiries into Islamic art and
the American Palestine Exploration Society, and th
architecture without neglecting pre-Islamic, Coptic,Deutsche Palastina-Vereins. In 1882, the year of the Bri
Byzantine, and Armenian traditions.8 ish occupation of Egypt, the Egyptian Exploration Fun
The emphasis of Middle Eastern archaeology was founded, and about the same time the French Mis-
throughout the ninteteenth century was on retrieving sion Arch6ologique was established in Cairo. In 1894
William Flinders Petrie founded his own Egyptian
ancient works of art to fill national and private collec-
tions in Europe. The excavations revealed the antiquityResearch Account, renamed in 1906 the British School
of man and brought to light unknown civilizations. This of Archaeology in Egypt. Similar organizations and insti-
discovery of ancient civilizations greatly overshadowed tutions were also set up in Egypt by the Swiss, Germans,
curiosity in Islamic history, which was concerned withanda Austrians.
way of life and system of beliefs that continued in exist-Although Islamic levels were encountered through-
ence over a large area of the world. In this respect, the
out the nineteenth century in excavations at pre-Islamic
development of Islamic archaeology had more in com-sites,?1 they were frequently disregarded. Nevertheless,
mon with the archaeology of medieval and later Europe
the recovery of ancient artifacts led to a greater aware-
than with that of ancient times. ness of an indigenous heritage in many regions. With
During the nineteenth century, however, numerous the growth of nationalist sentiments, antiquities policies
Islamic sites were identified. Such travelers as Robert were introduced and museums founded. In Egypt an an-
Ker Porter, Charles Texier, Eugene Flandin andtiquities
Pascal policy evolved under Auguste Mariette from
Coste, and Xavier Hommaire de Hell pointed out sites
1858, primarily for the protection of pharaonic remains,
but in 1881 the Committee for the Conservation of Mon-
in their travel accounts and provided a range of infor-
mation. The fact that many of these travelers partici-
uments of Arab Art was founded and three years later
pated in diplomatic missions or were sponsored by their
the Museum of Arab Art opened in the mosque of al-
governments was an early indication of how archaeology
Hakim in Cairo. In the Ottoman Empire an antiquities
and political considerations became interrelatedregulation
in the that placed all archaeological excavations
Middle East. A number of nineteenth-century archaeol-
under the control of the Ministry of Education was put
ogists in the Middle East even pursued diplomatic
into effect in 1884 by Osman Hamdi, the director of the
careers. Austen Henry Layard, for example, who Archaeological
exca- Museum in Istanbul. Osman Hamdi also
vated at Nimrud and Nineveh, became the Britishorganized
un- his own excavations, discovering in 1887 the
Sidon sarcophagi."
der-secretary of state for foreign affairs (1852, 1861-66)
and served as ambassador in Madrid (1869-77) and Following on from the secular interpretation of the
Istanbul (1877-80). This link between archaeology
riseand
and development of Islamic civilization that grew
political administration continued in the twentieth outcen-
of the thought of Auguste Comte, there emerged in
tury. Gertrude Bell's activities in Iraq provide a particu-
the late nineteenth century an interest in the evolution
larly notable example. of religions, especially as the comparative method indi-
Archaeological exploration was, of course, concomi-
cated that Christianity had a natural rather than a
tant with colonial expansion. The French occupation of origin. Eugene Goblet d'Alviella in La migration
divine
Algeria in 1830 and the Russian advances in Central
desAsia
symboles (1891), for example, showed how religious
in the late nineteenth century brought archaeological
symbols migrated from one culture to another, and that
inquiries in their wake. Following the Indian uprising in
each religion preserved in its practices and symbols sur-

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 THE RISE OF ISLAMIC ARCHAEOLOGY 3

vivals of earlier religions. In addition, place

the among
social Russian scholars. Russian advances into
basis of
Central Asia
religious beliefs and values was explored in inWilliam
the second half of the nineteenth cen-
tury opened
Robertson Smith's Lectures on the Religion of theupSemites
new areas for exploration. In 1864 Rus-
(1889; main ed. 1894), a comparativesian history of the
forces captured the cities of Turkestan and Chim-
kent and, in 1866,
Semitic religions in which the relationship Tashkent was annexed. In the war
between
social organization, ritual, and belief against Bukhara, Amir
was analyzed. By Muzzafar al-Din was forced to
the 1890's, therefore, Western scholarscede Samarqand
were and accept a Russian protectorate. By
examining
1873 Khiva
Islam as a defineable cultural and religious had also
entity. been conquered. Following in the
It was
wake art
at this juncture that the study of Islamic of these
and military
archi- gains, Russian scientific expedi-
tecture gained momentum. The generaltions were launched. Indeed, it was at Samarqand in
comments
1885 that
expressed by travelers, historians, and one of the first excavations at an Islamic site
philosophers
occurred.'1
began to be superseded by the opinions of specialists,
some of whom would devote their entire career to Among the first Islamic sites to be officially excavate
studying the subject. by European archaeologists was the Qalca of the Ba
The new outlook was also marked by a change Hammad
in ter- in Algeria, the Hammadid capital in the elev-
minology. The title of the first general exhibition enth and twelfth centuries. Begun by Paul Blanchet in
devoted to Islamic art in Paris, for example, the 1898, the excavation was continued in 1908 under Gen-
Exposi-
tion d'Art Musulman of 1893, was controversial: collec- eral Leon de Beylie.16 Besides being conducted at a sem-
tors had expected the use of such terms as art arabe and inal moment, this excavation was notable for its political
art persan, which were in keeping with a classification of implications. Algeria, which had been declared in the
art based on races and nations, not art musulman.12 The French Constitution of 1848 an integral part of France,
handbooks of Islamic art and architecture that were
was a pivotal region in French imperial expansion. In
being published for the first time also showed this
1881 the French empire in North Africa was enlarged
change in terminology. Albert Gayet's L'art arabe
when(1893)
Tunisia was occupied and declared a protectorate.
and L'art persan (1895) were superseded byFrom 1889 the French launched a drive into the western
Gaston
Migeon and Henri Saladin's Manuel d'art musulman Sudan, and in 1906 began the penetration of Morocco.
(1907). Henceforth, the study of Islamic art and The significance of the excavation of the Qalca of the
archi-
tecture entailed the study of a culture and aBani religion,
Hammad, the Berber center "qui ajoue le role de
rather than the constituent races. capitale de l'Afrique du Nord pendant tout le onzieme
Inquiries into Islamic art and architecture broad-
siecle de notre ere,"'7 was that it encouraged the cre-
ened, and attention was increasingly directed toation
the of an independent identity for French North
Africa that countered the claims of the Ottoman sultan
early centuries of Islam, the period in which scholars
could trace the formation and development of Islamic
as caliph of Islam as well as the sentiments of pan-Ara-
culture and discover its essence. Two scholars in partic-
bism. This interest in the "Berber capital" also reflected
ular were notable for their contributions to the field.
the French policy of separation between the Berber and
Beginning in 1886, the epigrapher Max van Berchem
Arab populations, which was practiced in Algeria and
studied architectural inscriptions in the Middle East andin Morocco. Political motives may also have been at
later
discovered that they provided a range of information,
work when the ruins of Madinat al-Zahra in Spain, the
including details about construction, dates, and residence
sym- of the Umayyad caliphs of C6rdoba, were
bolic meanings.13 A pioneer role was also played by excavated
Frie- by Ricardo Velasquez Bosco around 1910.18 A
drich Sarre, who was pointed in the direction of Islamic
reawakening of the memory of al-Andalus had impor-
archaeology when Karl Humann (who was excavatingtant ramifications at the time when Spain had political
Pergamon) advised him to study the monuments of
ambitions in Morocco. The French and Spanish protec-
medieval Anatolia. In 1895 Sarre organized a journey
torates in Morocco were established in 1912.
through Phrygia, Lycaonia, and Pisidia and in the More
fol- significant for the development of Islamic
lowing years he traveled in Asia Minor and Iran toarchaeology,
dis- however, was the German involvement in
cover architectural monuments and archaeological
the affairs of the Ottoman Empire prior to World War I.
sites. He also examined the Islamic levels in the German With the founding of the Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft
excavations at Baalbek and Miletus.l4
in 1898, which received considerable state support, Ger-
Important developments in Islamic studies also took man archaeologists were able to carry out a significant

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4 STEPHEN VERNOIT

number of excavations in Palestine and Mesopotamia.

packed in wooden cases, but after the British occupa-
Between 1899 and 1914, for example, the tion sites of removed
they were Baby- to England.26
lon and Ashur were excavated by RobertInKoldeway
Iran archaeological
and inquiry was dominated from
Walter Andrae. Political and archaeological
the 1880's considera-
to 1931 by the French, who had purchased the
tions became linked when archaeologicalexclusiveprivileges
rights of excavation. From 1884 to 1886 the ru-
were extended to cover lands acquired ins
forofthe Istanbul-
Biblical Susa, the Elamite capital, were explored
Baghdad railway project,19 especially asby
Ashur
Marcel lay on the
Dieulafoy with the backing of the Franch gov-
route of this line. ernment and the sanction of Nasir al-Din Shah (r. 1848-
In the early years of the twentieth century Islamic 96). Dieulafoy began to excavate in early 1885, but re-
remains in Mesopotamia were explored by individuals turned to France during the summer because the fir-
and institutions of several nationalities. The French mans allowing excavation had been withdrawn. After
were active at several sites,20 and Ernst Herzfeld and
the intervention of Dr. Tholozan, the Shah's physician
Friedrich Sarre made an important journey in down the
Tehran who acted as an intermediary, work was re-
Euphrates and up the Tigris.21 Conrad Preusser,sumed
who in late 1885, with the excavations concluded the
was
a member of the German Babylon expedition, photo-
following year. In 1891 Susa was visited by Jacques de
graphed and made plans of Islamic shrines and Morgan who persuaded the French government about
churches, and Oskar Reuther examined the ruins of the importance of the site. The archaeological conces-
sions offered by Iran to the French in 1885 were re-
Ukhaidir.22 Voyages of exploration were also undertak-
en by the Czech geographer Alois Musil, who madenewed a in 1895; at the same time the French Legation
topographical study of the Middle Euphrates,23 and bygave the Shah 10,000 tumans and presented the Sadr-i
Gertrude Bell.24 ACzam with a piece of tapestry. Mortimer Durand, the
One site that Herzfeld and Sarre visited on their jour-British minister in Tehran, sent a dispatch with the news
ney in 1907-8 was the Abbasid capital of Samarra, and to in Lord Salisbury on 12 February 1896, with the com-
1911 a German expedition headed by Herzfeld began toment that "the formal sale of such exclusive rights in
excavate the site, continuing at intervals until 1914. This
perpetuity seems unfortunate in the interests of anti-
excavation, the most important at an Islamic site priorquarian knowledge."27 In 1897 the Delegation Scienti-
to World War I, set an example of what could be fique Francaise en Perse was created by the French gov-
achieved for many years to come. Herzfeld's career as ernment,
an and under the leadership of de Morgan was
taken to Susa. In 1900 Muzaffar al-Din Shah (r. 1896-
archaeologist began in 1903 when he participated in the
Ashur excavation under the Deutsche Orient-Gesell- 1907) signed a treaty while visiting Paris to the effect
schaft. Equipped with an architectural degreethat all artifacts recovered at Susa could be sent to
from
Charlottenburg which enabled him to visualizeFrance,
build- provided that compensation was made for gold
ings and understand their construction, and a doctoral
and silver objects. De Morgan's work at the site contin-
thesis on the early Achaemenid palace at Pasargadae
ued, and in 1908 his assistant Roland de Mecquenem
(University of Berlin, 1907), he put his training took
to good
over as director of the project. Aside from an inter
use, involving himself at the outset with Islamic asruption
well as of fieldwork during World War I, de Mecque-
pre-Islamic archaeology.25 Herzfeld first met Sarre nemincontinued at the site until 1939.28
1905, and when they undertook their journey of 1907-8,
In the search for portable antiquities that could easily
traveling from Istanbul to the Persian Gulf via Aleppo
be carried to museums, archaeologists were encouraged
and Baghdad, they looked for an Islamic site suitable for
to excavate as large an area as possible with the fund
excavation. The choice of Samarra was later described
available. This approach to work characterized the exca-
by Herzfeld as being Sarre's. The ruins of Samarra had
vations at Susa under de Morgan and de Mecquenem
been known to European scholars since the mid-nine-
Details of the horizontal and vertical relationships
teenth century, and in the summer of 1910 the first
among objects were lost, and the chronological order
soundings were made by the French architect Henriing
Vi- of materials became dependent on typologies tha
ollet, whose investigations were limited to the Dar al- barely supported by stratigraphy. The emphasis o
were
Khilafa, the caliph's palace, where he opened a number
objects of museum quality also dictated that only intac
of trenches. The following year Herzfeld and Sarre or
com-
virtually intact pieces were recorded. A great number
menced their work, with significant results. During of sherds and fragments of other artifacts in fact wen
World War I the finds from Samarra remained in Iraq unrecovered. Yet despite this approach, de Morgan,

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 THE RISE OF ISLAMIC ARCHAEOLOGY 5

much
mining engineer by training, was one of thedamage
firstto the remains of the medieval city and
archae-
ologists in the Middle East to argue that an the
disturbed expedition
stratigraphy. Their activities did, however,
encourage an human
should have wider interests than discovering official excavation. In 1912 work at the
remains, architecture and artifacts; archaeologists,
site was commenced by hethe Museum of Arab Art. CAli
suggested, should also investigate geology,
Bahgat, who climate,
directed the enterprise with little funding,
organized
geography, plants, and animals.29 A similar the fertilizer
interest in diggers and put them under the
supervision
the natural environment was to inspire Raphaelof guards.
Pum-Through their industry an
important
pelly and Hubert Schmidt who excavated the portion of the town was unearthed and a
prehis-
toric site of Anau in Russian Turkestan number
in the of soundings
early twen-were made. During the period of
tieth century.30 excavation, which ended around 1924, thousands of
The new sponsorship of Islamic archaeology objects, some was not
of considerable value, were recovered for
unrelated to the contemporary aesthetic and commer-
the Museum of Arab Art, although no stratigraphy or
cial re-evaluation of Islamic art in the West. The bur- location for any of the major finds was reported, a fail-
geoning trade in Islamic artifacts and the rise ureinrecognized
the by other archaeologists at the time. In
number of clandestine excavations spurred the develop- subsequent decades some smaller excavations were un-
ment of archaeological inquiries. The first wave dertaken
of pot- in various parts of the site, but few were pub-
tery unearthed at Raqqa, for example, came to light lished,
inand it was not until 1964 that a new large-scale
1896.31 As Gertrude Bell pointed out after visiting scientific
Raqqa excavation began.34
in 1909: In the early years of the twentieth century Islamic
items were also sought in Iran at such sites as Rayy, Sulta-
The whole of the two areas of ruin are strewn with pot-
nabad, and Veramin.35 Emile Vignier, the brother of the
sherds of the Mohammadan period, and over the greater
part of the walled city the ground is honeycombed with Parisian dealer Charles Vignier, undertook commercial
irregular holes and trenches, the excavations of peasantsdigging in Iran from 1910 to 1914.36 Some sites such as
in search of the now celebrated Rakkah ware. A few yearsRayy, Sirjan, and Sava were ruined almost beyond recov-
ago their labours were rewarded by a large find of unbro-
ery by clandestine excavations. At Rayy, silks dating to
ken pieces, many of which made their way through the
the tenth and eleventh centuries were removed from
hands of Aleppo dealers to Europe, and though such a
graves in the 1920's.37 In 1926 excavations were also ca
stroke of good fortune is rare, perfect specimens are occa-
sionally unearthed, and I saw a considerable number,ried out at Gurgan by the governor, General Zahedi, wh
together with one or two fragments of exquisite glass recovered pottery, metalwork, and glass.38 These activ
embossed with gold, during the two days I spent at
ities and others indicated the need for organized archa
Rakkah. In some instances the original factories and kilns
have been brought to light....32 ological expeditions to be sent quickly into the field.
Official excavations of Islamic sites in the Iranian
Another site known to yield items was Fustat, world, however, began appreciably later than in wes
founded in Egypt in 642 as the seat of a military garri- Islam. From the 1920's archaeological excavations w
son for Arab troops. It also became the domain of trea- directed at Sasanian sites, such as the German-Ameri
sure hunters. From the standpoint of Islamic archaeol- expedition to Ctesiphon (1928-32), the French exp
ogy, the site was more fortunate than those in which the tion to Bishapur (1935-41), and the American miss
Islamic levels stood in the way of pre-Islamic remains. to Qasr-i Abu Nasr (1932-35) and Istakhr (1935-37)
However, Fustat's proximity to the capital and its sub- When Arthur Upham Pope promoted Iranian art in t
urb, old Cairo, meant that after the abandonment of 1930's as director of the American Institute for Iranian
most of the quarters of Fustat in the late eleventh cen-Art and Archaeology, there was also an important Amer-
tury the site served as a source for building materials, asican mission at Persepolis, led by Herzfeld (1931-35)
well as a large dump, a location for industry, and a spaceand Erich F. Schmidt (1935-39). Islamic items, mean-
for squatters. Beginning in the nineteenth century, Fus-while, were recovered in the 1930's in excavations at
tat was also a source of agricultural fertilizer. Among
Rayy and Nishapur. The excavations carried out at Rayy
those who went to Fustat to search for Islamic remains under Schmidt from 1934 to 1936 were sponsored by the
was the scholar and dealer F.R. Martin, who excavated
Museum of Fine Arts in Boston and the Mrs. William
and removed several thousand fragments in the winterBoyce Thompson Foundation of the University Museum
of 1896.33 The treasure hunters, builders, and fertilizer
in Philadelphia.39 The site of Nishapur, chosen by Wal-
contractors, whose activities were often combined, didter Hauser, Joseph M. Upton, and Charles K. Wilkinson

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6 STEPHEN VERNOIT

as the main
of the Iranian Expedition of the Metropolitan sponsors of research. Particular
Museum
of Art, was excavated from 1935 to 1940,
in with a final ses-
this respect was the involvement of the
sion in 1947.40 tute in Chicago, which reflected the growi
The choice of both of these sites wasAmerican scholars in by
determined Oriental studies.

In Palestine
an awareness that they had been flourishing under for
centers a British mandate, a Department of
Antiquitiesfor
the arts and that fine pieces could be obtained was established
Amer- in 1920, headed byJohn Gar
stang. also
ican museums. However, the excavations Threeprovided
years later a Department of Antiquitie
opened
an opportunity to remedy several decades ofinconfusion
Amman, which facilitated exploration and
caused by clandestine digging. The excavation
term "Nishapur"
in Transjordan. In Syria under a French man
ware, for example, which had been adopted by collec-
date, meanwhile, a Service des Antiquit6s was created. Al
though
tors and museums, was in reality no more the emphasis
than a label ofon Biblical archaeology continued
convenience for dealers handling a wide range
in these ofonce
regions, pot-
such departments had been estab
lished
tery, the exact origin of which remained theyor
secret also served the advancement of Islamic
uncer-
tain. archaeology. The other significant factor was the pres-
ence of suchfor
Aerial photography was gradually introduced scholars
the as Jean Sauvaget at the Institu
Francais
exploration of Islamic sites. This branch at Damascus, Robert Hamilton in Palestine, and
of photography
developed during World War I whenCreswellBritish, French,
in Cairo, who in 1933 set up the Islamic sectio
and German forces began photographing the
of the terrain
Institute of
of Archaeology at Cairo University. This
combination
the Middle East for the purpose of military of factors led to important excavations tak-
observation.
It was soon realized that aerial photographs revealed
ing place in the 1930's at Khirbat al-Mafjar (1934-48)44
aspects of the terrain, such as the outlines of ancient
and Qasr al-Hayr West (1936-38),45 continuing after inde
roads and buildings, that could not be seen with
pendence by work
the ob- at Qasr al-Hayr East (1964-72).46
server on the ground. In the Islamic sphere, the
In Turkey anvalue of law was passed in 1924 to pro-
antiquities
aerial photographs was quickly recognized by K.A.C.
tect archaeological remains and sites. From the 1930's t
1955
Creswell.4i In order to examine the site ofAlbert
Raqqa,Gabriel
for directed
ex- the Institut Francais d'Ar-
ample, he had photographs made bych6ologie in Istanbul
the French and studied the Islamic monu-
39th
ments Between
Regiment of Aviation, 7th Squadron.42 of medieval Anatolia,
1935 Iraq, and Iran.47 After
World
and 1937 Schmidt, accompanied by his War II,made
wife, Seton Lloyd
nu- and David Storm Rice re-
merous flights over Iran taking aerialcorded
photographs for Seljuq monuments in Turkey.
some of the major
archaeological purposes. Their principal aim the
They surveyed was to
ruins of the fortress at Alanya48 and
explore parts of the country that werestudied Seljuq remains in the vicinity. Both Lloyd and
archaeologically
unknown and document importantRice also excavated
sites. Seated at Harran
in a in southeastern Anatolia:

Waco cabin biplane with an F1.K. 25 camera, theysurvey

a preliminary tookin 1951 was followed by two expe
tions in
their photographs in the first two hours 1956 and
after 1959 when Rice elucidated the struc-
sunrise,
when features on the ground stood out in history
tural relief.ofAmong
the Great Mosque.49
their photographs, those of the mosqueThe at preservation
Sava and the of antiquities in Iraq became a ma
plain of Rayy show landscapes riddled ter
with holes made
of importance after a British-Indian army occupi
by treasure hunters.43 Baghdad in 1917. Gertrude Bell, as Oriental Secretary
The dismemberment of the OttomanSir Percy Cox,
Empire and assumed
the responsibility for creating
emergence of the Arab provinces as separate
Departmentstates in the
of Antiquities, and legislation was drawn
for conduct
twentieth century led to a change in the the purpose. Both the newly formed departme
of for-
eign archaeological expeditions. Antiquities
directed bylaws were
Bell and a small museum that she founde
passed, departments of antiquities created
were (at first under
temporarily accommodated in a single room in t
foreign directors), and national museums
Serai. Her founded.
antiquities law stipulated that foreign expe
These measures gave greater protection tions were not permitted to operate in the count
to archaeologi-
cal sites and regulated the conduct of unless
excavations.
constitutedButon as
prescribed lines, and unless the
a consequence there was a change of attitude in the West-
included such experts as an epigrapher, architect, a
ern world concerning the purpose and sponsorship
photographer. Such a of
party would be required to obta
archaeological excavations in Islamic lands. Increasingly
an excavating permit for a site, the exact limits of wh
were previously
museums were replaced by national schools determined. The site could then
or institutes

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 THE RISE OF ISLAMIC ARCHAEOLOGY 7

excavated only in keeping with up-to-dategeneral of theAl-

methods. Department of Antiquities
the National
though all antiquities were in the first place the propertyArchaeological Museum (Ir
He also
of the state, at the end of a season's work initiated the documentation of bot
a representa-
and Islamic
tive collection of objects would be assigned to monuments
the exca- and remains in Iran. As we have
vator in recompense for the work and expense.
seen, the The of the French at this time were
only real rivals
remainder would be added to the national collection.50
the Americans.

This law remained in force for a dozenAfteryears. By

World the
War II there was a considerable growth in
1930's, however, the presence in Iraq of archaeological
a foreigninquiry
direc- in Iran. More fieldwork was car-
ried out there
tor of antiquities and the division of antiquities in the
with for-twenty years between 1958 and 1978
eign missions were causing animosity.51 When
than had Sati al- in the previous seventy years.
been undertaken
The French mission
Husri was appointed Director of Antiquities in 1932 returned
at to Susa under the direc-
tion of
the time of Iraqi independence, he revised Roman
Bell's Ghirshman (1946-67), followed byJea
antiq-
Perrot
uities law to the disadvantage of foreign (1967-90). The American presence in Iran
archaeologists.
The change in attitude towards foreign expeditions
remained strong and,in
after 1958, there were expedition
Iraq had an immediate impact: Leonardfrom
Woolley, for ex-
Great Britain, Japan, Italy, West Germany, Den-
mark,
ample, left Ur, where he had worked Belgium,
since Canada, and Austria; the Germa
1922. The
new outlook at the Iraqi Department of Archaeological
Antiquities Institute
also and the British Institute of Pe
led to Iraqi funds being directed towardssian Islamic archae-
Studies were founded in 1960 and 1961 respectively
By 1960monuments
ology, particularly the restoration of Islamic the Iranian archaeological service was staffe
in Baghdad and the creation of an Islamicentirely by Iranians.
museum. The A program in archaeology w
ruins of the old Abbasid palace in the Serai
begun were
at the re- of Tehran and in the early 1970
University
stored, as were other buildings dating
the from
Iranian Abbasid
Center for Archaeological Research wa
times. Creswell was asked by the Iraqi Department
founded."7 of
The importance of archaeology for under
Antiquities to indicate two Islamic sites standing long-distance
that would repay maritime trade and the nature o
excavation, and he suggested the Umayyad capital
medieval Iranian at
society was demonstrated by excav
tions at Siraf
Wasit and the seventh-century city of Kufa.52 By on the
the Gulf coast between 1966 and 1973,5
late
1930's, two large excavations by the and
Iraqi government
then continued by Iranian archaeologists. Between
were in progress: at Samarra, where 1970
private mansions
and 1977, M.Y Kiani excavated at the Islamic city of
were excavated and a large amount of stucco
Gurgan.59ornament
New intellectual priorities and the increasin
accumulated,3 and at Wasit, where the costs of excavation
mosque with itsin the 1970's, however, were reflecte
adjacent dar al-imara was excavated. Forbythis work newly
an increase of surveys, although eastern Iran sti
trained Iraqi archaeologists such as Fuadremained comparatively
Safar were em- neglected. Scholars also
ployed.54 Kufa, meanwhile, where a worked
few traces of the material produced in the ear
on unpublished
early buildings were visible, was declared an archaeolog-
lier excavations at Nishapur, Rayy, and Istakhr.60
ical site in 1938 and excavations begun. Sati
Since the al-Husri
early twentieth century the geographica
remained in charge of the Iraqi Department
scope ofofIslamic
Antiqui-
archaeology has also been steadily
ties until 1941. During World War II foreign
enlarged archaeolog-
with the inclusion of areas hitherto regarded
ical involvement in Iraq was further as
curtailed
peripheral.and de-
In sub-Saharan Africa the historical
spite the resumption of excavations by foreign
importance of written Arabic sources may have led to
expeditions after the war, the initiative
biaswas no longer
in favor of sites that had Islamic communities. Thu
theirs. In future the most productive sites were allocated
the powerful empires that existed in the Sudanese belt
during the Middle Ages- ancient Ghana, the Ma
by the authorities to Iraqi archaeologists.55
In Iran an antiquities law was passed in 1930
empire, and,
and the Songai empire - began to attrac
shortly after, the French monopoly came to anThe
attention. end. In of ancient Ghana, for example
capital
accordance with the antiquities law half of the
thought material
to have been at Kumbi Saleh in southern Maur
recovered at the Rayy and Nishapur excavations was giv-
itania, was partially excavated.61 Islamic sites along the
en to the Iranian government. During East
the African
1930's coast
archae-
were also excavated, by James Kirk-
man,
ology in Iran remained relatively archaic inNeville Chittick, and others.62 Here a medieva
its methods
and theory. Under the patronage of Arab
Rezacolonial
Shah Pahlevi
culture was encountered, with Persian
(r. 1926-41), however, Andre Godard became director-
Bantu, Somali and Indian elements. The excavations in

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8 STEPHEN VERNOIT

East Africa, like that at Siraf in Iran, also indicated the

NOTES
nature of trade across the Indian Ocean.
1. One of the first organized excavations of an Islamic
A general lament at the unwillingness of Middle East-
occurred in 1885 at Samarqand: J.M. Rogers, "From Antiq
ern archaeology to adopt scientific methods has often
ianism to Islamic Archaeology," Quaderni dell'stituto Itali
been voiced during the twentieth century. Comments Cultura per la RA.E., n.s. 2 (1974): 51. In addition to Rogers'
cle, two other essays are invaluable for introducing some o
have also been made about poorly trained archaeolo-
themes behind the study of Islamic archaeology: Richard Ett
gists and the snare of using cheap local labor with little
hausen, "Islamic Art and Archaeology," in Near Eastern Cu
supervision. Mortimer Wheeler fired a number of salvos
and Society, ed. T. Cuyler Young (Princeton, NJ., 1951), pp.
in this direction,63 although his own attitude towards theGrabar, "Islamic Art and Archaeology," in The Study
Oleg
Islamic levels during his excavation at Balkh inMiddleEast:
the Research and Scholarship in the Humanities and the
Sciences, ed. L. Binder (New York, 1976), pp. 229-63.
1930's left much to be desired.64 Perhaps the greatest
2. In the late eighteenth century, the term "Orientalism
shortcoming of Islamic archaeology has been its unsatis-
orientaliste in France, had entered common usage. See Ma
factory record of publication. A further area of failure,
Rodinson, "The Western Image and Western Studies
but one usually outside the control of archaeologists,
Islam," in The Legacy ofIslam, ed. J. Schacht and C.E. Bosw
(Oxford, 1974).
has been the lack of archaeological involvement in res-
3. See Albert Hourani, "Islam and the Philosophers of Hist
toration projects.65 There has also been a tendency for
Middle Eastern Studies 3, no. 3 (1967); esp. pp. 246-48.
governments and other commentators to use archaeol-
4. James Fergusson, An Essay on the Ancient Topography ofJer
ogy for the purpose of bolstering national identities.
(London, 1847), p. 110.
5. James Fergusson,
Although archaeology originally derived its signifi- The Illustrated Handbook of Architectur
don, 1855), 1: liii.
cance through the historical disciplines, in recent times
6. A.C.T.E. Prisse d'Avennes, Arab Art, trans. J.I. Eryth
the study of history has become more dependent on
(London and Paris, 1983), p. 228.
archaeology. A symptom of this change was the emer-
7. Max Herz, La mosquee du Sultan Hassan au Caire (Cairo,
8. For the nature of Central European scholarship in the
gence of Annales history, with its call for interdisciplin-
twentieth century, see Robert Hillenbrand, "Creswe
ary scholarship. Both historians and archaeologists were
Contemporary European Scholarship," Muqarnas 8 (1
encouraged to relate data on material culture to new ar-
23-35.
eas of historical inquiry. An early example of interdisci-
9. See N.P. Chakravarti, "The Story of Indian Archaeology," in
plinary work in Islamic archaeology was the surveyArchaeology
con- in India, Bureau of Education, India, Publication
ducted by R.M. Adams in 1957-58 into the changing no. 66 (Delhi, 1950), pp.1-15; Sourindranath Roy, "Indian
Archaeology fromJones to Marshall 1784-1902," Ancient India
pattern of land use on the Diyala plains in Iraq over six
9 (1953): 4-28; A. Ghosh, "Fifty Years of the Archaeological
millennia.66 Among historians, Maurice Lombard inSurveythe of India," Ancient India 9 (1953): 29-52; K. Rose, "Lord
1970's used data from Islamic archaeology when writing
Curzon and the Preservation of Indian Monuments," Apollo 92
about coinage and trade in metals and textiles in(1970):
the 144-45; Dilip K. Chakrabarti, A History of Indian Archae-
ology from the Beginning to 1947 (Delhi, 1988).
Arab world and Europe prior to the twelfth century.67
10. Specimens of Islamic pottery were found, for example, in the
The history of medieval Khurasan has also been reexa-
excavation by J.T. Wood at Ephesus (1863-74). The French
mined in the light of archaeological discoveries.68 A excavations
fur- at Susa and the German excavations at Baalbek
ther interdisciplinary approach has emerged from and link-
Miletus also recovered Islamic items.

ing anthropology with archaeology.69 But most Onder, The Museums in Turkey and Examples of the Mas-
11. Mehmet
terpieces in the Museums, trans. P.M. Butler (Ankara, 1977), p. 8;
important of all is the freedom that Islamic archaeology
S.J. Shaw and E.K Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Mod-
has recently gained over the strictures once imposed ernbyTurkey, 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1976-77), 2: 111. For Osman
political history. It is now recognized that the emphasis
Hamdi, the painter, museum director, and archaeologist, see
on excavating sites of significance for political history
Mustafa Cezar, Sanatta Batzya aclzh ve Osman Hamdi (Istanbul,
1971); Mizeci ve ressam Osman Hamdi Bey (Istanbul, 1987).
may give neither a clear understanding of local or sub-
12. Georges Marye, "L'exposition d'art musulman," Gazette des
ject communities nor of the workings of a domestic
Beaux-Arts 10 (1893): 490.
economy. There has also developed an awareness that
13. Max van Berchem persuaded the French Academy to sponsor
the use of precise historical dates to define archaeolog-
a series on Arabic inscriptions, the Materiaux pour un Corpus
ical periods can be misleading.70 Increasingly, then,Inscriptionum
the Arabicarum, which was published from 1896
onwards. For Max van Berchem, see K.A.C. Creswell, "In
Islamic archaeologist has found the freedom to create
new historical contexts. Memoriam - Max van Berchem," Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society (1963): 117-18; Max van Berchem, Opera Minora, 2 vols.
(Geneva, 1978).
London, England 14. For Friedrich Sarre, see J.H. Schmidt, ed., Friedrich Sarre Schrif-

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 THE RISE OF ISLAMIC ARCHAEOLOGY 9

ten zum 22. Juni 1935 (Berlin, 1935); Ernst 30. Glyn Daniel,
Herzfeld, A Short History of Archaeology (London, 1981),
Obituary,
Ars Islamica 11-12 (1946): 210-12; Arthur Upham p.134. Pope, ed.,Pumpelly,
See Raphael A ed., Explorations in Turkestan,
Survey of Persian Art, 14 vols. (London, 1964-67), 14: 0/i-ii.
Expedition of 1904. Prehistoric Civilizations of Anau: Origins,
15. See Rogers, "From Antiquarianism to Islamic Archaeology,"
Growth and Influence of Environment, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.,
pp. 50-55. For an overview of Islamic archaeology 1908). in Central
Asia, see G.A. Pugachenkova and E.V. Rtveladze, 31. Dikran"Archeology,
Khan Kelekian, The Kelekian Collection of Persian and
7," Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 2 (London and New York,
Analogous 1987),
Potteries 1885-1910 (Paris, 1910), Preface.
pp. 322-26. 32. Gertrude L. Bell, Amurath to Amurath, 2nd ed. (London, 1924),
16. See Paul Blanchet, "Rapport sur les travaux executes a la Kalaa pp.59-60.
des Beni Hammad," Recueil des Notices et Memoires de la Societe 33. Fredrik R. Martin, The Persian Lustre Vase in the Imperial Hermit-
Archeologique de Constantine 32 (1898): 97-116; "Description des age at St. Petersburg and Some Fragments of Lustre Found near Cairo
monuments de la Kalaa des Beni Hammad . . . avec notes de atFostdt (Stockholm, 1899), pp. 4-5.
34. Wladyslaw
H. Saladin," Nouvelles Archives des Missions Scientifiques 17, no. 1 B. Kubiak, Al-Fustat: Its Foundation and Early Urban
(1908); Leon M.E. de Beyli6, La Kalaa des Beni Hammad (Paris,
Development (Cairo, 1987), pp. 29-30; Donald M. Reid, "Cultu-
1909); Georges Marcais, Les poteries etfaiences de la Qal'a des ral
BeniImperialism and Nationalism: The Struggle to Define and
Hammad (XIe siecle) (Constantine, 1913). Control the Cultural Heritage of Arab Art in Egypt," Interna-
17. De Beyli6, La Kalaa des Beni Hammad, p. 1. tionalJournal of Middle East Studies 24 (1992): 67 (and n. 50 for
18. See Ricardo Velasquez Bosco, Arte del Califato de Cdrdoba:
sources on CAli Bahgat). See also cAli Bahgat and Albert
Medina Azzahra y Alamiriya (Madrid, 1912). For the growth of
Gabriel, Fouilles d'al-Foustdt (Paris, 1921); cAli Bahgat and F.
Islamic archaeology in Spain, see Margarita Diaz-Andreu, Massoul, La cramique musulmane de lEgypte (Cairo, 1930).
"Islamic Archaeology and the Origin of the Spanish Nation,"
35. Charles Vignier and Roger Fry, "The New Excavations at
in Nationalism and Archaeology in Europe, ed. M. Diaz-Andreu
Rhages," Burlington Magazine 25 (1914): 211-18; Kelekian, The
and T. Champion (London, 1996), pp. 68-89. Kelekian Collection of Persian and Analogous Potteries, Preface.
19. Maybelle K. Chapman, Great Britain and the Bagdad 36. A.S. Melikian-Chirvani, "The Aesthetics of Islam," in Treasures
Railway
1888-1914 (Northampton, Mass., 1948), p. 43. of Islam, ed. Toby Falk (London, 1985), p. 20, n. 4.
20. See Louis Massignon, Mission en Mdsopotamie, 2 vols.37.(Cairo,
See Gaston Wiet, Soieries persanes (Cairo, 1948).
1910-12). For the work of Leon de Beylie and Henri 38.
Viollet,
M.Y Kiani, The Islamic City of Gurgan (Berlin, 1984), p. 9.
see n. 26 below. 39. For Rayy, see the articles by Erich F. Schmidt in the Bulletin of
21. See Friedrich Sarre and Ernst Herzfeld, Archdologische Reise im the University ofPennsylvania Museum 5-6 (1935-36), and "Exca-
Euphrat- und Tigris-Gebiet, 4 vols. (Berlin, 1911-20). vations at Rayy," Ars Islamica 2 (1935): 139-41; A.R. Hall, "The
22. See Conrad Preusser, Nordmesopotamische Baudenkmdler altchris- Persian Expedition 1934," Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts,
tlicher und islamischer Zeit (Leipzig, 1911); Oskar Reuther, Ochei- Boston 33 (1935): 55-59.
dir, nach Aufnahmen von Mitgliedern der Babylon-Expedition der
40. Reports of the excavations at Nishapur appeared in the Bulle-
Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft (Leipzig, 1912). tin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art 31 (1936): 176-80; 32
23. See Alois Musil, The Middle Euphrates: A Topographical Itinerary (1937): 3-36; 33 (1938): 3-25; and 37 (1942): 83-104. After the
(New York, 1927). death of Walter Hauser and a change in Joseph Upton's
24. See Gertrude L. Bell, Amurath to Amurath (London, 1911); Pal- career, Charles Wilkinson was left responsible for the publica-
ace and Mosque at Ukhaidir: A Study in Early Mohammadan Archi- tion of the results of the excavation. This project commenced
tecture (Oxford, 1914). with Charles K. Wilkinson, Nishapur: Pottery of the Early Islamic
25. For Ernst Herzfeld, see George C. Miles, "The Writings of Period (New York, [1973]), followed byJames Allan, Nishapur:
Ernst Herzfeld," Ars Islamica 7 (1940): 82-92 (with supplement Metalwork of the Early Islamic Period (New York, 1982), and
in Ars Islamica 15-16 (1951): 266-67; Richard Ettinghausen, Charles K. Wilkinson, Nishapur: SomeEarly Islamic Buildings and
"Ernst Herzfeld 1879-1948," Ars Islamica 15-16 (1951): 261-66; TheirDecoration (New York, 1986).
Archaeologica Orientalia in Memoriam Ernst Herzfeld, ed. George41. For K.A.C. Creswell, see Studies in Islamic Architecture in Honour
C. Miles (Locust Valley, N.Y, 1952). of Professor KA. C. Creswell (Cairo, 1965); the obituary by Klaus
26. Other remains from Samarra went to Istanbul. The reports of Brisch in Kunst des Orients 9 (1973-74): 176-82; and by Robert
Herzfeld and Sarre's excavations were published as Die Ausgra- W. Hamilton in Proceedings of the British Academy 60 (1974):
bungen von Samarra (Berlin, Hamburg, 1923-48). See also 3-20, the latter reprinted in Muqarnas 8 (1991): 128-36 (issue
Leon M.E. de Beylie: Prome et Samara: Voyage archeologique en Bir- entitled KA. C. Creswell and His Legacy).
manie et en Mesopotamie (Paris, 1907); Henri Viollet, Description
42. K.A.C. Creswell, A Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture
du palais de Al-Moutasim, fils d'Haroun-al-Raschid d Samara (Harmondsworth, 1958), p. 186.
(Paris, 1909); Fouilles d Samara en Mesopotamie: Un palais musul-
43. Erich F. Schmidt, Flights over Ancient Cities of Iran (Chicago,
man du IXe siecle (Paris, 1911). 1940), pp. 3-6 and plates 30, 34.
27. London, British Museum, Original Letters and Papers, 1896:44. See Robert W. Hamilton, Khirbat al-Mafjar: An Arabian Mansion
copy of the despatch from Mortimer Durand to Lord Salis- in the Jordan Valley (Oxford, 1959); Walid and His Friends: An
bury, dated Tehran, 12 February 1896. Umayyad Tragedy (Oxford, 1988). A further aspect of Hamil-
28. See P.O. Harper, J. Aruz, and F. Tallon, eds., The Royal City of ton's archaeological investigations was his seminal study of a
Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre (New York, single monument, The Structural History of the Aqsa Mosque: A
1992), pp. 16-22. Record of Archaeological Gleanings from the Repairs of 1938-1942
29. T.C. Young, "Archeology, 1," Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 2 (Lon- (Jerusalem, 1949).
don and New York, 1987), p. 286. 45. See Daniel Schlumberger, "Les fouilles de Qasr el-Hair el-

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10 STEPHEN VERNOIT

Gharbi," Syria 20 (1939): 195-238, 324-73; logical "Deux fresques

Reconnaissance of the Southern Somali Coast," Azania
omeyyades," Syria 25 (1946-48): 86-102; Qasr 4el-Hair el-Gharbi
(1969): 115-30; Kilwa: An Islamic Trading City on the East Afri-
(Paris, 1986). can Coast, 2 vols. (Nairobi, 1974); "An Archaeological Recon-
46. See Oleg Grabar, Renata Holod, James Knustad, naissance in the
and Horn: The British-Somali Expedition, 1975,"
William
Trousdale, City in the Desert: Qasr al-Hayr East, Azania2 11 (1976):
vols. 117-33; Manda: Excavations at an Island Port
(Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1978). on the Kenya Coast (Nairobi, 1984).
47. For Albert Gabriel, see the obituary in Academie63. "They des
have Inscriptions
generally gone East as class-room or museum ori-
et Belles-Lettres: Comptes Rendus des Sdancesentalists,(January with the bare knowledge of an ancient language or of
1973),
pp. 1-2. See also Albert Gabriel, Monuments turcs more-or-less classified exhibits
d'Anatolie, 2 and disjecta but without practi-
vols. (Paris, 1931-34); Voyages archeologiques dans cal experience
la Turquie of theori-
field-problem. And, once there, they are
generally lost.
entale, 2 vols. (Paris, 1940); Une capitale turque: Brousse, An excavator
Bursa, 2 may work for years on a remote
vols. (Paris, 1958). Asiatic site without being able to discuss his methods and
48. See Seton Lloyd and David Storm Rice, Alanya results on(CAldaiyya)
the spot with competent critics. In the second place,
(London, 1958). For David Storm Rice, seeJ.B. Segal's
Eastern obitu-
excavation has in the past tended to attract relatively
ary in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and Africanliberal endowment,
Studies either
25 through the natural lure of a Bibli-
(1962): 666-71; and Ralph H. Pinder-Wilson's cal in context, or of association
the Journal of with famous and impressive civi-
the Royal Asiatic Society (1963): 121-23. lizations, or of the general 'romance' of the Orient, or even of
49. Seton Lloyd, The Interval: A Life in Near Eastern the East asArchaeology
a winter-tourist objective to wealthy Western bene-
(Faringdon, Oxon, 1986), pp. 145-47. factors. This liberal endowment, coupled with the relatively
50. Seton Lloyd, Foundations in the Dust: A Story cheap
of cost of native labour, has encouraged wholesale mass-
Mesopotamian
Exploration (London, 1947), pp. 205-6. excavation, rewarded by extensive building-plans and ample
51. See C. Leonard Woolley, "Antiquities Law, Iraq," finds whichAntiquity 9
gratify the patron but are far beyond the capacity
(1935): 84-88. of anything approaching exact record." Mortimer Wheeler
also commented
52. Creswell, A Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture, p. on
41.the nature of the sites: "... the common

53. See Excavations at Samarra 1936-1939, pt.l: use of mud-brick and

Architecture for building and the impact of extreme
weather-conditions
Mural Decoration, Government of Iraq, Department of Antiqui- have often (though not always) combin
ties (Baghdad, 1940). to deepen the strata of an Eastern site, so that their over-
54. See Fuad Safar, Wasit: The Sixth Season's Excavations (Cairo, depth may be at least five times as great as on a closely inte
1945). Safar was a graduate of the Oriental Institute in Chi- leaved British site. It is understandable that these deep strat
cago. encourage proportionately drastic methods of excavatio
55. Lloyd, The Interval, pp. 75-76, 176. See also David Oates and which tend to outpace supervision. A ruined mud-brick build
Joan Oates, "The Near East: A Personal View," in Antiquity and ing will dissolve into several feet of almost uniform depos
Man: Essays in Honour of Glyn Daniel, ed. John D. Evans, Barry desert winds will cover it with a thick mantle of undifferen-

Cunliffe and Colin Renfrew (London, 1981), pp. 30-31. tiated sand; torrential rains will transfer material in bulk and
56. For Andre Godard, see Henri Mass6's obituary, Journal Asia- may artificially intermix and level it" (Mortimer Wheeler,
tique252 (1965): 415-17. Archaeology from the Earth [Harmondsworth, 1964], pp. 35-36).
57. Young, "Archeology, 1," p.284. For an overview of Islamic 64. Rogers, "From Antiquarianism to Islamic Archaeology,"
archaeology in Iran, see Robert Hillenbrand, "Archeology, 6," pp.61-63.
Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 2 (London and New York, 1987), 65. Grabar, "Islamic Art and Archaeology," p. 238. For restoration
pp. 317-22. projects with a more successful outcome for scholarship, see
58. Excavation reports from Siraf were published by David White- Robert W. Hamilton, The Structural History of the Aqsa Mosque
house in Iran 6-12 (1968-74). See also idem, "Islamic Glazed (Jerusalem, 1949); G. Zander, Travaux de restauration de monu-
Pottery in Iraq and the Persian Gulf," Annali: AION39 (1979): ments historiques en Iran: Rapports et etudes preliminaires (Rome,
45-61; Siraf III: The Congregational Mosque and Other Mosques 1968); E. Galdieri, Isfahan: Masgid-i GumCa, 2 vols. (Rome,
from the Ninth to the Twelfth Centuries (London, 1980); N.M. Low- 1972-74).
ick, Siraf XV: The Coins and Monumental Inscriptions (London, 66. See Robert M. Adams, Land Behind Baghdad: A History of Settle-
1985); E.J. Keall and R.B. Mason, "The CAbbasid Glazed Wares ment on the Diyala Plains (Chicago and London, 1965).
of Siraf and the Basra Connection: Petrographic Analysis," 67. Maurice Lombard, Etudes d'economie medievale, 3 vols. (1971-
Iran 29 (1991): 51-66. 78): see Andrew Sherratt, "What Can Archaeologists Learn
59. See M.Y Kiani, The Islamic City of Gurgan (Berlin, 1984). from Annalistes?," in Archaeology, Annales, and Ethnohistory, ed.
60. See E.J. Keall, "The Topography and Architecture of Medieval A. Bernard Knapp (Cambridge, 1992), p. 138.
Rayy," in Akten des VII. Internationalen Kongresses fur Iranische 68. E.g., see Richard W. Bulliet, "Pottery Styles and Social Status in
Kunst und Archdologie [1976] (Berlin, 1979), pp.537-44; Medieval Khurasan," in Archaeology, Annales, and Ethnohistory,
Donald Whitcomb, "The City of Istakhr and the Marvdasht ed. A. Bernard Knapp (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 75-82.
Plain," ibid., pp. 363-70; for Nishapur, see n. 40 above. 69. E.g., see Charles L. Redman, "Archeology in a Medieval City of
61. E.g. see P. Thomassey and R. Mauny, "Campagne de fouilles a Islam," Middle East Studies Association Bulletin 14, no. 2 (1980):
Koumbi Saleh," Bulletin de l'Institut Francais d'Afrique Noire 1-22.
(1951): 438-62; "Campagne de fouilles a Koumbi Saleh 70. This issue, for example, affects Islamic archaeology in Jordan:
(Ghana?)," ibid., (1956): 117-40. see Donald Whitcomb, "Reassessing the Archaeology of Jor-
62. E.g. see James Kirkman, The Arab City of Gedi: Excavations at the dan of the Abbasid Period," Studies in the History and Archaeol-
Great Mosque (Oxford, 1954); Neville Chittick, "An Archaeo- ogy ofJordan 4 (Amman, 1992): 385-90.

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