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0.0 Course Content

CIV3201: FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
By 1. Introduction [8CH]

Dr. Gilbert J. KASANGAKI 2. Review of bearing capacity [6CH]

Room 254, CEDAT Old Building
School of Engineering,
3. Design of shallow foundations [10CH]
College of Engineering, Design, Art and design,
Makerere University,
P.O Box 7062,
4. Design of pile foundations [9CH]
Kampala.
5. Earth retaining systems [12CH]
Mob.: 077 2 536 341
070 6 307 373
E-mail: gkas@tech.mak.ac.ug 6. Practicals [15CH]
© 2014

2.3.1 Introduction
Recall that when a saturated soil is subjected to an
increase in compressive stress, settlement deformation
of the soil mass will occur. Eurocode 7 states that for
the calculation of settlements in saturated soils, the
following three components of settlement should be
2.3 Deformation due to Surface considered:
Loading a) Settlement without drainage for fully saturated soil
due to shear deformation at constant volume;
b) Settlement caused by primary consolidations; and,
c) Settlement caused by creep (secondary
consolidation)
The overall settlement of the footing will be the sum of
(a), (b) and (c). In this course, focus will be on the
calculation of (a) and (b).

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2.3.2Settlement
2.3.2 Settlement without drainage 2.3.2Settlement
2.3.2 Settlement without drainage

This is at times called immediate settlement or elastic

compression and occurs immediately on application of
foundation load.
What has no time to drain out of the voids so this
component of settlement occurs before any volume
change in soil.
Deformation thus occurs at constant volume; further,
this displacement is recoverable on removal of the load.
Regarding this component of settlement, Eurocode 7
states:
‘The short-term component of settlement of a
foundation, which occur without drainage, may be evaluated
using either the stress-strain method or the adjusted
elasticity method. The values adopted for the stiffness
parameters such as (E and poisson’s ratio) should in this
case represent the undrained behaviour.’

This aspect is discussed in subsection 2.3.3.

2.3.3 Consolidation settlement 2.3.3Consolidation

2.3.3 Consolidation settlement

The application of foundation load, besides causing Consider Fig. 3.1 which represents the situation in
elastic compression of the soil mass, creates a state of the soil mass before application of foundation load.
excess pore water pressure (hydraulic water pressure)
in a saturated soil
The excess pore water pressure can only be dissipated
by the gradual expulsion of water through the soil and
results in a volume change which is time dependent –
this process is called consolidation.
In consolidation problems, it is the change in effective The left-hand diagram represents the total
stress which is important so it is critical that this overburden stresses whereas the right-hand
concept is understood. diagram represents the effective overburden.

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2.3.3 Consolidation settlement
The total overburden is denoted σoz, horizontal
stresses also exist to maintain equilibrium but are
omitted for clarity; the pore water pressure, u, in
the soil is simply the hydrostatic head of water i.e.
γwh, where γw is the unit weight of water and h is
the depth of the soil element below the water table
(WT).
2.3.3 Consolidation settlement
Fig. 3.2 now presents a situation where load has
just been applied to the ground surface.
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2.3.3 Consolidation settlement
For purposes of this course, only the vertical
stresses will be considered. By definition,
Effective stress = Total stress – Pore water pressure
i.e. σ oz' = σ oz − u
Effective stresses are always “primed” above, to
distinguish them from total stresses.
2.3.3 Consolidation settlement
This will cause an increase in stress within the soil
mass; in this case, the vertical stress increase due to
the foundation load is denoted ∆σz and a number
of techniques exist for calculating it.
The soil is in effect squeezed and, since there is no
drainage of water out of the soil, this induces an
increase in pore water pressure i.e. ∆u is the excess
pore water pressure. Undrained conditions exist
immediately after load application.
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2.3.3 Consolidation settlement 2.3.3 Consolidation settlement

Water then starts to drain from the soil and does
so until all the excess pore water pressure is fully
dissipated (i.e. ∆u = 0). This process presents
primary consolidation and results in a volume
decrease in the soil element. At the end of primary
Assuming water table remains in the same position
over the period of consolidation, the change in
effective stress over this period is given by effective
stress at the end of consolidation minus effective
stress at the beginning of consolidation.

( ) ( )
consolidation, the total and effective stresses
i.e. ∆σ ' = σ oz' + ∆σ z − σ oz' + ∆σ z'
presented are in Fig. 3.3 and, at this stage, drained
conditions exist within the soil
= (σ '
oz + ∆σ z ) − (σ '
oz )
+ [∆σ z − ∆u ]
= ∆u

2.3.3 Consolidation settlement 2.3.4 Secondary consolidation

Note that there is no change in total stress over
the same period. In consolidation problems we are
interested in changes in effective stress and it is
apparent that the pore water pressure within the
soil will play an important role in these calculations.
Secondary consolidation occurs at the end of
primary consolidation and involves a volume change
that is independent of excess pore water pressure.
In other words, this is ‘creep’ effect which occurs
without any change in effective stress.
The above concepts of settlement apply to
cohesive (i.e. clays) with primary consolidation
taking place over many years. This is as a result of
the slow drainage of water from the soil (clays have
a low permeability) as the excess pore water
pressure dissipates.

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2.3.4 Secondary consolidation 2.3.5 Elastic settlement

With granular material, however, any excess pore
Consider Fig. 3.4(a) in which a prismatic sample of
water pressure dissipates immediately and the
length H and cross-sectional area, A, is subjected to a
formulae developed below are not directly applicable compressive load, Q.
to granular soil.
For calculation of settlements on granular material
the following could be used but will not be discussed
or assessed in this course:
a) Schmertmann’s method (see, for example, Schmertmann,
1970 & 1978);
b) The formulae developed below for immediate settlement
but using the elastic parameter (i.e. E and υ) appropriate
for the granular soil.

2.3.5 Elastic settlement

2.3.5 Elastic settlement
The compressive strain and hence (immediate) elastic
Surface settlement due to a point load
shortening of the material, ω, can be obtained and is
presented in this figure. Consider Fig. 3.5. The stresses on an element of soil at a

Below a loaded area resting on a semi-infinite, radial distance, r, and depth, z, from the point load can

homogeneous isotropic soil there is a non-uniform be obtained and has been . The vertical elastic strain, εr,z,
stress/strain distribution (Fig. 3.4(b)). In order to on the element at depth, z, below the surface is given by,
evaluate the surface elastic settlement, these strains
must then be integrated over the full depth of the layer ε r ,z =
1
{σ z −ν (σ r + σ h )}
Eu
although, as stated , it is only that that volume of soil
within the surface 2B-4B which is contributing to this Where: Eu and ν are the undrained elastic properties of
settlement. the saturated soil.

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2.3.5Elastic
2.3.5 Elastic settlement 2.3.5Elastic
2.3.5 Elastic settlement
Surface settlement due to a point load
If the element is of thickness, δz, then the elastic
compression of the element is given by εr,zxδz; hence the
total vertical displacement at surface, ωr,z=0 is,

z =∞ ∞
ωr , z =0 = ∑ ε r , zδz = ∫ ε r , z dz
z =0 0

Since σr, σh and σz are known, the elastic displacement

at ground surface can be obtained. Performing the
above integration yields the simple solution,

2.3.5Elastic
2.3.5 Elastic settlement 2.3.5Elastic
2.3.5 Elastic settlement
Surface settlement due to a point load Surface settlement due UDL on circular loading

The elastic element at the centre of flexible , uniformly

loaded circular area resting on the surface of a semi-
 1 −ν 2 
ω r , z =0 = Q  infinite layer can be obtained by integration of the point
 πrEu  load result.

Consider Fig. 3.6 in which the area is divided into a

Note the problem with the solution directly beneath
number of elemental loaded areas.
the point load i.e. at r =0.

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2.3.5Elastic
2.3.5 Elastic settlement 2.3.5Elastic
2.3.5 Elastic settlement
Surface settlement due UDL on circular loading Surface settlement due UDL on circular loading

Using the point load result, the elastic displacement at

centre of circular area due to elemental load is given by,

 1 −ν 2   1 −ν 2 
δωcentre = δQ  = qδrδθ  
 πrEu   πrEu 

Hence, the total elastic displacement at centre of the

Elemental load area = rδrδθ circular loaded are due to all the elemental areas is,

Load on element, δQ = qrδrδθ

2.3.5Elastic
2.3.5 Elastic settlement 2.3.5Elastic
2.3.5 Elastic settlement
Surface settlement due UDL on circular loading Surface settlement due UDL on rectangular area
The point load solution can be extended to obtain the
 1 −ν 2 
θ = 2π r = R
 1 −ν 2  2 π R 1 surface settlement below the centre of a rectangular
δωcentre = ∑∑ qδrδθ   = q  ∫ ∫ δrδθ
θ =0 r =0  πrEu   πEu  0 0 r loaded area. With reference to Fig. 3.7, consider an
elemental loaded area at a radial distance, r, from a
Which yields, corner.

 1 −ν 2 
ωcentre = 2qR 
 Eu 

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2.3.5Elastic
2.3.5 Elastic settlement 2.3.5Elastic
2.3.5 Elastic settlement
Surface settlement due UDL on rectangular area Surface settlement due UDL on rectangular area

Elemental load, δQ = qδxδy Since, r = x 2 + y 2 , then, in the limit;

Using the point load solution, the displacement at O, δw Using the point load solution, the displacement at O, δw
due to elemental load is given by, due to elemental load is given by,
 1 −ν 2  1 −ν 
δw = qδxδy  ωcorner = q 
dxdy
∫ ∫ 2
 πrEu   πEu  x + y2

Displacement at O, ωcorner, due to full load, Performing the integration yields a solution in the form,
x= L y =B
1 −ν 2  1 −ν 2 
ωcorner = ∑∑ qδxδy   ωcorner = qB  I P
x =o y =o  πrEu   Eu 

2.3.6 Displacement of a clay layer on a

2.3.5Elastic
2.3.5 Elastic settlement rigid base
Surface settlement due UDL on rectangular area Steinbrenner (1934) developed a finite layer solution for
the elastic settlement below the centre of a uniformly
As discussed in section 2, superposition can be used for
loaded rectangular area resting on saturated clay layer of
points within or outside the footing boundary. Fig. 3.8
thickness, D, overlying a rigid/stiff base (e.g. rockhead).
presents a graph of equation above.

1 −ν 2  1 −ν 2 
ωcorner = qB  I P ωcorner = qB  I P
 Eu   Eu 

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2.3.6 Displacement of a clay layer on a 2.3.6 Displacement of a clay layer on a

rigid base rigid base
A schematic of the problem is presented in Fig. 3.9. The Note that for saturated clay soil under drained
solution was obtained as, conditions, Poisson’s ratio is normally assumed to be 0.5,
hence the second term in the above expression becomes
ωcorner = q
B
Eu
(
1 −ν 2 I ) zero and I = F1. As before, for points other than the
corner, superposition can be used,

Where, in this instance, the influence value, I, could be

expressed as,
 1 − 2ν 
I = F1 +   F2
 1 −ν 
F1 and F2 are a function of both the D/B ratio and the
L/B ratio for the footing. Values have been presented in
Fig. 3.10 for various D/B and L/B ratios.

2.3.6 Displacement of a clay layer on a 2.3.6 Displacement of a clay layer on a

rigid base
Steinbrenner’s solution can also be applied to multi-
layer systems or where clay layer is at some depth
below the footing. Consider, for example, Fig. 3.11
a)
where two clay layers of different stiffness overlay one
another.
rigid base
In this case, the elastic settlement below the corner can
be estimated by the following method:
Consider the rigid base at a depth of H1 below the
footing and use Steinbrenner’s method to calculate the
elastic settlement of layer 1 of stiffness Eu1.

b) Next, consider layer 2 extending up to the footing.

Using Steinbrenner’s method, the elastic settlement of
this layer is calculated and based on a thickness of
H1+H2 and stiffness Eu2.

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2.3.6 Displacement of a clay layer on a 2.3.6 Displacement of a clay layer on a

rigid base rigid base
c) Finally, the simple addition of 1 and 2 above will still be For example, for the situation in Fig. 3.11, layer 1 and
an overestimate and the elastic settlement of an layer 2 are replaced by a layer of thickness (H1+H2) and
imaginary layer of thickness H1 and stiffness Eu2 equivalent elastic modulus,
obtained by Steinbrenner’s method must be
subtracted from this value.  (E × H1 ) + (Eu , 2 × H 2 ) 
Eu , eq =  u ,1 
 H1 + H 2 
Another technique for multi-layer system is by replacing
all the layers by a single layer with an equivalent elastic
modulus, Eueq, and an overall thickness equal to the sum
of the thicknesses of the individual layers. Eueq is simply
weighted by the thicknesses of the individual layers.

2.3.7 Flexible and rigid footings – Average 2.3.7 Flexible and rigid footings – Average
settlement settlement
The above equations have been developed on the
assumption that the footing is fully flexible. With
reference to Fig. 3.12, it is evident that the settlement at
the centre of a flexible footing will be greater than that
at its edges, whereas for a rigid footing, the settlement is
more uniform.
In reality, footings will be closer to rigid and, for that
Christian and Carrier (1978) have presented a formula
reason, the settlement of a rigid footing is obtained by for the average immediate settlement of a footing ωave.
reducing the settlement obtained at the centre of the The footing is placed at a depth, Df, below ground
footing assuming it to be flexible. A rigidity factor of 0.8 surface; if the thickness of the compressible layer is H
is generally applied. (see Fig. 3.13), then the average settlement is,

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2.3.7 Flexible and rigid footings – Average 2.3.7 Flexible and rigid footings – Average
settlement settlement
BA1 A2
wave = qnet
Eu
Where A1 is a depth factor from Fig. 3.14(a)

A2 is a factor related to the dimensions of

the footing and thickness of the layer,
obtained from Fig. 3.14(b)

qnet is the net increase in stress at founding

In the above equation, it is assumed that the Poisson’s
depth
ratio is 0.5 for saturated clay is 0.5 also, there is no
B is the width of the footing
need to apply a rigidity factor.

2.3.7 Flexible and rigid footings – Average

settlement
The equation is similar to that presented in Eurocode 7
(Annex F) where the factors A1 and A2 are considered
as a single factor, f, called settlement coefficient.
THANK YOU

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