Battle of Hastings

Coordinates: 50°54′43″N 0°29′15″E
Battle of Hastings
The Battle of Hastings[a] was fought on 14 October
Battle of Hastings
1066 between the Norman-French army of William, the
Duke of Normandy, and an English army under the Part of the Norman conquest of England
Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson, beginning the
Norman conquest of England. It took place
approximately 7 mi (11 km) northwest of Hastings,
close to the present-day town of Battle, East Sussex,
and was a decisive Norman victory.
The background to the battle was the death of the

childless King Edward the Confessor in January 1066,
which set up a succession struggle between several
claimants to his throne. Harold was crowned king
shortly after Edward's death, but faced invasions by
William, his own brother Tostig, and the Norwegian
King Harald Hardrada (Harold III of Norway).
Hardrada and Tostig defeated a hastily gathered army
of Englishmen at the Battle of Fulford on 20 September Harold Rex Interfectus Est: "King Harold is
1066, and were in turn defeated by Harold at the Battle killed". Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry
of Stamford Bridge five days later. The deaths of Tostig depicting the Battle of Hastings and the death
and Hardrada at Stamford Bridge left William as
of Harold.
Harold's only serious opponent. While Harold and his
forces were recovering, William landed his invasion Date 14 October 1066
forces in the south of England at Pevensey on 28 Location Battle near Hastings, East
September 1066 and established a beachhead for his Sussex, England
conquest of the kingdom. Harold was forced to march
50°54′43″N 0°29′15″E
south swiftly, gathering forces as he went.
Result Norman victory
The exact numbers present at the battle are unknown as
Belligerents
even modern estimates vary considerably. The
composition of the forces is clearer; the English army Normans Anglo-Saxon England
was composed almost entirely of infantry and had few Commanders and leaders
archers, whereas only about half of the invading force
was infantry, the rest split equally between cavalry and William of Normandy Harold Godwinson †
archers. Harold appears to have tried to surprise Alan the Red Gyrth Godwinson †
William, but scouts found his army and reported its William FitzOsbern Leofwine Godwinson †
arrival to William, who marched from Hastings to the Eustace II, Count of
battlefield to confront Harold. The battle lasted from Boulogne
about 9 am to dusk. Early efforts of the invaders to
Strength
break the English battle lines had little effect; therefore,
the Normans adopted the tactic of pretending to flee in Unknown, estimates Unknown, estimates
panic and then turning on their pursuers. Harold's range from 7,000 to range from 5,000 to
death, probably near the end of the battle, led to the 12,000 13,000
retreat and defeat of most of his army. After further
marching and some skirmishes, William was crowned as king on Christmas Day 1066.
There continued to be rebellions and resistance to
William's rule, but Hastings effectively marked the
culmination of William's conquest of England.
Casualty figures are hard to come by, but some Crowborough
historians estimate that 2,000 invaders died along
with about twice that number of Englishmen. Uckfield
Rye
Heathfield
William founded a monastery at the site of the battle, Battle
the high altar of the abbey church supposedly placed Lewes
Hastings
at the spot where Harold died. Newhaven Hailsham Bexhill-on-
Peacehaven Sea
Seaford Eastbourne
Contents Site of the Battle of Hastings in East Sussex
Background
Succession crisis in England
Tostig and Hardrada's invasions
English army and Harold's preparations
William's preparations and landing
Norman forces at Hastings
Harold moves south
English forces at Hastings
Battle
Background and location
Dispositions of forces and tactics
Beginning of the battle
Feigned flights
Death of Harold
Reasons for the outcome
Aftermath
Notes
Citations
References
External links
Background
In 911, the Carolingian ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings to settle in Normandy under
their leader Rollo.[1] Their settlement proved successful,[2][b] and they quickly adapted to the indigenous
culture, renouncing paganism, converting to Christianity,[3] and intermarrying with the local population.[4]
Over time, the frontiers of the duchy expanded to the west.[5] In 1002, King Æthelred II married Emma, the
sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy.[6] Their son Edward the Confessor spent many years in exile in
Normandy, and succeeded to the English throne in 1042.[7] This led to the establishment of a powerful
Norman interest in English politics, as Edward drew heavily on his former hosts for support, bringing in
Norman courtiers, soldiers, and clerics and appointing them to positions of power, particularly in the
Church. Edward was childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex, and
his sons, and he may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandy's ambitions for the English
throne.[8]
Succession crisis in England
King Edward's death on 5 January 1066[9][c] left no clear heir, and several contenders laid claim to the
throne of England.[11] Edward's immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, the
richest and most powerful of the English aristocrats and son of Godwin, Edward's earlier opponent. Harold
was elected king by the Witenagemot of England and crowned by Ealdred, the Archbishop of York,
although Norman propaganda claimed that the ceremony was performed by Stigand, the uncanonically
elected Archbishop of Canterbury.[11][12] Harold was at once challenged by two powerful neighbouring
rulers. Duke William claimed that he had been promised the throne by King Edward and that Harold had
sworn agreement to this.[13] Harald Hardrada of Norway also contested the succession. His claim to the
throne was based on an agreement between his predecessor Magnus the Good and the earlier King of
England Harthacnut, whereby, if either died without heir, the other would inherit both England and
Norway.[14] William and Harald Hardrada immediately set about assembling troops and ships for separate
invasions.[15][d]
Tostig and Hardrada's invasions
In early 1066, Harold's exiled brother Tostig Godwinson raided southeastern England with a fleet he had
recruited in Flanders, later joined by other ships from Orkney. Threatened by Harold's fleet, Tostig moved
north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire. He was driven back to his ships by the brothers Edwin,
Earl of Mercia and Morcar, Earl of Northumbria. Deserted by most of his followers, he withdrew to
Scotland, where he spent the middle of the year recruiting fresh forces.[21] Hardrada invaded northern
England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men.
Hardrada's army was further augmented by the forces of Tostig, who supported the Norwegian king's bid
for the throne. Advancing on York, the Norwegians occupied the city after defeating a northern English
army under Edwin and Morcar on 20 September at the Battle of Fulford.[22]
English army and Harold's preparations

The English army was organised along regional lines, with the
fyrd, or local levy, serving under a local magnate – whether an earl,
bishop, or sheriff.[23] The fyrd was composed of men who owned
their own land, and were equipped by their community to fulfil the
king's demands for military forces. For every five hides,[24] or
units of land nominally capable of supporting one household,[25]
one man was supposed to serve.[24] It appears that the hundred
was the main organising unit for the fyrd.[26] As a whole, England
could furnish about 14,000 men for the fyrd, when it was called
The location of the Battle of
out. The fyrd usually served for two months, except in
Stamford Bridge
emergencies. It was rare for the whole national fyrd to be called
out; between 1046 and 1065 it was only done three times, in 1051,
1052, and 1065.[24] The king also had a group of personal
armsmen, known as housecarls, who formed the backbone of the royal forces. Some earls also had their
own forces of housecarls. Thegns, the local landowning elites, either fought with the royal housecarls or
attached themselves to the forces of an earl or other magnate.[23] The fyrd and the housecarls both fought
on foot, with the major difference between them being the housecarls' superior armour. The English army
does not appear to have had a significant number of archers.[26]
Harold had spent mid-1066 on the south coast with a large army and fleet waiting for William to invade.
The bulk of his forces were militia who needed to harvest their crops, so on 8 September Harold dismissed
the militia and the fleet.[27] Learning of the Norwegian invasion he rushed north, gathering forces as he
went, and took the Norwegians by surprise, defeating them at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25
September. Harald Hardrada and Tostig were killed, and the Norwegians suffered such great losses that
only 24 of the original 300 ships were required to carry away the survivors. The English victory came at
great cost, as Harold's army was left in a battered and weakened state, and far from the south.[28]
William's preparations and landing

William assembled a large invasion fleet and an army gathered
from Normandy and the rest of France, including large contingents
from Brittany and Flanders.[30] He spent almost nine months on
his preparations, as he had to construct a fleet from nothing.[e]
According to some Norman chronicles, he also secured diplomatic
support, although the accuracy of the reports has been a matter of
On landing at Pevensey, William
historical debate. The most famous claim is that Pope Alexander II
established a castle within the ruins
of the Roman fort. While the
gave a papal banner as a token of support, which only appears in
outermost walls date from the William of Poitiers's account, and not in more contemporary
Roman period, the surviving narratives.[33] In April 1066 Halley's Comet appeared in the sky,
buildings of the inner bailey post-date and was widely reported throughout Europe. Contemporary
William.[29] accounts connected the comet's appearance with the succession
crisis in England.[34][f]
William mustered his forces at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme, and was ready to cross the English Channel by
about 12 August.[36] But the crossing was delayed, either because of unfavourable weather or to avoid
being intercepted by the powerful English fleet. The Normans crossed to England a few days after Harold's
victory over the Norwegians, following the dispersal of Harold's naval force, and landed at Pevensey in
Sussex on 28 September.[30][g][h] A few ships were blown off course and landed at Romney, where the
Normans fought the local fyrd.[32] After landing, William's forces built a wooden castle at Hastings, from
which they raided the surrounding area.[30] More fortifications were erected at Pevensey.[51]
Norman forces at Hastings
The exact numbers and

composition of William's force are
unknown.[31] A contemporary
document claims that William had
776 ships, but this may be an
inflated figure.[52] Figures given
by contemporary writers for the
size of the army are highly
exaggerated, varying from 14,000 Norman knights and archers at the Battle of Hastings, as depicted in
to 150,000.[53] Modern historians the Bayeux Tapestry
have offered a range of estimates
for the size of William's forces:
7,000–8,000 men, 1,000–2,000 of them cavalry;[54] 10,000–12,000 men;[53] 10,000 men, 3,000 of them
cavalry;[55] or 7,500 men.[31] The army consisted of cavalry, infantry, and archers or crossbowmen, with
about equal numbers of cavalry and archers and the foot soldiers equal in number to the other two types
combined.[56] Later lists of companions of William the Conqueror are extant, but most are padded with
extra names; only about 35 named individuals can be reliably identified as having been with William at
Hastings.[31][57][i]
The main armour used was chainmail hauberks, usually knee-length, with slits to allow riding, some with
sleeves to the elbows. Some hauberks may have been made of scales attached to a tunic, with the scales
made of metal, horn or hardened leather. Headgear was usually a conical metal helmet with a band of metal
extending down to protect the nose.[59] Horsemen and infantry carried shields. The infantryman's shield
was usually round and made of wood, with reinforcement of metal. Horsemen had changed to a kite-
shaped shield and were usually armed with a lance. The couched lance, carried tucked against the body
under the right arm, was a relatively new refinement and was probably not used at Hastings; the terrain was
unfavourable for long cavalry charges. Both the infantry and cavalry usually fought with a straight sword,
long and double-edged. The infantry could also use javelins and long spears.[60] Some of the cavalry may
have used a mace instead of a sword. Archers would have used a self bow or a crossbow, and most would
not have had armour.[61]
Harold moves south

After defeating his brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north, Harold left much of his forces in the
north, including Morcar and Edwin, and marched the rest of his army south to deal with the threatened
Norman invasion.[62] It is unclear when Harold learned of William's landing, but it was probably while he
was travelling south. Harold stopped in London, and was there for about a week before Hastings, so it is
likely that he spent about a week on his march south, averaging about 27 mi (43 km) per day,[63] for the
approximately 200 mi (320 km).[64] Harold camped at Caldbec Hill on the night of 13 October, near what
was described as a "hoar-apple tree". This location was about 8 mi (13 km) from William's castle at
Hastings.[65][j] Some of the early contemporary French accounts mention an emissary or emissaries sent by
Harold to William, which is likely. Nothing came of these efforts.[66]
Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans, William's scouts reported the English arrival to the
duke. The exact events preceding the battle are obscure, with contradictory accounts in the sources, but all
agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy.[66] Harold had taken a
defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill (present-day Battle, East Sussex), about 6 mi (9.7 km) from
William's castle at Hastings.[67]
English forces at Hastings
The exact number of soldiers in Harold's army is unknown. The contemporary records do not give reliable
figures; some Norman sources give 400,000 to 1,200,000 men on Harold's side.[k] The English sources
generally give very low figures for Harold's army, perhaps to make the English defeat seem less
devastating.[69] Recent historians have suggested figures of between 5,000 and 13,000 for Harold's army at
Hastings,[70] and most modern historians argue for a figure of 7,000–8,000 English troops.[26][71] These
men would have been a mix of the fyrd and housecarls. Few individual Englishmen are known to have
been at Hastings;[31] about 20 named individuals can reasonably be assumed to have fought with Harold at
Hastings, including Harold's brothers Gyrth and Leofwine and two other relatives.[58][l]
The English army consisted entirely of infantry. It is possible that
some of the higher class members of the army rode to battle, but
when battle was joined they dismounted to fight on foot.[m] The
core of the army was made up of housecarls, full-time professional
soldiers. Their armour consisted of a conical helmet, a mail
hauberk, and a shield, which might be either kite-shaped or
round.[72] Most housecarls fought with the two-handed Danish
battleaxe, but they could also carry a sword.[73] The rest of the
army was made up of levies from the fyrd, also infantry but more
lightly armoured and not professionals. Most of the infantry would
Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry
have formed part of the shield wall, in which all the men in the
depicting mounted Norman soldiers
attacking Anglo-Saxons who are
front ranks locked their shields together. Behind them would have
fighting on foot in a shield wall been axemen and men with javelins as well as archers.[74]
Battle
Background and location
Because many of the primary accounts contradict each other at

times, it is impossible to provide a description of the battle that is
beyond dispute.[75] The only undisputed facts are that the fighting
began at 9 am on Saturday 14 October 1066 and that the battle
lasted until dusk.[76] Sunset on the day of the battle was at
4:54 pm, with the battlefield mostly dark by 5:54 pm and in full
darkness by 6:24 pm. Moonrise that night was not until 11:12 pm,
so once the sun set, there was little light on the battlefield.[77]
William of Jumièges reports that Duke William kept his army
The battlefield from the north side
armed and ready against a surprise night attack for the entire night
before.[75] The battle took place 7 mi (11 km) north of Hastings at
the present-day town of Battle,[78] between two hills – Caldbec Hill to the north and Telham Hill to the
south. The area was heavily wooded, with a marsh nearby.[79] The name traditionally given to the battle is
unusual – there were several settlements much closer to the battlefield than Hastings. The Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle called it the battle "at the hoary apple tree". Within 40 years, the battle was described by the
Anglo-Norman chronicler Orderic Vitalis as "Senlac",[n] a Norman-French adaptation of the Old English
word "Sandlacu", which means "sandy water".[o] This may have been the name of the stream that crosses
the battlefield.[p] The battle was already being referred to as "bellum Hasestingas" or "Battle of Hastings"
by 1086, in the Domesday Book.[83]
Sunrise was at 6:48 am that morning, and reports of the day record that it was unusually bright.[84] The
weather conditions are not recorded.[85] The route that the English army took south to the battlefield is not
known precisely. Several roads are possible: one, an old Roman road that ran from Rochester to Hastings
has long been favoured because of a large coin hoard found nearby in 1876. Another possibility is the
Roman road between London and Lewes and then over local tracks to the battlefield.[75] Some accounts of
the battle indicate that the Normans advanced from Hastings to the battlefield, but the contemporary
account of William of Jumièges places the Normans at the site of the battle the night before.[86] Most
historians incline towards the former view,[67][84][87][88] but M. K. Lawson argues that William of
Jumièges's account is correct.[86]
Dispositions of forces and tactics

Harold's forces deployed in a small, dense formation at the top of
steep slope,[84] with their flanks protected by woods and marshy
ground in front of them.[88] The line may have extended far
enough to be anchored on a nearby stream.[89] The English
formed a shield wall, with the front ranks holding their shields
close together or even overlapping to provide protection from
attack.[90] Sources differ on the exact site that the English fought
on: some sources state the site of the abbey,[91][92][93] but some
Battle dispositions newer sources suggest it was Caldbec Hill.[89][84]
More is known about the Norman deployment.[94] Duke William

appears to have arranged his forces in three groups, or "battles", which roughly corresponded to their
origins. The left units were the Bretons,[95] along with those from Anjou, Poitou and Maine. This division
was led by Alan the Red, a relative of the Breton count.[90] The centre was held by the Normans,[95] under
the direct command of the duke and with many of his relatives and kinsmen grouped around the ducal
party.[90] The final division, on the right, consisted of the Frenchmen,[95] along with some men from
Picardy, Boulogne, and Flanders. The right was commanded by William fitzOsbern and Count Eustace II
of Boulogne.[90] The front lines were made up of archers, with a line of foot soldiers armed with spears
behind.[95] There were probably a few crossbowmen and slingers in with the archers.[90] The cavalry was
held in reserve,[95] and a small group of clergymen and servants situated at the base of Telham Hill was not
expected to take part in the fighting.[90]
William's disposition of his forces implies that he planned to open the battle with archers in the front rank
weakening the enemy with arrows, followed by infantry who would engage in close combat. The infantry
would create openings in the English lines that could be exploited by a cavalry charge to break through the
English forces and pursue the fleeing soldiers.[90]
Beginning of the battle
The battle opened with the Norman archers shooting uphill at the
English shield wall, to little effect. The uphill angle meant that the
arrows either bounced off the shields of the English or overshot
their targets and flew over the top of the hill.[95][q] The lack of
English archers hampered the Norman archers, as there were few
English arrows to be gathered up and reused.[96] After the attack
from the archers, William sent the spearmen forward to attack the
English. They were met with a barrage of missiles, not arrows but
View of the battlefield looking
spears, axes and stones.[95] The infantry was unable to force towards Senlac Hill
openings in the shield wall, and the cavalry advanced in
support.[96] The cavalry also failed to make headway, and a
general retreat began, blamed on the Breton division on William's left.[97] A rumour started that the duke
had been killed, which added to the confusion. The English forces began to pursue the fleeing invaders, but
William rode through his forces, showing his face and yelling that he was still alive.[98] The duke then led a
counter-attack against the pursuing English forces; some of the English rallied on a hillock before being
overwhelmed.[97]
It is not known whether the English pursuit was ordered by Harold or if it was spontaneous. Wace relates
that Harold ordered his men to stay in their formations but no other account gives this detail. The Bayeux
Tapestry depicts the death of Harold's brothers Gyrth and Leofwine occurring just before the fight around
the hillock. This may mean that the two brothers led the pursuit.[99] The Carmen de Hastingae Proelio
relates a different story for the death of Gyrth, stating that the duke slew Harold's brother in combat,
perhaps thinking that Gyrth was Harold. William of Poitiers states that the bodies of Gyrth and Leofwine
were found near Harold's, implying that they died late in the battle. It is possible that if the two brothers
died early in the fighting their bodies were taken to Harold, thus accounting for their being found near his
body after the battle. The military historian Peter Marren speculates that if Gyrth and Leofwine died early in
the battle, that may have influenced Harold to stand and fight to the end.[100]
Feigned flights
A lull probably occurred early in the afternoon, and a break for rest
and food would probably have been needed.[99] William may have
also needed time to implement a new strategy, which may have
been inspired by the English pursuit and subsequent rout by the
Normans. If the Normans could send their cavalry against the
shield wall and then draw the English into more pursuits, breaks in
the English line might form.[101] William of Poitiers says the tactic
was used twice. Although arguments have been made that the
chroniclers' accounts of this tactic were meant to excuse the flight
of the Norman troops from battle, this is unlikely as the earlier
flight was not glossed over. It was a tactic used by other Norman
armies during the period.[99][r] Some historians have argued that
Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry the story of the use of feigned flight as a deliberate tactic was
showing mounted Norman
invented after the battle; however most historians agree that it was
cavalrymen fighting Anglo-Saxon
used by the Normans at Hastings.[102]
infantry
Although the feigned flights did not break the lines, they probably
thinned out the housecarls in the English shield wall. The
housecarls were replaced with members of the fyrd, and the shield wall held.[99] Archers appear to have
been used again before and during an assault by the cavalry and infantry led by the duke. Although 12th-
century sources state that the archers were ordered to shoot at a high angle to shoot over the front of the
shield wall, there is no trace of such an action in the more contemporary accounts.[103] It is not known how
many assaults were launched against the English lines, but some sources record various actions by both
Normans and Englishmen that took place during the afternoon's fighting.[104] The Carmen claims that
Duke William had two horses killed under him during the fighting, but William of Poitiers's account states
that it was three.[105]
Death of Harold
Harold appears to have died late in the battle, although accounts in

the various sources are contradictory. William of Poitiers only
mentions his death, without giving any details on how it occurred.
The Tapestry is not helpful, as it shows a figure holding an arrow
sticking out of his eye next to a falling fighter being hit with a
sword. Over both figures is a statement "Here King Harold has
been killed".[103] It is not clear which figure is meant to be Harold,
or if both are meant.[107][s] The earliest written mention of the
traditional account of Harold dying from an arrow to the eye dates
Stone marking the spot of the high
to the 1080s from a history of the Normans written by an Italian
altar at Battle Abbey, where Harold
monk, Amatus of Montecassino.[108][t] William of Malmesbury died[106]
stated that Harold died from an arrow to the eye that went into the
brain, and that a knight wounded Harold at the same time. Wace
repeats the arrow-to-the-eye account. The Carmen states that Duke William killed Harold, but this is
unlikely, as such a feat would have been recorded elsewhere.[103] The account of William of Jumièges is
even more unlikely, as it has Harold dying in the morning, during the first fighting. The Chronicle of Battle
Abbey states that no one knew who killed Harold, as it happened in the press of battle.[110] A modern
biographer of Harold, Ian Walker, states that Harold probably died from an arrow in the eye, although he
also says it is possible that Harold was struck down by a Norman knight while mortally wounded in the
eye.[111] Another biographer of Harold, Peter Rex, after discussing the various accounts, concludes that it
is not possible to declare how Harold died.[109]
Harold's death left the English forces leaderless, and they began to collapse.[101] Many of them fled, but the
soldiers of the royal household gathered around Harold's body and fought to the end.[103] The Normans
began to pursue the fleeing troops, and except for a rearguard action at a site known as the "Malfosse", the
battle was over.[101] Exactly what happened at the Malfosse, or "Evil Ditch", and where it took place, is
unclear. It occurred at a small fortification or set of trenches where some Englishmen rallied and seriously
wounded Eustace of Boulogne before being defeated by the Normans.[112]
Reasons for the outcome
Harold's defeat was probably due to several circumstances. One was the need to defend against two almost
simultaneous invasions. The fact that Harold had dismissed his forces in southern England on 8 September
also contributed to the defeat. Many historians fault Harold for hurrying south and not gathering more
forces before confronting William at Hastings, although it is not clear that the English forces were
insufficient to deal with William's forces.[113] Against these arguments for an exhausted English army, the
length of the battle, which lasted an entire day, shows that the English forces were not tired by their long
march.[114] Tied in with the speed of Harold's advance to Hastings is the possibility Harold may not have
trusted Earls Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria once their enemy Tostig had been defeated, and
declined to bring them and their forces south.[113] Modern historians have pointed out that one reason for
Harold's rush to battle was to contain William's depredations and keep him from breaking free of his
beachhead.[115]
Most of the blame for the defeat probably lies in the events of the battle.[113] William was the more
experienced military leader,[116] and in addition the lack of cavalry on the English side allowed Harold
fewer tactical options.[114] Some writers have criticised Harold for not exploiting the opportunity offered
by the rumoured death of William early in the battle.[117] The English appear to have erred in not staying
strictly on the defensive, for when they pursued the retreating Normans they exposed their flanks to attack.
Whether this was due to the inexperience of the English commanders or the indiscipline of the English
soldiers is unclear.[116][u] In the end, Harold's death appears to have been decisive, as it signalled the break-
up of the English forces in disarray.[114] The historian David Nicolle said of the battle that William's army
"demonstrated – not without difficulty – the superiority of Norman-French mixed cavalry and infantry
tactics over the Germanic-Scandinavian infantry traditions of the Anglo-Saxons."[119]
Aftermath
The day after the battle, Harold's body was identified, either by his armour or by marks on his body.[v] His
personal standard was presented to William,[120] and later sent to the papacy.[103] The bodies of the
English dead, including some of Harold's brothers and housecarls, were left on the battlefield,[121] although
some were removed by relatives later.[122] The Norman dead were buried in a large communal grave,
which has not been found.[123][w] Exact casualty figures are unknown. Of the Englishmen known to be at
the battle, the number of dead implies that the death rate was about 50 per cent of those engaged, although
this may be too high. Of the named Normans who fought at Hastings, one in seven is stated to have died,
but these were all noblemen, and it is probable that the death rate
among the common soldiers was higher. Although Orderic Vitalis's
figures are highly exaggerated,[x] his ratio of one in four casualties
may be accurate. Marren speculates that perhaps 2,000 Normans
and 4,000 Englishmen were killed at Hastings.[124] Reports stated
that some of the English dead were still being found on the hillside
years later. Although scholars thought for a long time that remains
would not be recoverable, due to the acidic soil, recent finds have
Ruins of the monks' dormitory at changed this view.[125] One skeleton that was found in a medieval
Battle Abbey cemetery, and originally was thought to be associated with the 13th
century Battle of Lewes, now is thought to be associated with
Hastings instead.[126][y]
One story relates that Gytha, Harold's mother, offered the victorious duke the weight of her son's body in
gold for its custody, but was refused. William ordered that Harold's body be thrown into the sea, but
whether that took place is unclear.[121] Another story relates that Harold was buried at the top of a
cliff.[123] Waltham Abbey, which had been founded by Harold, later claimed that his body had been
secretly buried there.[121] Other legends claimed that Harold did not die at Hastings, but escaped and
became a hermit at Chester.[122]
William expected to receive the submission of the surviving

English leaders after his victory, but instead Edgar the Ætheling[z]
was proclaimed king by the Witenagemot, with the support of
Earls Edwin and Morcar, Stigand, the Archbishop of Canterbury,
and Ealdred, the Archbishop of York.[128] William therefore
advanced on London, marching around the coast of Kent. He
defeated an English force that attacked him at Southwark but was
unable to storm London Bridge, forcing him to reach the capital by
a more circuitous route.[129]
Reenactment in front of Battle Abbey
William moved up the Thames valley to cross the river at
Wallingford, where he received the submission of Stigand. He then
travelled north-east along the Chilterns, before advancing towards London from the north-west,[aa] fighting
further engagements against forces from the city. The English leaders surrendered to William at
Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire. William was acclaimed King of England and crowned by Ealdred on 25
December 1066, in Westminster Abbey.[129]
Despite the submission of the English nobles, resistance continued for several years.[131] There were
rebellions in Exeter in late 1067, an invasion by Harold's sons in mid-1068, and an uprising in Northumbria
in 1068.[132] In 1069 William faced more troubles from Northumbrian rebels, an invading Danish fleet, and
rebellions in the south and west of England. He ruthlessly put down the various risings, culminating in the
Harrying of the North in late 1069 and early 1070 that devastated parts of northern England.[133] A further
rebellion in 1070 by Hereward the Wake was also defeated by the king, at Ely.[134]
Battle Abbey was founded by William at the site of the battle. According to 12th-century sources, William
made a vow to found the abbey, and the high altar of the church was placed at the site where Harold had
died.[101] More likely, the foundation was imposed on William by papal legates in 1070.[135] The
topography of the battlefield has been altered by subsequent construction work for the abbey, and the slope
defended by the English is now much less steep than it was at the time of the battle; the top of the ridge has
also been built up and levelled.[78] After the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the abbey's lands passed to
secular landowners, who used it as a residence or country house.[136] In 1976 the estate was put up for sale
and purchased by the government with the aid of some American donors who wished to honour the 200th
anniversary of American independence.[137] The battlefield and abbey grounds are currently owned and
administered by English Heritage and are open to the public.[138] The Bayeux Tapestry is an embroidered
narrative of the events leading up to Hastings probably commissioned by Odo of Bayeux soon after the
battle, perhaps to hang at the bishop's palace at Bayeux.[139][ab] In modern times annual reenactments of
the Battle of Hastings have drawn thousands of participants and spectators to the site of the original
battle.[141][142]
Notes
a. Old English: Gefeoht æt Hæstingum or Norman: Batâle dé Hastings
b. The Vikings in the region became known as the "Northmen", from which "Normandy" and
"Normans" are derived.[2]
c. There is some slight confusion in the original sources about the exact date; it was most likely
5 January, but a few contemporaneous sources give 4 January.[10]
d. Other contenders later came to the fore. The first was Edgar Ætheling, Edward the
Confessor's great nephew who was a patrilineal descendant of King Edmund Ironside. He
was the son of Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside, and was born in Hungary where
his father had fled after the conquest of England by Cnut the Great. After his family's
eventual return to England and his father's death in 1057,[16] Edgar had by far the strongest
hereditary claim to the throne, but he was only about thirteen or fourteen at the time of
Edward the Confessor's death, and with little family to support him, his claim was passed
over by the Witenaġemot.[17] Another contender was Sweyn II of Denmark, who had a claim
to the throne as the grandson of Sweyn Forkbeard and nephew of Cnut,[18] but he did not
make his bid for the throne until 1069.[19] Tostig Godwinson's attacks in early 1066 may
have been the beginning of a bid for the throne, but threw in his lot with Harald Hardrada
after defeat at the hands of Edwin and Morcar and the desertion of most of his followers
he.[20]
e. The surviving ship list gives 776 ships, contributed by 14 different Norman nobles.[31] This
list does not include William's flagship, the Mora, given to him by his wife, Matilda of
Flanders. The Mora is depicted on the Bayeux Tapestry with a lion figurehead.[32]
f. The comet's appearance was depicted on the Bayeux Tapestry, where it is connected with
Harold's coronation, although the appearance of the comet was later, from 24 April to 1 May
1066. The image on the tapestry is the earliest pictorial depiction of Halley's Comet to
survive.[35]
g. Most modern historians agree on this date,[37][38][39][40][41][42] although a few contemporary
sources have William landing on 29 September.[43]
h. Most contemporary accounts have William landing at Pevensey, with only the E version of
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle giving the landing as taking place at Hastings.[43] Most modern
accounts also state that William's forces landed at
Pevensey.[32][38][39][40][41][44][45][46][47][48][49][50]
i. Of those 35, 5 are known to have died in the battle: Robert of Vitot, Engenulf of Laigle,
Robert fitzErneis, Roger son of Turold, and Taillefer.[58]
j. "Hoar" means grey, and probably refers to a crab-apple tree covered with lichen that was
likely a local landmark.[65]
k. The 400,000 figure is given in Wace's Romance de Rou and the 1,200,000 figure coming
from the Carmen de Hastingae Proelio.[68]
l. Of these named persons, eight died in the battle – Harold, Gyrth, Leofwine, Godric the
sheriff, Thurkill of Berkshire, Breme, and someone known only as "son of Helloc".[58]
m. Some historians have argued, based on comments by Snorri Sturlson made in the 13th
century, that the English army did occasionally fight as cavalry. Contemporary accounts,
such as in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle record that when English soldiers were forced to fight
on horseback, they were usually routed, as in 1055 near Hereford.[72]
n. This was the name popularised by Edward Freeman,[80] a Victorian historian who wrote one
of the definitive accounts of the battle.[81]
o. "Sandlacu" can be rendered into Modern English as "sandlake".[80]
p. Freeman suggested that "Senlac" meant "sand lake" in Old English with the Norman
conquerors calling it (in French) "sanguelac". Freeman regarded this use as a pun because
the English translation of "sanguelac" is "blood lake".[82]
q. There is a story that the first fighting at Hastings was between a jongleur named Taillefer and
some of the English fighters which comes from three sources: the Carmen de Hastingae
Proelio, Wace's Romance de Rou, and the 12th-century account of Henry of Huntingdon.[90]
The story has two versions, in one of which Taillefer entertained the Norman army prior to
the battle by juggling a sword but then killed an English soldier sent to kill him. Another
version has the jongleur charging the English and killing two before dying himself.[85]
r. Examples of the use of feigned flight include the Battle of Arques around 1052, the Battle of
Messina in 1060, and the Battle of Cassel in 1071.[99]
s. The issue is further confused by the fact that there is evidence that the 19th-century
restoration of the Tapestry changed the scene by inserting or changing the placement of the
arrow through the eye.[107]
t. Amatus' account is less than trustworthy because it also states that Duke William
commanded 100,000 soldiers at Hastings.[109]
u. Modern wargaming has demonstrated the correctness of not pursuing the fleeing
Normans,[115] with the historian Christopher Gravett stating that if in a wargame he allowed
Harold to pursue the Normans, his opponent "promptly, and rightly, punished such rashness
with a brisk counter-attack with proved to be the turning point of the battle – just as in
1066".[118]
v. A 12th-century tradition stated that Harold's face could not be recognised and Edith the Fair,
Harold's common-law wife, was brought to the battlefield to identify his body from marks that
only she knew.[112]
w. It is possible the grave site was located where the abbey now stands.[123]
x. He states that there were 15,000 casualties out of 60,000 who fought on William's side at the
battle.[124]
y. This skeleton, numbered 180, sustained six fatal sword cuts to the back of the skull and was
one of five skeletons that had suffered violent trauma. Analysis continues on the other
remains to try to build up a more accurate picture of who the individuals are.[125]
z. Ætheling is the Anglo-Saxon term for a royal prince with some claim to the throne.[127]
aa. William appears to have taken this route to meet up with reinforcements that had landed by
Portsmouth and met him between London and Winchester. By swinging around to the north,
William cut off London from reinforcements.[130]
ab. The first recorded mention of the tapestry is from 1476, but it is similar in style to late Anglo-
Saxon manuscript illustrations and may have been composed and executed in England.[139]
The Tapestry now is displayed at the former Bishop's Palace at Bayeux in France.[140]
Citations
1. Bates Normandy Before 1066 pp. 8–10
2. Crouch Normans pp. 15–16
3. Bates Normandy Before 1066 p. 12
4. Bates Normandy Before 1066 pp. 20–21
5. Hallam and Everard Capetian France p. 53
6. Williams Æthelred the Unready p. 54
7. Huscroft Ruling England p. 3
8. Stafford Unification and Conquest pp. 86–99
9. Fryde, et al. Handbook of British Chronology p. 29
10. Barlow Edward the Confessor p. 250 and footnote 1
11. Higham Death of Anglo-Saxon England pp. 167–181
12. Walker Harold pp. 136–138
13. Bates William the Conqueror pp. 73–77
14. Higham Death of Anglo-Saxon England pp. 188–190
15. Huscroft Ruling England pp. 12–14
16. Huscroft Norman Conquest pp. 96–97
18. Stafford Unification and Conquest pp. 86–87
20. Thomas Norman Conquest pp. 33–34
23. Nicolle Medieval Warfare Sourcebook pp. 69–71
24. Marren 1066 pp. 55–57
25. Coredon Dictionary of Medieval Terms and Phrases p. 154
26. Gravett Hastings pp. 28–34
29. Porter Pevensey Castle pp. 4, 26–27
32. Marren 1066 pp. 91–92
34. Douglas William the Conqueror p. 181 and footnote 1
35. Musset Bayeux Tapestry p. 176
36. Douglas William the Conqueror p. 192
37. Gravett Hastings p. 50
38. Huscroft Norman Conquest p. 123
39. Barlow Feudal Kingdom p. 81
40. Stenton Anglo-Saxon England p. 591
41. Thomas Norman Conquest p. 35
43. Lawson Battle of Hastings p. 176
44. Bennett Campaigns of the Norman Conquest p. 37
46. Huscroft Ruling England p. 15
47. Stafford Unification and Conquest p. 100
48. Bates William the Conqueror p. 86
49. Walker Harold p. 166
50. Rex Harold II p. 221
53. Lawson Hastings pp. 163–164
55. Marren 1066 pp. 89–90
57. Marren 1066 pp. 108–109
58. Marren 1066 pp. 107–108
62. Carpenter Struggle for Mastery p. 72
63. Marren 1066 p. 93
65. Marren 1066 pp. 94–95
66. Lawson Battle of Hastings pp. 180–182
67. Marren 1066 pp. 99–100
68. Lawson Battle of Hastings p. 128 footnote 32
69. Lawson Battle of Hastings p. 128 and footnote 32
71. Marren 1066 p. 105
73. Marren 1066 p. 52
74. Bennett, et al. Fighting Techniques pp. 21–22
76. Marren 1066 p. 114
79. Marren 1066 p. 101
82. Freeman History of the Norman Conquest pp. 743–751
83. Marren 1066 p. 157
85. Marren 1066 p. 116
91. Hare Battle Abbey p. 11
92. English Heritage Research on Battle Abbey and Battlefield
93. Battlefields Trust Battle of Hastings
100. Marren 1066 pp. 127–128
102. Marren 1066 p. 130
104. Marren 1066 pp. 131–133
105. Marren 1066 p. 135
108. Marren 1066 p. 138
109. Rex Harold II pp. 256–263
110. Marren 1066 p. 137
115. Marren 1066 p. 152
118. Quoted in Marren 1066 p. 152
119. Nicolle Normans p. 20
120. Rex Harold II p. 253
123. Marren 1066 p. 146
124. Marren 1066 pp. 147–149
125. Livesay "Skeleton 180 Shock Dating Result" Sussex Past and Present p. 6
126. Barber and Sibun "Medieval Hospital of St Nicholas" Sussex Archaeological Collections pp.
79–109
128. Douglas William the Conqueror pp. 204–205
129. Douglas William the Conqueror pp. 205–206
132. Bennett Campaigns of the Norman Conquest pp. 49–50
133. Bennett, Campaigns of the Norman Conquest, pp. 51–53
134. Bennett Campaigns of the Norman Conquest pp. 57–60
135. Coad Battle Abbey and Battlefield p. 32
136. Coad Battle Abbey and Battlefield pp. 42–46
138. Marren 1066 p. 165
141. "Normans fight Saxons... and the rain" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/970522.stm). BBC
News. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
142. "King Harold and William square up" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/southern
_counties/6050986.stm). BBC News. 14 October 2006. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
References
Barber, Luke; Sibun, Lucy (2010). "The Medieval Hospital of St Nicholas, East Sussex:
Excavations 1994" (https://doi.org/10.5284%2F1085944). Sussex Archaeological
Collections. 148: 79–110. doi:10.5284/1085944 (https://doi.org/10.5284%2F1085944).
Barlow, Frank (1970). Edward the Confessor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
ISBN 0-520-01671-8.
Barlow, Frank (1988). The Feudal Kingdom of England 1042–1216 (Fourth ed.). New York:
Longman. ISBN 0-582-49504-0.
Bates, David (1982). Normandy Before 1066. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-48492-8.
Bates, David (2001). William the Conqueror. Stroud, UK: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-1980-3.
Battlefields Trust. "Battle of Hastings: 14 October 1066" (http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/reso
urce-centre/viking/battleview.asp?BattleFieldId=17). UK Battlefields Resource Centre.
Retrieved 5 October 2016.
Bennett, Matthew (2001). Campaigns of the Norman Conquest. Essential Histories. Oxford,
UK: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84176-228-9.
Bennett, Matthew; Bradbury, Jim; DeVries, Kelly; Dickie, Iain; Jestice, Phyllis (2006).
Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World AD 500–AD 1500: Equipment, Combat Skills
and Tactics. New York: St Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-34820-5.
Carpenter, David (2004). The Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–
1284. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-014824-8.
Coad, Jonathan (2007). Battle Abbey and Battlefield (https://books.google.com/books?id=d
MbTGAAACAAJ). English Heritage Guidebooks. London: English Heritage. ISBN 978-1-
905624-20-1.
Coredon, Christopher (2007). A Dictionary of Medieval Terms & Phrases (Reprint ed.).
Woodbridge, UK: D. S. Brewer. ISBN 978-1-84384-138-8.
Crouch, David (2007). The Normans: The History of a Dynasty. London: Hambledon &
London. ISBN 978-1-85285-595-6.
Douglas, David C. (1964). William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England.
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. OCLC 399137 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3
99137).
English Heritage. "Research on Battle Abbey and Battlefield" (https://www.english-heritage.
org.uk/visit/places/1066-battle-of-hastings-abbey-and-battlefield/history-and-stories/history/r
esearch/). Retrieved 21 January 2021.
Freeman, Edward A. (1869). The History of the Norman Conquest of England: Its Causes
and Results. III. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. OCLC 186846557 (https://www.worldcat.org/o
clc/186846557).
Fryde, E. B.; Greenway, D. E.; Porter, S.; Roy, I. (1996). Handbook of British Chronology
(Third revised ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56350-X.
Gravett, Christopher (1992). Hastings 1066: The Fall of Saxon England. Campaign. 13.
Oxford, UK: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-133-8.
Hallam, Elizabeth M.; Everard, Judith (2001). Capetian France 987–1328 (Second ed.). New
York: Longman. ISBN 0-582-40428-2.
Hare, J. N. (1984). Battle Abbey: The Eastern Range and the Excavations of 1978–80 (http://
archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/view/eh_monographs_2014/contents.cfm?mono=10
89016). London: English Heritage. p. 11. ISBN 9781848021341 – via Archaeology Data
Service.
Higham, Nick (2000). The Death of Anglo-Saxon England. Stroud, UK: Sutton. ISBN 0-
7509-2469-1.
Huscroft, Richard (2009). The Norman Conquest: A New Introduction. New York: Longman.
ISBN 978-1-4058-1155-2.
Huscroft, Richard (2005). Ruling England 1042–1217. London: Pearson/Longman. ISBN 0-
582-84882-2.
Lawson, M. K. (2002). The Battle of Hastings: 1066. Stroud, UK: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-
1998-6.
Livesay, Edwina (2014). "Skeleton 180 Shock Dating Result". Sussex Past and Present.
133: 6.
Marren, Peter (2004). 1066: The Battles of York, Stamford Bridge & Hastings. Battleground
Britain. Barnsley, UK: Leo Cooper. ISBN 0-85052-953-0.
Musset, Lucien; Rex, Richard (translator) (2005). The Bayeux Tapestry (New ed.).
Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN 1-84383-163-5.
Nicolle, David (1999). Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom.
Dubai: Brockhampton Press. ISBN 1-86019-889-9.
Nicolle, David (1987). The Normans. Oxford, UK: Osprey. ISBN 1-85532-944-1.
Porter, Roy (2020). Pevensey Castle. London: English Heritage. ISBN 978-1-910907-41-2.
Rex, Peter (2005). Harold II: The Doomed Saxon King. Stroud, UK: Tempus. ISBN 978-0-
7394-7185-2.
Stafford, Pauline (1989). Unification and Conquest: A Political and Social History of England
in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries. London: Edward Arnold. ISBN 0-7131-6532-4.
Stenton, F. M. (1971). Anglo-Saxon England (Third ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280139-5.
Thomas, Hugh (2007). The Norman Conquest: England after William the Conqueror. Critical
Issues in History. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7425-
3840-5.
Walker, Ian (2000). Harold the Last Anglo-Saxon King. Gloucestershire, UK: Wrens Park.
ISBN 0-905778-46-4.
Williams, Ann (2003). Æthelred the Unready: The Ill-Counselled King. London: Hambledon
& London. ISBN 1-85285-382-4.
External links
Official English Heritage site (http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/1066-ba
ttle-of-hastings-abbey-and-battlefield/)
Origins of the conflict, the battle itself and its aftermath (https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/
normans/), BBC History website
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Battle of Hastings

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Coordinates: 50°54′43″N 0°29′15″E

The background to the battle was the death of the

Contents Site of the Battle of Hastings in East Sussex

Succession crisis in England

Tostig and Hardrada's invasions

English army and Harold's preparations

William's preparations and landing

Norman forces at Hastings

The exact numbers and

Harold moves south

English forces at Hastings

Background and location

Because many of the primary accounts contradict each other at

Dispositions of forces and tactics

More is known about the Norman deployment.[94] Duke William

Beginning of the battle

Harold appears to have died late in the battle, although accounts in

Reasons for the outcome

William expected to receive the submission of the surviving

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This page was last edited on 8 September 2021, at 12:00 (UTC).

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