MSC Thesis

Ultra Low-Cost Passive Software Defined Radar
BY
MOHAMED ZAHRAN
STUDENT ID: UP822642
Supervisor: Dr Salem Aljareh
This Thesis is Submitted in Partial Submission for the

Degree of Master of Science
In
Communication System Engineering
School of Engineering
University of Portsmouth
September, 2017
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of MSc
Communication System Engineering.
I declare that this thesis is my original work and when I have used information or wording
from a different source that is explicitly referenced in the text.
I permit that this thesis may be copied and made available for interminability loan or
photocopying for further research.
I provide an electronic copy of this printed thesis. I permit this electronic copy and the
printed thesis to be used in any manner considered necessary to fulfil the University of
Portsmouth requirements.
Signed: Date:
I
ABSTRACT
Passive bistatic radar utilises illuminators of opportunity such as FM, DAB, and
DVB-T presented in the radio spectrum to track targets within their range. The main thesis
objectives were the design of a low-cost DVB-T based passive bistatic radar using dual
coherent RTL-SDR dongles, and to investigate the suitability of building multistatic
passive radar by employing linear array with four Yagi-Uda antennas using N-Channel
Coherent Receiver.
The evolution of RTL-SDR technology in the last few years has enabled more accessibility
to design low-cost passive radars. This availability allowed an investigation based on the
RTL-SDR receiver to determine its appropriateness in designing passive bistatic radars.
The results obtained from testing the RTL-SDR receiver showed some limitations
including high noise figure and narrow bandwidth, which made use of DVB-T signals
difficult due to the high bandwidth required by DVB-T signals.
An examination was conducted to check the received signal characteristics. As a result of

this examination, a bandpass filter was implemented to improve the received signal to noise
ratio. Additionally, different scenarios were examined to decide where to position the low
noise amplifier in the system. The result revealed that using two low noise amplifiers
improves the overall signal to noise ratio of the system. The results obtained from testing
the linear array showed that the directivity and number of sidelobes were directly
proportional to the element spacing and a number of elements in the array. Research was
conducted to reduce the cross channel interference between channels in N-Channel
Coherent Receiver. Finally, two real-time trials were carried out to examine the PBR
performance.
II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank QinetiQ company for giving me the opportunity to work with this
project and for providing the funding that made this thesis possible. I am grateful to Prof
Bill Dawber and Alan Lavell-Smith for providing technical advice. I would also like to
thank my supervisor, Dr Salem Aljareh, for supporting and encouraging me in this thesis,
which helped to improve my practical and scientific skills.
I am grateful to Mr Mark Oliver for supplying me with the equipment and tools needed to
complete this project and for his continuous support throughout the whole process. A
special thanks go to Mr Ahmed Al Rawas for supporting and encouraging to finish this
thesis.
The following people have provided a creative sounding board and technical advice in this
project and deserve special mention: Mr Hassan Parchizadeh, Dr Ahmed Saeed, Mr Nour
Ali, Ms Jasmine Kashkoush, Mr Mohamed Kashkoush, and Mr Ahmed Kashkoush.
I would like to thank my parents for supporting and giving me the opportunity to continue
my studies and friends for their undying support. A special thanks go to my fiancée Heba
Adel for providing an encouraging and supportive atmosphere during my studies.
III
TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ................................................................................. I

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... III
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................IV
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... VIII
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... XIII
NOMENCLATURE ......................................................................................................XIV
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 1
1.1 Overview ................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Literature review ....................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Thesis Motivation...................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Thesis Objectives ...................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Thesis Outline ........................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND THEORY ..................................................................... 9
2.1 Passive Bistatic Radar ............................................................................................... 9
2.1.1 Bistatic Radar Geometry ............................................................................... 10
2.1.2 Bistatic Radar Equation................................................................................. 11
2.1.3 Bistatic Range and Doppler Resolution ........................................................ 12
2.1.4 Bistatic Doppler Effect .................................................................................. 12
2.2 Multistatic Radar ..................................................................................................... 12
2.3 DVB-T..................................................................................................................... 13
2.3.1 DVB-T signal ................................................................................................ 13
2.3.2 DVB-T signal characteristics ........................................................................ 14
2.3.3 DVB-T transmitter properties ....................................................................... 14
2.4 Analogue filter ........................................................................................................ 16
2.4.1 Chebyshev Bandpass filter design ................................................................ 17
2.5 Low Noise Amplifier .............................................................................................. 19
2.6 Monopulse Techniques ........................................................................................... 20
2.6.1 Amplitude Comparison Monopulse .............................................................. 21
2.6.2 Phase Comparison Monopulse ...................................................................... 22
2.7 Antenna ................................................................................................................... 23
2.7.1 Antenna basic concepts ................................................................................. 23
IV
2.7.2 Dipole antenna .............................................................................................. 24
2.7.2.1 Half wave dipole antenna ................................................................. 25
2.7.2.2 Folded dipole antenna ....................................................................... 26
2.7.3 Monopole antenna ......................................................................................... 27
2.7.4 Yagi-Uda antenna.......................................................................................... 27
2.7.5 Log Periodic dipole antenna.......................................................................... 28
2.7.6 Antenna Arrays ............................................................................................. 29
2.7.6.1 Uniform Linear Array ....................................................................... 31
2.7.6.2 Uniform Circular Array .................................................................... 32
2.8 RTL-SDRs Receiver Dongle................................................................................... 33
2.8.1 RTL-SDR receiver specification ................................................................... 34
2.9 N-Channel Coherent Receiver ................................................................................ 35
2.9.1 N-Channel Coherent Receiver specification ................................................. 37
CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ................................................ 38
3.1 Testing RTL-SDR performance characteristics ...................................................... 38
3.1.1 Noise Floor .................................................................................................... 38
3.1.2 Measure Receiver Parameters ....................................................................... 39
3.2 Test three different types of antennas ..................................................................... 40
3.2.1 Yagi-Uda antenna.......................................................................................... 40
3.2.2 Compact Log Periodic antenna with 20 elements ......................................... 41
3.2.3 Omni-directional antenna .............................................................................. 42
3.3 Test a various design for BPF ................................................................................. 43
3.3.1 Test lumped elements BPF with variable capacitors .................................... 44
3.3.2 Examine the microstrip BPF and LPF .......................................................... 45
3.4 Decision about LNA ............................................................................................... 47
3.4.1 Measure the LNA Gain ................................................................................. 47
3.4.2 Test the LNA 1 dB compression point .......................................................... 49
3.5 Theoretical noise figure calculation for different six scenarios .............................. 50
3.5.1 First scenario ................................................................................................. 51
3.5.2 Second scenario ............................................................................................. 51
3.5.3 Third scenario................................................................................................ 51
3.5.4 Fourth scenario .............................................................................................. 52
3.5.5 Fifth scenario ................................................................................................. 52
3.5.6 Sixth scenario ................................................................................................ 53
3.5.7 Comparison between the six scenarios ......................................................... 53
V
3.6 Testing the N-Channel Coherent Receiver characteristics ...................................... 54
3.6.1 Noise Floor .................................................................................................... 54
3.6.2 Shielding the N-Channel Coherent Receiver ................................................ 55
3.7 Project resources budget ......................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER 4: DESIGN AND ANALYSIS .................................................................... 59
4.1 BPF design using surface mounted elements .......................................................... 59
4.1.1 BPF specification .......................................................................................... 60
4.2 Yagi-Uda antenna with 13 elements design ............................................................ 61
4.2.1 Yagi-Uda specification ................................................................................. 62
4.3Uniform Linear Array with four elements of Yagi-Uda antennas design ................ 62
4.3.1 Linear array specification .............................................................................. 63
CHAPTER 5: MODELLING AND SIMULATION .................................................... 64
5.1 BPF Simulation ....................................................................................................... 64
5.1.1 Insertion Loss vs Return loss ........................................................................ 65
5.1.2 Insertion Loss vs VSWR ............................................................................... 66
5.1.3 Phase Delay vs Group Delay ........................................................................ 66
5.2 Yagi-Uda Antenna with 13 Elements Simulation ................................................... 67
5.2.1 Radiation Pattern ........................................................................................... 68
5.2.2 Impedance ..................................................................................................... 69
5.2.3 VSWR ........................................................................................................... 70
5.2.4 Return Loss ................................................................................................... 71
5.2.5 Reflection Coefficient ................................................................................... 71
5.3 Yagi-Uda Antenna (Y-1013UF-LTE aerial) with 10 Elements Simulation ........... 72
5.3.2 Impedance ..................................................................................................... 74
5.3.3 VSWR ........................................................................................................... 75
5.3.4 Return Loss ................................................................................................... 75
5.4 Linear Array using Yagi-Uda Antenna with 13 Elements Simulation ................... 76
5.4.2Active Impedance........................................................................................... 78
5.4.3 Return Loss ................................................................................................... 79
5.4.4Reflection Coefficient .................................................................................... 79
5.4.5 Adjusting the array at different elements spacing ......................................... 80
5.5 Linear Array using Yagi-Uda Antenna (Y-1013UF-LTE aerial) ............................ 82
VI
5.5.2 Active Impedance ......................................................................................... 83
5.5.3 Return Loss ................................................................................................... 84
5.5.5 Adjusting the array at different elements spacing......................................... 85
CHAPTER 6: MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS.................................................... 87
6.1 Test and evaluate four different BPFs ..................................................................... 87
6.1.1 Practical issues with BPF design .................................................................. 88
6.2 Test the Log Periodic antenna (Reference Channel) ............................................... 89
6.3 Test the Yagi-Uda antenna (Surveillance Channel) ................................................ 90
6.4 Test the six scenarios performance on the system .................................................. 91
6.4.1 Test the first scenario .................................................................................... 91
6.4.2 Test the second scenario................................................................................ 91
6.4.3 Test the third scenario ................................................................................... 92
6.4.4 Test the fourth scenario ................................................................................. 92
6.4.5 Test the fifth scenario .................................................................................... 93
6.4.6 Test the sixth scenario ................................................................................... 93
6.4.7 Comparison between the six scenarios ......................................................... 94
6.5 Test the two RTL-SDR dongles after connecting the clocks .................................. 95
6.6 Test the linear array performance using the N-Channel Coherent Receiver........... 96
6.6.1 Test the linear array at 1λ elements spacing without LNA ........................... 97
6.6.2 Test the linear array at 1λ elements spacing with LNA ................................ 98
6.6.3 Test the linear array at 0.75λ elements spacing without LNA ...................... 99
6.6.4 Test the linear array at 0.75λ elements spacing with LNA ......................... 100
CHAPTER 7:CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................... 102
7.1 Suggestions for future work .................................................................................. 104
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 105
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................ 110
VII
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1. A typically passive bistatic radar system .......................................................... 9

Figure 2-2. PBR geometry and signal propagation paths .................................................. 10
Figure 2-3. Multistatic radar system .................................................................................. 13
Figure 2-4. Transmitters location in Meridian region in the UK ....................................... 15
Figure 2-5. Filter types ....................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2-6. Typical microstrip and stripline PCBs ........................................................... 17
Figure 2-7. Typical BPF using the Chebyshev method ..................................................... 18
Figure 2-8. Equations used to convert the normalised values to the desired values .......... 18
Figure 2-9. A typical graph for the 1dB compression point for an amplifier .................... 20
Figure 2-10. The block diagram of amplitude comparison monopulse system ................. 21
Figure 2-11. Monopluse antenna beam patterns expressed in polar plot and rectangular
coordinates ......................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 2-12. PCM when the signal arrives in two different angles (a) There is no phase
difference between the signals (b) There is a phase difference ∆𝜓 between the signals ... 23
Figure 2-13. Typical antenna pattern (polar plot) ............................................................ 240
Figure 2-14. (a) Straight wire dipole antenna (b) Cylindrical dipole antenna
configuration ...................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2-15. (a) Current distributions for different dipoles length (b) Radiation patterns for
various dipoles length ........................................................................................................ 25
Figure 2-16. (a) Current distribution (b) Radiation pattern ............................................... 26
Figure 2-17. Folded dipole ................................................................................................. 26
Figure 2-18. Monopole antenna mounted above the ground plane ................................... 27
Figure 2-19. Yagi-Uda antenna configuration ................................................................... 28
Figure 2-20. Log periodic dipole array configuration ....................................................... 29
Figure 2-21. Different configurations of antenna arrays ................................................... 30
Figure 2-22. Array types .................................................................................................... 30
Figure 2-23. Typical linear array and the output currents are summed before entering the
receiver ............................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 2-24. Element, AF, and total array pattern of two element arrays with
λ
(β = +90o , d = 4 ) ............................................................................................................ 31
Figure 2-25. The standard circular antenna array .............................................................. 32
Figure 2-26. UCA with a central element .......................................................................... 33
Figure 2-27. NooElec R820T2 SDR & DVB-T dongle ..................................................... 35
Figure 2-28. Typical medium level coherent receiver ....................................................... 36
VIII
Figure 2-29. The circuit diagram of one supervisory and eight coherent channels ........... 37
Figure 3-1. Testing RTL-SDR receiver noise floor ........................................................... 38
Figure 3-2. Receiver linearity ............................................................................................ 39
Figure 3-3. (a) Yagi-Uda antenna tested in anechoic chamber (b) Measured received power
at 498 MHz ........................................................................................................................ 41
Figure 3-4. (a) Measured return loss at 498 MHz (b) Measured SWR at 498 MHz ......... 41
Figure 3-5. (a) Log periodic antenna tested in anechoic chamber (b) Measured received
power at 498 MHz ............................................................................................................. 42
Figure 3-7. (a) Omnidirectional antenna tested in anechoic chamber (b) Measured received
power at 498 MHz ............................................................................................................. 43
Figure 3-9. BPF circuit diagram with seven poles ............................................................. 44
Figure 3-10. Simulated BPF frequency response .............................................................. 44
Figure 3-11. BPF board...................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3-12. Measured BPF frequency response ............................................................... 45
Figure 3-13. (a) BPF schematic (b) BPF layout ................................................................ 46
Figure 3-14. (a) LPF schematic (b) LPF layout ................................................................. 46
Figure 3-15. Simulated frequency responses for BPF and LPF......................................... 46
Figure 3-16. (a) LNA4ALL circuit. (b) Setup the equipment for testing the LNA gain ... 48
Figure 3-17. Test the gain value at frequency 498 MHz ................................................... 48
Figure 3-18. Shows the LNA saturation region. ................................................................ 49
Figure 3-19. The block diagram for the first scenario ....................................................... 51
Figure 3-20. The block diagram for the second scenario................................................... 51
Figure 3-21. The block diagram for the third scenario ...................................................... 51
Figure 3-22. The block diagram for the fourth scenario .................................................... 52
Figure 3-23. The block diagram for the fifth scenario ....................................................... 52
Figure 3-24. The block diagram for the sixth scenario ...................................................... 53
Figure 3-25. The GNU model that used to examine the waterfall and spectral energy of
each channel ....................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 3-26. Test the noise floor for one channel .............................................................. 55
Figure 3-27. N-Channel coherent receivers without shielding .......................................... 55
Figure 3-28. Waterfall spectrum for the four channels without shielding ......................... 56
Figure 3-29. Wooden box for protection and shielding ..................................................... 56
Figure 3-30. Waterfall spectrum for the four channels after fitted in the wooden box ..... 57
Figure 3-31. Copper box for shielding from interfering signals ........................................ 57
IX
Figure 3-32. Waterfall spectrum for the four channels after shielded with the copper
box...................................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 4-1. iFilter ............................................................................................................... 59
Figure 4-2. The BPF schematic ......................................................................................... 60
Figure 4-3. (a) Yagi-Uda configuration with eleven director elements (b) Folded dipole
construction ........................................................................................................................ 61
Figure 4-5. (a) Linear array view (b) Linear array column design .................................... 63
Figure 5-1. Circuit diagram of the designed BPF .............................................................. 64
Figure 5-2. Circuit diagram of BPF after tuning the components values .......................... 65
Figure 5-3. BPF frequency response .................................................................................. 65
Figure 5-4. Insertion loss and VSWR vs Frequency.......................................................... 66
Figure 5-5. Phase and Group Delay vs Frequency ............................................................ 67
Figure 5-6. Yagi-Uda antenna geometry ........................................................................... 68
Figure 5-7. The 3D radiation pattern of Yagi-Uda antenna with 13 elements at frequency
498 MHz ............................................................................................................................ 69
498 MHz (a) Azimuth polar plot (b) Elevation polar plot ................................................. 71
Figure 5-9. Input impedance .............................................................................................. 70
Figure 5-10. VSWR ........................................................................................................... 71
Figure 5-11. Return loss ..................................................................................................... 71
Figure 5-12. Reflection coefficient .................................................................................... 72
Figure 5-13. Yagi-Uda antenna (Y-1013UF-LTE aerial) geometry .................................. 72
474 MHz ............................................................................................................................ 73
498 MHz ............................................................................................................................ 74
Figure 5-18. Impedance vs frequency at frequency 498 MHz........................................... 75
Figure 5-19. VSWR vs frequency at frequency 498 MHz................................................. 75
Figure 5-20. Return loss vs frequency at frequency 498 MHz .......................................... 76
Figure 5-21. Reflection coefficient vs frequency at frequency 498 MHz ......................... 76
Figure 5-22. Linear array geometry at spacing 0.5λ .......................................................... 77
Figure 5-23. (a) 3D radiation pattern at spacing 0.5λ (b) Directivity on a rectangular plot at
spacing 0.5λ ....................................................................................................................... 77
X
Figure 5-24. (a) 2D radiation pattern azimuth view at spacing 0.5λ (b) 2D radiation pattern
elevation view at spacing 0.5λ ........................................................................................... 78
Figure 5-25. The active impedance for the four elements in the array .............................. 78
Figure 5-26. The return loss plot for each element in the array ......................................... 79
Figure 5-27. S-parameters plot .......................................................................................... 79
Figure 5-28. (a) Linear array geometry at spacing 0.75λ (b) 3D radiation pattern at spacing
0.75λ................................................................................................................................... 80
elevation view at spacing 0.75λ ......................................................................................... 80
Figure 5-30. (a) Linear array geometry at spacing 1λ (b) 3D radiation pattern at spacing
1λ........................................................................................................................................ 81
Figure 5-31. (a) 2D radiation pattern azimuth view at spacing 1λ (b) 2D radiation pattern
elevation view at spacing 1λ .............................................................................................. 81
Figure 5-32. Linear array geometry for Y-1013UF-LTE aerial at spacing 0.5λ ............... 82
Figure 5-33. (a) 3D radiation pattern at spacing 0.5λ (b) Directivity on a rectangular plot at
spacing 0.5λ ....................................................................................................................... 82
elevation view at spacing 0.5λ ........................................................................................... 83
Figure 5-35. The active impedance for the four elements in the array .............................. 83
Figure 5-36. The return loss plot for each element in the array ......................................... 84
Figure 5-37. S-parameters plot .......................................................................................... 84
Figure 5-38. (a) Linear array geometry for Y-1013UF-LTE aerial at spacing 0.75λ (b) 3D
radiation pattern at spacing 0.75λ ...................................................................................... 85
Figure 5-39. (a) 2D radiation palttern azimuth view at spacing 0.75λ (b) 2D radiation
pattern elevation view at spacing 0.75λ ............................................................................. 85
Figure 5-40. (a) Linear array geometry for Y-1013UF-LTE aerial at spacing 1λ (b) 3D
radiation pattern at spacing 1λ ........................................................................................... 86
Figure 5-41. (a) 2D radiation pattern azimuth view at spacing 1λ (b) 2D radiation pattern
elevation view at spacing 1λ .............................................................................................. 86
Figure 6-1. BPF PCBs........................................................................................................ 87
Figure 6-2. (a) Filter 1 frequency response (b) Filter 2 frequency response (c) Filter 3
frequency response (d) Filter 4 frequency response .......................................................... 88
Figure 6-3. (a) Log periodic antenna tested in anechoic chamber (b) Measured received
power at 498 MHz ............................................................................................................. 89
Figure 6-5. (a) Yagi-Uda antenna tested in anechoic chamber (b) Measured received power
at 498 MHz ........................................................................................................................ 90
Figure 6-7. RTL-SDR receiver model ............................................................................... 91
XI
Figure 6-8. First scenario (a) The average received power (b) The average noise
floor .................................................................................................................................... 91
Figure 6-9. Second scenario (a) The average received power (b) The average noise
floor .................................................................................................................................... 92
Figure 6-10. Third scenario (a) The average received power (b) The average noise
floor .................................................................................................................................... 92
Figure 6-11. Fourth scenario (a) The average received power (b) The average noise
floor .................................................................................................................................... 93
Figure 6-12. Fifth scenario (a) The average received power (b) The average noise
floor .................................................................................................................................... 93
Figure 6-13. Sixth scenario (a) The average received power (b) The average noise
floor .................................................................................................................................... 94
Figure 6-14. The recommended block diagram for the system ......................................... 95
Figure 6-15. Dual RTL-SDR receivers after connecting the clocks .................................. 95
Figure 6-16. The simulation model for dual RTL-SDR receivers ..................................... 96
Figure 6-17. Shows the graphical representations of the spectrum, waterfall and a
correlation process for dual coherent RTL-SDR dongles .................................................. 96
Figure 6-18. Simulation model used to test the linear array using N-Channel Coherent
Receiver ............................................................................................................................. 97
Figure 6-19. (a) Setup the system (b) Testing the noise floor ........................................... 97
Figure 6-20. Spectrum analyser view for the four channels at spacing 1λ without using
LNA ................................................................................................................................... 98
Figure 6-21. Waterfall representations for the four channels at spacing 1λ without using
LNA ................................................................................................................................... 98
Figure 6-22. Spectrum analyser view for the four channels at spacing 1λ with using
LNA ................................................................................................................................... 99
Figure 6-23. Waterfall representations for the four channels at spacing 1λ with using
LNA ................................................................................................................................... 99
Figure 6-24. Spectrum analyser view for the four channels at spacing 0.75λ without using
LNA ................................................................................................................................. 100
Figure 6-25. Waterfall representations for the four channels at spacing 0.75λ without using
LNA ................................................................................................................................. 100
Figure 6-26. Spectrum analyser view for the four channels at spacing 0.75λ with using
LNA ................................................................................................................................. 101
Figure 6-27. Waterfall representations for the four channels at spacing 0.75λ with using
LNA ................................................................................................................................. 101
XII
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1. The parameters of bistatic radar geometry ....................................................... 10

Table 2-2. The parameters of bistatic radar equation ........................................................ 11
Table 2-3. OFDM signal parameters ................................................................................. 14
Table 2-4. The Freeview UHF channels television and their centre frequencies .............. 15
Table 2-5. Normalised Chebyshev element values, 0.01 dB Ripple ................................. 19
Table 2-6. RTL-SDR tuners types and their frequency ranges .......................................... 34
Table 3-1. Testing the SNR of the signal generator........................................................... 39
Table 3-2. Testing receiver parameters .............................................................................. 40
Table 3-3. Test the LNA gain at different input powers .................................................... 49
Table 3-4. Cables losses, effective temperature and gain .................................................. 50
Table 3-5. NF summary for the six scenarios .................................................................... 53
Table 4-1. Summary the values of inductors and capacitors of the BPF ........................... 60
Table 4-2. Yagi-Uda antenna dimensions and spacings .................................................... 62
Table 6-1. SNR summary for the six scenarios ................................................................. 94
XIII
NOMENCLATURE
FR : Pattern propagation factor between 𝑅𝑥 and target path

FT : Pattern propagation factor between 𝑇𝑥 and target path
σB : Target RADAR Cross Section
σ Spacing actor
𝐵𝑛 : Noise Bandwidth of the receiver
𝐺𝑅 : Receiver Antenna Gain
𝐺𝑇 : Transmitter Antenna Gain
𝐿𝑅 : Receiver Losses
𝐿𝑇 : Transmitter Losses
𝑃𝑇 : Transmitter Average Power
𝑅𝑅 : Target to Receiver Range
𝑅𝑇 : Transmitter to Target Range
𝑇0 : Noise reference temperature (290𝑜 K)
𝑓𝑐 : Centre Frequency
 Phase difference
c: Speed of Light
G: Antenna Gain
IP3: Third-Order Intercept Point
k: Boltzmann's Constant
K: Kelvin
L: Baseline distance
λ: Wavelength
ꚍ: Time delay
ACM: Amplitude Comparison Monopulse
ADC: Analogue to Digital Converter
AF: Array Factor
BPF: Bandpass Filter
DAB: Digital Audio Broadcast
DPI: Direct Path Interference
DOA: Direction Of Arrival
DVB-T: Terrestrial Digital Video Broadcast
EIRP: Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power
XIV
FM: Frequency Modulation
FNBW: First Null Beamwidth
HF: High Frequency
HPBW: Half Power Beamwidth
IL: Insertion loss
LNA: Low Noise Amplifier
LPDA: Log Periodic Dipole Antenna
LPF: Low Pass Filter
NF: Noise Figure
OFDM: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
PBR: Passive Bistatic Radar
PCB: Printed Circuit Board
PCL: Passive Coherent Location
PCM: Phase Comparison Monopulse
RCS: Radar Cross Section
RL: Return Loss
SDR: Software-Defined Radio
SMT: Surface Mounted Technology
SNR: Signal-to-Noise Ratio
UCA: Uniform Circular Array
UHF: Ultra High Frequency
ULA: Uniform Line Array
USB: Universal Serial Bus
USRP: Universal Software Radio Peripheral
VHF: Very High Frequency
VSWR: Voltage Standing Wave Raito
XV
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
Radar was discovered at the end of 19th century by Heinrich Hertz and is an
abbreviation for RAdio Detection And Ranging. Radar is a device used for target detection
and location by utilising reflecting signals from objects [1]. The radar classifications are
mainly distinguished between four types: Bistatic, Monostatic, Gaussian Monostatic, and
Multi-static radars [2]. Typically, any radar that has the transmitter and receiver allocated
at the same antenna is known as monostatic radar. The monostatic radar has the advantage
of time synchronisation between the transmitter and receiver [3]. Furthermore, the bistatic
radar is defined as a radar which employs two different antennas at separate distance, one
for transmission and the other for receiving. However, when multiple antennas are utilised
at independent locations, with one antenna employed for receiving reflected signals, and
the other antennas used for transmission or vice versa, it is called multi-static radar [4].
On the other hand, the appeal in utilising radar systems is that one does not need to transmit
any signal, rather, one merely uses the existing signals already present in the radio spectrum
such as FM, DAB, and DVB-T. This method is recognised as passive radar, which operates
by employing the present illuminators of opportunity to detect the reflected signals from
the moving targets [5] and [6]. Additionally, passive radar is commonly known as passive
bistatic radar (PBR) as it is using a separate transmitter and receiver. The PBR has many
features such as low cost, undetectable, and less sensitive to jamming techniques comparing
to the active radars [7].
Nowadays, the PBR is using multiple platforms; however, the most significant is Software
Defined Radio (SDR). SDR software is well-known for their simple hardware
implementation, and their ability to provide in-phase and quadrature (I/Q) data. The
Universal Software Radio Peripheral (USRP) is considered the most popular hardware to
design the PBR; however, its use is limited by designers due to its high cost [1].
1
This thesis investigates the reliability of using RTL-SDR R820T2 DVB-T dongle to design
a PBR system using MATLAB software. In addition, it examines the suitability in building
a multi-static passive radar utilising four synchronised antennas using N-Channel Coherent
Receiver via GNURadio software.
2
1.2 Literature Review
Historically, the concept of the passive radar can be traced back to the first radar
experiment done by A. Taylor and L.C. Young in the United States in 1922 [8]. According
to Appleton and Barnett [9] in 1924 at Bournemouth in England, they reported the first use
of a broadcast transmitter to measure the height of the ionosphere using a reflected signal.
The first passive bistatic radar (PBR) measurements were conducted in February 1935 at
Daventry in the United Kingdom, by Sir Robert Watson-Watt. Watt aimed to detect the
Heyford bomber aircraft at a distance of eight kilometres using the illumination from the
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) [10]. The Bawdsey Research Station conducted
new research about radars in 1936 after the successful experimentation done by Sir Robert
Watson-Watt, which later led to set a chain of radars (known as Chain Home Radars) on
the east and south coasts of England [11].
The Germans expanded the idea of Chain Home Radar (CHR) during World War II by
developing a passive radar, Klein Heidelberg, to detect aircraft. Klein Heidelberg was the
first practical PBR which used illuminations of British CHR transmitters [7]. After World
War II, several countries had started to investigate passive radar in the 1960s, but this
technology was neglected for about half a century after Sir Robert’s experiments [8] and
[12].
During the early 1980-1990s, different researchers in the United Kingdom and the United
States began reviving the benefits of using commercial broadcast transmitters such as
frequency modulated (FM) to track and detect aircraft. However, the first model of Passive
Covert Radar (PCR) using FM signal was developed by Lockheed Martin. Furthermore,
other passive bistatic radar systems were developed during this period, including the
Passive Emitter Tracking (PET) [13], [8], and [11].
The mid-1990s brought about interest in passive coherent location (PCL) radar receivers to
the arrival of aircraft with stealth capabilities [6]. In the late 1990s, digital broadcast signals
were introduced by the networks, Digital Video Broadcast Terrestrial (DVB-T) and Digital
Audio Broadcast (DAB) in Europe. ONERA company began to explore DAB and DVB-T
signals in PCR, and by the beginning of 1999, FGAN-FHR established the first PCR system
using these signals [11].
3
Since the early 21𝑠𝑡 century, interest in developing passive radar systems has increased
since it requires lower cost, less hardware and less power. Because of these benefits, passive
radar caught the attention of numerous researchers around the world and was especially
attractive to governments and militaries. Moreover, recent research and developments
about passive radar focus on PBR using the DAB signal, PBR for low radar cross section
(RCS) targets, multistatic passive radar, and PBR design using SDR [10], [6], [14], [15],
[16], and [17].
Furthermore, interest in using commercial transmitters within PBR systems has continued
to increase rapidly in the environment due to the exploit of the new generation of
broadcasts, DAB and DVB-T. DVB-T provides a higher channel bandwidth and resolution
range compared to FM [7]. Due to this growth in the interest in these systems, the cost of
its hardware and software continue to increase as the demand for this technology is needed.
As a result of this development, it seems that interest in passive radar technology will
continue to grow in the future. Moreover, many companies have started to invent their own
low-cost receivers and simple hardware to offset the higher costs associated with the
standard receivers and hardware [12].
The RTL-SDR receiver dongle discovered by Eric Fry (hacker), Antti Palosaari and
Osmocom team. The RTL-SDR is considered one of these new technologies that spread
worldwide due to its low cost and high performance. The first signal using RTL2832U
RTL-SDR dongle through FM signals was received in February 2012 [18].
The first passive radar developed using RTL-SDR receiver dongle was introduced in
September 2013 by Juha Vierinen [19], who used dual coherent channels of RTL-SDR
dongles. Juhn completed his design by connecting the clocks of two dongles to synchronise
them. Moreover, he connected two log periodic Yagi antennas to the two RTL-SDRs; one
antenna is pointed to the transmitter to pick the reference signal, while the other is directed
to the target position to collect the reflected echo from aircraft. Similar, to Juha, on May
2014 [20], Ben Silverwood uploaded a video on YouTube which plays his success in
building a passive radar using two RTL2382u USB dongles. He displayed his results using
MATLAB software.
As demand for the RTL-SDR receivers increased, development of this technology

expanded resulting in the production of advanced versions. In June 2015, Dr Daniel
Kaminski began developing SDRSharp software to make it compatible with two RTL-SDR
4
dongles, and in October 2016, he succeeded in releasing a new passive radar program called
‘SDRDue’ [19]. Furthermore, another coherent passive radar was completed by Tatu
Peltola in October 2015 [21] by using three coherent RTL-SDR receivers connected to the
same reference clock to make their phase shift constant. Peltola used three uniform circular
array (UCA) antennas of monopoles spaced by 1/3 wavelength in his design.
Multichannel coherent RTL-SDR receivers showed vital importance to the designers of

passive radar as its providing synchronisation between receivers. By October 2016 [19], a
company named Coherent-receiver.com had invented multiple channel coherent receivers
which allow signal samples to be synchronised with time through the use of two different
antennas. Essentially, the company had produced four coherent RTL-SDR receiver
dongles, which were tested successfully by Dr Daniel Kaminski’s passive radar software.
To this date, no one has managed to determine the correct directional antennas that can be
employed in the N-Channel Coherent Receiver to build a passive radar system.
Furthermore, M.J. Ryan in October 2016 [1] investigated the suitability of using Realtek
RTL2832U chipset to create low-cost passive radar through SDR, his results demonstrated
the capability of receiving radar images, however the RTL-SDR dongle showed bandwidth
limitations regarding DVB-T signal. Also, Marcus Herber in November 2016 [19]
developed a real-time passive radar using the RTL-SDR receiver with clutter suppression
and target detection. Additionally, Mohamed, Toufik, Aladdine and Ali in December 2016
[22] were the first people to publish a work regarding the use of FM-RTL-SDR passive
radar by applying an adaptive filtering method to cancel the direct path interference (DPI)
and the multipath interference (MPI).
Nowadays, Coherent-receiver.com can produce up to sixteen coherent channels which are

identically synchronised by the buffer clock [23]. Currently, the use of four coherent
receivers as a passive radar system is still under research.
5
1.3 Thesis Motivation
A PBR system offers many fields of research. This technology has been exploited in
the last few years due to its high system performance and low effective cost. The ability to
develop the PBR with a low budget allows researchers to investigate the characteristics of
different types of passive radars. PBR systems have the advantage of flexible design, which
provides the PBR with the ability to operate with different hardware toolkits. However,
many models exist in the market that can be used to establish PBR.
Many devices were founded with low costs that can be utilised to build a PBR with efficient
performance such as RTL-SDR hardware which uses the Realtek RTL2832U technology.
The RTL-SDR dongles offer great flexibility with GNURadio and the MATLAB SDRs
toolkit. Numerous researchers have published journal articles and papers which outline the
use of SDR technology to implement PBR by using, for example, the USRP hardware.
While there are no published papers or journals found to provide information about using
RTL-SDR technology to build PBR, this research is aimed to figure out the possibility of
employing the RTL-SDR hardware in producing a PBR.
1.4 Thesis Objectives
The purpose of this thesis is to produce a research paper about the appropriateness of
RTL-820T2 SDR USB dongle in designing a PBR by using the DVB-T signal as an
illuminator of opportunity. Moreover, this thesis examines the N-Channel Coherent
Receiver and how it can be utilised to produce a multi-static PBR by employing an antenna
array. In order to achieve these objectives, the following tasks must be carried out:
• Perform research on various types of passive radar solutions and develop a core
understanding of their principles. Additionally, this paper will cover the
characteristics of the RTL-SDR dongle and N-Channel Coherent Receiver.
Furthermore, this research includes information on DVB-T signal, a type of source
transmitter. In addition, this research extends to cover the different methods of
signal combination such as monopulse techniques. Finally, the research examines
several antenna forms that can be used to establish a PBR.
6
• Perform different experiments on the receiver to analyse the effect of each
parameter such as the noise figure (NF) or the expected signal to noise ratio (SNR)
on the performance of the receiver.
• Test different types of antennas to decide which antenna is more suitable for this
project. Also, measures the effect of the Bandpass Filter (BPF) and the Low Noise
Amplifier (LNA) on the system.
• Develop a simulation model for the system to examine and test the performance of
the RTL-SDR dongle receiver and the N-Channel Coherent Receiver.
• Test different scenarios for the system using the BPF and LNA at various positions
between the antenna and receiver to determine the highest signal power and output
SNR could be obtained.
• Achieving the above tasks will help to perform a design for the filter and the antenna
in order to produce a model with the aim of achieving predicted power levels.
• Carried out an experiment to analyse the results from the developed model.
1.5 Thesis Outline
The layout of this thesis was documented over seven chapters that highlight the research
that was completed for this project. Chapter one introduces a comprehensive overview of
the concept of radar. In addition, a detailed literature review was provided. The motivation
and objectives of the thesis were listed.
Chapter two presents the background theory of PBR operation principles and multi-static
radar definition. The illuminator of opportunity DVB-T characteristics was analysed. A
brief description about the analogue filters and LNA are also discussed. An investigation
of monopulse technique types was presented as well as an explanation of the antenna
concepts and types. Finally, the RTL-SDR receiver and N-Channel Coherent Receiver were
defined.
The purpose of chapter three was to perform an experimental investigation of different

subjects such as receiver performance, variations of antenna type, practical issues of the
lumped element filter, LNA performance, and an examination of various scenarios for the
system.
7
In chapter four, the design proposal and calculations stages for the BPF and Yagi-Uda
antenna were analysed. Additionally, an overview presented about how the linear array was
designed.
Chapter five provides the modelling and simulation of the BPF which simulated using
AWR design environment program. Moreover, the designed antenna and commercial
antenna were examined using MATLAB software. In addition, the linear array was
simulated for both antennas; designed and commercial antennas using MATLAB.
Chapter six includes the measurements and results of the BPF and the chosen antennas for
the surveillance and reference channels. Additionally, information regarding efficiency and
performance of the RTL-SDR receiver was provided after testing it in different scenarios.
The linear array was tested also using the N-Channel Coherent Receiver.
Chapter seven discusses the key findings from this thesis, which were summarised in the
conclusion section. Future research was also stated.
8
BACKGROUND THEORY
2.1 Passive Bistatic Radar
A PBR is classified as a radar which uses a separate transmitter and receiver by using
a non-cooperative illuminator such as FM, DAB or DVB-T. Many names have been used
to define the passive bistatic radar; Passive Covert Radar, Passive Coherent Location,
Broadcast Radar, and Parasitic Radar. PBR systems usually operate in the VHF and UHF
frequencies bands. PBR has various features which attract users to utilise these advantages
such as undetectable passive receiver location, jamming protection, low cost, and the ability
to discover the stealth aircraft. On the other hand, PBR has some limitations like complex
processing and geometry, and coverage area reduction [24] and [25].
9
In the PBR, two antennas are used to detect the targets as shown in Fig. 2-1; the first antenna
is known as the reference channel which is pointed directly at the transmitter position to
monitor and dynamically sample the transmitted signal, besides a surveillance antenna to
detect the reflected signal from the target [5].
2.1.1 Bistatic Radar Geometry
The signal propagation paths and the geometry of a PBR are illustrated in Fig. 2-2 [7].
By using equation (1), the bistatic range (𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅 ) can be calculated if the transmitter and
receiver antenna locations are known, the symbols of this equation are explained in Table
2-1 [26].
10
2.1.2 Bistatic Radar Equation
The SNR for the bistatic radar can be expressed as in equation (2) [14] and [27], and
the symbols of this equation are explained in Table 2-1. By using the bistatic radar
equations (3) & (4), the predictable power levels of the reflected and reference channels
can be calculated. The SNR is a significant metric for radar system since it regulates the
reliability of the signal processing operations [28].
More details about the effect of each parameter in the equation of the bistatic radar can be
found in [29].
11
2.1.3 Bistatic Range and Doppler Resolution
The range resolution (∆𝑅 ) for bistatic radar can be calculated using equation (5), which
is used to define the proper separation range between the targets. Furthermore, the Doppler
resolution (∆𝑓𝑑 ) can be determined by using equation (6). The Doppler frequency resolution
is applied to determine how well the radar detection works for different radial velocities
[6].
2.1.4 Bistatic Doppler Effect.
The Doppler shift is an obvious variation in the frequency due to the target motion with
different velocities and the relative positions of the transmitter and receiver to each other.
As a result of doppler shift, a wavelength reduction is expected with an increase in the
frequency. The Doppler shift frequency for a reflected signal from the target can be
calculated using equation (7) [30] and [6]. However, the received signal r(t) from the target
can be expressed as in equation (8) by adding the effect of the Doppler shift of the signal
[28].
Where ꚍ is the time delay, and 𝑓𝑑 is the doppler frequecny shift.
2.2 Multistatic Radar
The radar is referred to as a multi-static radar when more than one transmitter or
receiver or both are used as shown in Fig. 2-3. Typically in the multi-static radar, the
transmitters and the receivers are located separately in different places. However, the
transmitter should cover all of the desired areas. Additionally, no synchronisation between
transmitters and receivers is needed or even between two individual transmitters. There are
some advantages for using multi-static radar over the bistatic radar such as increasing the
data known about each target obtained by using multiple antennas at different angles and
12
enhancing the coverage region. On the other hand, the system complexity and cost are
increased [31].
2.3 DVB-T
This part explains the characteristics of DVB-T signal, which is considered to be
standard for the digital television broadcast system in the UK and many other countries.
Moreover, this section will describe the DVB-T signal form and also outline the parameters
of the DVB-T transmitter in Portsmouth.
2.3.1 DVB-T signal
A various number of broadcasting services exist in the VHF and UHF bands, which can
be used as illuminators in the passive radar system such as FM, DAB, and DVB-T. DVB-
T signal gains the attraction from the people who interested in the PBR due to sufficient
bandwidth and the powerful signal. DVB-T is used in the digital terrestrial television (DTT)
broadcasting [32]. The frequency band of DVB-T in the UK covers from 474 MHz to 794
MHz as mentioned in [33].
13
2.3.2 DVB-T signal characteristics
DVB-T signal has many properties and benefits compared to the other signals; it is
based on the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) signals that ables to
deliver a robust signal under critical conditions. It provides bandwidth up to 8 MHZ with
high Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power (EIRP), which allows high doppler
resolution and good range [34]. Furthermore, DVB-T signal has the advantage to be
regenerated and decoded sufficiently. In additional, DVB-T signal can be designed in
different ways depending on the requirement of the network operator.
According to [35] and [32], DVB-T OFDM signal has some parameters which is used to
define the signal as listed in Table 2-3.
2.3.3 DVB-T transmitter properties
The nearest DVB-T transmitter location to Portsmouth city is Rowridge transmitted

located in the Ise of Wight Island as shown in Fig. 2-4. Rowridge transmitter is placed in
the Meridian TV region with the capability to support up to 118 channels. The height of
Rowridge transmitter is 320 meters. Rowridge is considered from the most powerful
transmitters in the UK for vertically polarised output. There are seven Freeview UHF
channels as listed in Table 2-4, which broadcasted by Rowridge transmitter [33].
14
15
2.4 Analogue filter
Filters are devices used to remove the undesired parts of a signal at input terminals,
permitting the passage of desired signals with little attenuation at the signal level.
Nowadays, analogue filters are considered a significant part of many electronic circuits.
The frequency band permitted to pass through the filter is known as the passband [37].
Analogue filters can be categorised as active or passive. Passive filters indicate only the
resistors, inductors, and capacitors. On the other hand, active filters can be implemented
using active elements such as op-amps or transistors. However, passive filters have some
limitations, i.e. inductors are considered the main disadvantage due to large size. Filters
have four main types of frequency domain responses as illustrated in Fig. 2-5, and the
definition of them can be found in [38].
Analogue filters can be designed using microstrip and stripline for low-power applications
due to the high reliability and low-cost. The microstrip and the stripline technologies are
considered two basic types of printed circuit board (PCP). The typical PCP for both is
shown in Fig. 2-6. Information about how to convert from a passive filter to microstrip or
stripline filter using Richard’s transformation and Kuroda’s identities can be found in [37].
16
2.4.1 Chebyshev Bandpass filter design
Bandpass filters can be classified into two main categories; narrowband or wideband.
The BPF is considered narrowband when the ratio of the upper frequency to the lower
frequency is approximately two or less. On the other hand, it is seen as wideband if the
upper frequency is more than twice of the lower frequency.
BPF can be implemented using various methods depending on the design specifications.
Well-known methods that are used include Butterworth, Chebyshev, Elliptic, and Bessel.
Chebyshev response is defined by its ripple passband and has a smooth roll-off which
enhances the stopband attenuation. As the passband ripple has a higher value, the stopband
attenuation becomes sharper. On the other hand, the Chebyshev response suffers from a
group delay in the time domain which has a high peak level at the edge of the passband.
Additionally, the filter order is a significant step used to determine how fast the filter cutoff
is rolled off and how sharp the transition from the passband to the stopband becomes [38]
and [37].
A BPF can be produced using passive components. The passive BPF is obtained from the
normalised model. This model is a standard group of elements, which has values that are
normalised to w = 1 rad/s at cutoff frequencies. In addition, the load component is
normalised to 1 W. A typical passive BPF circuit using Chebyshev method is shown in Fig.
2-7. The series and parallel elements in the circuit can be converted to the desired values
by using the equations in Fig. 2-8.
17
The 𝑋 value in the equations is known as the factor of the normalised values and can be
obtained from Table.2-5. If the circuit design starts with a shunt capacitor then the values
for C1, L2, C3, L4, etc. are chosen. However, if the circuit design begins with a series
inductor, then the values for L1’, C2’, L3’, C4’, etc.are selected from Table 2-5 [38].
18
The narrow BPF design is considered more challenging as the designer needs to properly
choose the element values with an appropriate transformation to avoid unreasonable and
impracticable components values. However, when the BPF becomes more narrow, the Q
factor for the elements increases and stability and tolerance issues become more important
[37].
2.5 Low Noise Amplifier
LNA is considered a significant component of any receiver circuit in the modern

communication systems. LNA is used to amplify the strength of the weak RF signals which
are introduced by the receiving antenna with adding a little noise that not affect any degrade
in SNR of the system [39].
The primary parameters which used to measure the performance of the LNA are; NF, Gain,
and Linearity.
• Noise Figure: is used to measure the degrade in SNR caused by some components
exist in the system like the LNA itself, filter, and coaxial cable. NF is described by
the noise factor (F) in decibels, where the noise factor is the ratio of the SNR input
to the SNR output as expressed in equation (9) [40].
S /N
𝑁F = 10 log10 F = 10 log10 (S i /Ni )…....……………. (9)
o o
• Gain: is utilised to define how well the LNA amplifies the weak signal by adding
extra gain to control the cable losses and other losses. High gain is required in all
LNA due to it is own circuit noise, where if the gain is not high enough, the signal
will be attenuated by the LNA circuit noise [40] and [41].
19
• Linearity: is considered to be the most significant parameter in the specification of
LNA, it describes how the input signal is strong which can affect the performance
of the LNA. However, if the LNA begin acting in the nonlinear region due to the
strong input signal, the gain will start to decrease. Additionally, the nonlinearity
will lead to many problems such as distortion, signal harmonics and
intermodulation which known as ‘Third Order Harmonic’. Moreover, another
metric point which can be used to measure the linearity of the LNA is the 1 dB
compression point as it is illustrated in Fig.2-9 [41].
2.6 Monopulse Techniques
Monopulse is also referred as a simultaneous lobe comparison technique; simply it is a

technique used to locate the direction of the radiation source. It is typically employed in the
tracking radar applications. The monopulse estimates the angle of arrival by employing
more than two antennas simultaneously.
Monopulse is preferred over other tracking methods due to its low cost, and equipment
simplicity. On the other hand, for signal operation conditions such as jamming, the
monopulse technique requires to be installed with an adaptive beamforming to get an
accurate ratio of the SNR, which provides good performance in detection. More
information about the advantages and disadvantages of monopulse methods can be found
in [42], and [43].
20
Furthermore, measuring the angle of monopulse can be done using different methods, the
most common approaches are the amplitude comparison monopulse and the phase
comparison monopulse [44].
2.6.1 Amplitude Comparison Monopulse
According to the IEEE, The amplitude comparison monopulse (ACM) is defined a

monopulse method which compares the amplitude ratio of the reflected signal from the
target using two slightly shifted antennas in the direction of the patterns [42] as shown in
Fig. 2-11. In Fig. 2-10, the block diagram of ACM is illustrated using two antennas, and
the output signals are employed in two different processes. The first process is the
summation of the two antennas signals and the second process is the difference between
the two antennas signals as shown in Fig. 2-11. Moreover, the direction of arrival (DOA)
of the target can be estimated using the real part of the monopulse ratio [45].
The hybrid junction is the device `responsible for producing the sum and difference
channels in the block diagram of the ACM. The ACM is distinguished from PCM in the
measuring method of the relative phase [42].
21
2.6.2 Phase Comparison Monopulse
The IEEE defines the phase comparison monopulse (PCM) as a monopulse technique
that uses the receiving antenna beams with different centre phases [42].
The major difference between the PCM and ACM is that the signals have different phases
and the same amplitude in the PCM [47]. On the other hand, in both of them, the angular
coordinates of the target are obtained by using the sum and difference channels. The
received signals from the PCM operation are correlated to produce a phase difference ().
The phase difference is expressed in equation (10) [46].
2𝜋𝑑 ∗ Sin(𝜃)
∆ =
𝜆
For small 𝜃 values, Sin(𝜃) ≈ 𝜃
2𝜋𝑑𝜃
∆ = ……….…………………………….…….…..(10)
𝜆
Where 𝜃 is defined as the angle of arrival as illustrated in Fig. 2-12 (b).
22
PCM has the advantage of the simple structure and low-cost which is needed in the
automotive radar. Moreover, it can accomplish a vast view field without any need for
complex mechanics construction or switch between beams. However, the PCM has limited
ability to detect and recognise multiple targets with the same relative speeds and ranges
[48].
2.7 Antenna
An antenna is used to radiate or receive radio signals according to the IEEE standard
definition. The antenna is considered an essential parameter in the communication
technology transformation over the last 60 years [49]. This section will discuss basic
antenna concepts with brief information about some types of antennas are used in this
project.
2.7.1 Antenna basic concepts
There are various parameters used to evaluate the performance of an antenna, which are;
1) Radiation Pattern: It is the angular variation for the radiation at constant ranges
from the antenna. Radiation pattern relies on the strength of the signal. There are
three main patterns used to describe the radiation; Isotropic, Directional, and
Omnidirectional.
23
2) Directivity: It is defined as “the ratio of power density in the directional of the
pattern maximum to the average power density at the same distance from the
antenna, see [50].”
3) Gain: It is very close to the definition of directivity, but not the same. It defines as
the directivity minus the losses obtained on the antenna.
4) Polarisation: It describes the electric field nature radiated by the antenna. When
the polarisation direction is not declared, the direction of polarisation will be taken
at the maximum gain direction.
5) Bandwidth: The frequencies range which the antenna operation range is defined.
6) Beamwidth: It is the angle between two identical points on the pattern where
maximum power is radiated. There are two main types of beam-width, which are
Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW), and First Null Beamwidth (FNBW).
7) Impedance: It is the ratio between the voltage and current at the antenna terminals.
The typical antenna pattern in a polar plot is shown in Fig. 2-13 [52]. Further information
about how the antenna parameters can be measured or calculated can be found in [51], [49],
and [50].
2.7.2 Dipole antenna
The dipole antenna is considered to be a type of wire antennas, and it is also known as
‘doublet’. Dipole antennas are typically made from perfect conductor material, and it is
considered to be a symmetrical and balanced antenna, that is electrically fed at the centre.
The dipole antenna can be shaped in different ways; the most two common forms are
straight wire dipole and the cylindrical dipole as shown in Fig. 2-14. The maximum RF
24
current in the dipole antenna is at the centre, while the minimum current is at the element
ends. The dipole antennas can be fitted vertically or horizontally, such that it is considered
to be an example of an omnidirectional antenna [53], and [49].
In Fig. 2-15 (a), the current distributions for different dipoles length are depicted with
arrows indicating the direction of the current. Moreover, in Fig. 2-15 (b), the radiation
patterns for various length of straight dipoles are shown [50].
2.7.2.1 Half wave dipole antenna
Half wave dipole is one of the most common and particular cases of the dipole antenna.
It has a length equal to the half wavelength, but in practice, to achieve resonance, the
physical length needs to be shorter than half wavelength. It can be manufactured with zero
25
input reactance to eliminate the requirement for tuning in order to match the impedance.
The half wavelength dipole antenna has an input impedance:
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 73 + 𝑗42.5
In Fig. 2-16 [50], the current distribution and the radiation pattern for half-wave dipole are
shown. However, the half-wave dipole has a 1.64 (2.15 dB) directivity and HPBW equal
to 78 degrees.
2.7.2.2 Folded dipole antenna
The folded dipole is a type of dipole antenna with two parallel dipoles folded backs to
create a narrow loop as shown in Fig. 2-17. The advantages of using the folded dipole
antenna over the standard dipole antenna are that it provides a higher impedance, which
makes the matching process more straightforward than the standard dipole antenna, and
that it offers a wider bandwidth for different applications [49] and [50].
26
2.7.3 Monopole antenna
The monopole antenna is one-half of a dipole antenna, and it is typically mounted and
fed on a ground plane as shown in Fig. 2-18, which gives it the advantage of operating in
broadcast antenna applications due to the omnidirectional coverage in the azimuth.
Additionally, the radiation pattern of a monopole antenna mounted above the ground plane
is equivalent to that of a dipole antenna in the free space.
On the contrary, the impedance of the monopole antenna is one-half of the dipole antenna
as it only requires half of the voltage to lead the same current of the monopole antenna.
Furthermore, the radiated power from the monopole antenna is one-half the power radiated
from the dipole antenna. Moreover, as there is no radiation below the ground plane and the
average radiation intensity is decreased, the directivity of the monopole antenna is double
that of the dipole antenna. The monopole antenna is considered to be a resonant antenna
[50] and [54].
2.7.4 Yagi-Uda antenna
The Yagi-Uda antenna is efficient in real life applications as it can be operated in

different bands such as HF, VHF, and UHF. The Yagi-Uda antenna gains its popularity due
to its simplicity, lightweight, low-cost, and relatively high gain [49]. The Yagi-Uda antenna
consists of three basic elements; a reflector, driven, and directors as shown in the Fig. 2-
19. There are usually multiple directors employed to obtain higher directivity [55].
The folded dipole is considered the most common feed element for the Yagi-Uda antenna.
The reflector and directors are passive elements, and the reflector should be designed longer
than the driven element in order to make the induced current lag the voltage. Additionally,
the typical length of the driven element is less than one-half of the wavelength (0.45-0.49λ),
27
and the length of the directors should be around 0.4 to 0.45λ. Typically, the separation
between the directors is about 0.3 to 0.4λ. It is not essential to have a consistent separation
between the directors to obtain an optimum design. More information about how to design
the Yagi-Uda antenna, see references [49] and [50].
2.7.5 Log Periodic dipole antenna
The log periodic dipole antenna (LPDA) consists of parallel linear dipoles as shown in
Fig. 2-20, which is organised side by side to form a coplanar array. There are two significant
parameters in the design of the LPDA: the spacing factor (σ) and the geometric ratio (ꚍ).
The typical ꚍ ratio is less than one, and it is formed according to lengths and spacing of the
dipole elements. Of note, the spacing factor is the ratio between two adjacent distance
elements to double the larger element length, which is illustrated in equation (11). More
details about LPDA design and configurations can be found in [56].
𝑅𝑛+1 −𝑅𝑛
𝜎= ……………………………….. (11)
2𝑙𝑛+1
Difference between the LPDA and the Yagi-Uda array is that all the elements are fed and
connected in the former, while only one element is energised in the latter. Additionally, by
increasing the number of elements in the LPDA, the bandwidth and the frequency response
increases, but in the Yagi, the directivity is increased. For the same number of elements,
Yagi will have higher gain as compared to the LPDA [49] and [50].
28
2.7.6 Antenna Arrays
The antenna array is defined as a set of several antennas that are connected and arranged
together in one antenna to increase the directionality of the radiation pattern. Additionally,
by using a larger number of elements in the array, a higher gain can be achieved with a
narrow beam. However, by increasing the numbers of elements in the array, there are some
limitations such as complexity, high cost, and larger size [50] and [57].
Furthermore, the antenna array is used to enhance the reliability and improve the
performance of the communication system. It is also utilised to revoke the interference from
a specific direction. Various parameters are used to determine the array radiation pattern;
the type of each element used, the spacing between elements, and the phase and amplitude
of the current which is used to feed the elements. However, the configuration of an array
can be shaped in different ways, depending on the geometry including linear, circular,
planar, triangular and hexagonal arrays as shown in Fig. 2-21 [58].
29
The antenna arrays have many types such as the end-fire array, broadside array, phased
array, collinear array, and parasitic array. The main two types of arrays are the end-fire and
broadside. When the beam of the antenna is designed to be 90 degrees to the axis of the
array, it is named a broadside array as shown in Fig. 2-22 (a). On the other hand, if the
antenna has a maximum radiation at 0 degrees with the main axis of the array, it is
considered an end-fire array as shown in Fig. 2-22 (b). In the parasitic array, only one
element is energised, which is considered to be the driven element. The Yagi-Uda array is
considered a standard model of the parasitic array as shown in Fig. 2-22 (c). Moreover, the
radiation pattern of the collinear array shown in Fig. 2-22 (d) reaches the maximum value
when it is perpendicular to the array axis, similar to the broadside array [58]. The phased
array is defined as the change in the phase of each element by scanning the main beam
electronically [49].
30
2.7.6.1 Uniform Linear Array
The uniform linear array (ULA) is considered the most common configuration of an
antenna array due to the simplicity of construction. In this configuration, all of the elements
are identical and have the same amplitude and spacing, a typical example which is shown
in Fig. 2-23 [50] and [59]. The array factor (AF) of the ULA can be achieved by assuming
the individual elements in the array are an isotropic source. Next, if the current elements in
the array are not isotropic sources, the signal field can be created by multiplying the AF of
the isotropic source by the single field element, as shown in Fig. 2-24. The AF of any
number of elements can be written as shown in equation (2), where 𝑑 is defined as the
separation between elements, and 𝛽 is the relative phase between the elements. Moreover,
the ULA can be controlled by adjusting the value of 𝛽 [49].
𝐴𝐹 = ∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑒
𝑗(𝑛−1)𝜓
, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜓 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝑑 ∗ cos(𝜃) + 𝛽 ………………(2)
31
The main four types of ULA are [49]: Broadside Array, Ordinary End-Fire Array, Phased
Array, and Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array. The definition of each type of those arrays
was explained (see Appendix C).
2.7.6.2 Uniform Circular Array
The uniform circular array (UCA) consists of a number of elements which are placed
and arranged in a circular ring with a symmetric distance between the elements as shown
in Fig. 2-25. The UCA elements are located in a circle with radius 𝑎, and two different
angles which are used to illustrate the direction of each element in the array: 𝜃 represents
the elevation angle, and ∅ refers to the azimuth angle [52]. The AF of the UCA is given by
equation (3) [60].
𝑗[𝑘𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅−∅𝑛 )+𝛽𝑛 ]
𝐴𝐹(𝜃, ∅) = ∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝐼𝑛 𝑒 ………………(3)
Where ∅𝑛 is the angular position of element (n), 𝛽𝑛 is the phase of excitation of element
(n), 𝐼𝑛 is the amplitude of excitation of element (n), and N is the number of elements in
the array.
One of the most characteristic UCA features is that they do not include any edge elements
which gives the beam pattern of UCA the capability to be electronically rotated.
Additionally, as the UCA can arrange the elements into a symmetrical form, it compensates
the impact of the mutual coupling [60]. Furthermore, the UCA has an omnidirectional
32
pattern, which is a significant aspect of the design of some applications such as radar
systems [61].
Another approach of UCA is that an additional element is used in the centre of the circle at
radius zero as shown in Fig. 2-26. The AF has been modified by adding the phase excitation
of the central element as illustrated in equation (4).
𝑗[𝑘𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅−∅𝑛 )+𝛽𝑛 ]
𝐴𝐹(𝜃, ∅) = 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 + ∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝐼𝑛 𝑒 ………………(4)
The directivity and gain are enhanced by increasing the number of elements in the array.
However, since the number of the sidelobes is also increased, the beamwidth becomes
narrow. Also, the dimensions of the array will increase by increasing the number of
elements. Additionally, according to [60], by placing a central element in the UCA, the
directivity is enhanced, but the HPBW is reduced. Finally, the sidelobes in the radiation
pattern become lower by using the central element in the UCA, which better to avoid the
unwanted signals.
More details can be found in [49], [60], and [58] about the UCA design with and without
the central element.
2.8 RTL-SDRs Receiver Dongle
RTL-SDRs are defined as radios based on DVB-T television tuners and are produced
by Realtek in USB dongle. These radios are used typically for SDR receivers. Software
defined radios (SDRs) are considered an advanced form of the standard radios as they can
33
be controlled by using software compared to the typical broadcasts which are composed of
hardware components. SDRs have unique advantages compared to that of the other radios.
SDRs can modify different parameters such as sample rate, gain, and centre frequency
without any needs for hardware intervention. These features that SDRs possess make it
more suitable for the modern communication system applications, as they are always
flexible to change due to the nature of this technology. SDRs have many applications, and
the most frequent use is for aircraft surveillance [62].
There are various types of RTL-SDRs tuners, which are responsible for defining the
frequency ranges of receivers, listed in Table 2-6. Furthermore, the RTL-SDR has
commonly received signals with both raw data that is formed in-phase and quadrature (I/Q)
data. Typically, the I/Q data is represented in complex values, where the (I) data is termed
for the real part of the signal and the (Q) data with the imaginary part of the signal.
However, as the RTL-SDR utilises I/Q sampling with two analogues to digital converters
(ADCs), the bandwidth (BW) of the dongle is defined as the same value as the sampling
rate value. For example, if the sampling rate of the dongle is 2.4 MSPS then the bandwidth
will be 2.4 MHz. The specifications of the chosen RTL-SDR dongle is discussed in section
2.8.1 [18].
2.8.1 RTL-SDR receiver specification
Typically, the RTL-SDR dongles are constructed with a RTL2832U chip that is
compatible with SDR. The tuner chip in the dongle is Rafael Micro R820T2 that
responsible for defining the frequency range. The R820T2 tuner is a newer version of the
R820T tuner, which provides better sensitivity than the R820T. More information
regarding R820T2 can be found in [63]. The typical NooElec R820T2 SDR&DVB-T
dongle is shown in Fig. 2-27.
34
The specifications of RTL-SDR-R820T2-DVB-T dongle are [63], [18]:
• The frequency range: 24 MHz -1766 MHz

• The phase noise: -98 dBc/Hz at 10 kHz
• The common noise figure is 3.5 dB at 100 MHz and ascending to 6 dB at 1.7 GHz
• The RF input noise figure: 3.5 dB
• The current consumption: < 178 mA at 3.3 V power supply
• The maximum input power: +10 dBm
• The image rejection: 65 dBc
• ADC with 8 bits giving approximately 50 dB dynamic range
• The input impedance: 75 ohms
• The maximum bandwidth is 3.2 MHz, but the stable BW is 2.8 MHz, or 2.4 MHz
depend on the PC speed
• LNA with noise figure: < 4.5 dB
• The average receiver sensitivity over its receivable range is approximate -130 dBm
2.9 N-Channel Coherent Receiver
N-channel Coherent Receiver utilises the RTL-SDR V3 dongles to produce a coherent

receiving system with multi-channels. This product, manufactured by coherant-
reciever.com that offers many features such as simple hardware, high performance, and
flexibility. The multichannel coherent receiver refers to the use of two or multi-channel
RTL-SDR dongles that are operating from the same clock. Furthermore, it allows the signal
sampling to be synchronised with the time from two or more different antennas. This
35
feature provides a variety of advantages for many applications to be built easily such as
direction finding and passive radar.
There are three main types of the N-Channel Coherent Receiver; entry, medium, and
advanced levels. The medium level coherent receiver is shown in Fig. 2-28, while its circuit
diagram is shown in Fig. 2-29. Additionally, N-Channel Coherent Receiver includes an
antenna switching cards and noise generator cards. The antenna switching card is used to
switch the received signal from the antennas to several sources such as LNA or noise
source. Moreover, the noise generator card is created to regulate the initial latency
occurrence in each channel of coherent receivers. However, the time delay can occur due
to the signal processing and ADC or the delay of the signal propagation between the
antenna, tuner, and input circuits.
The Coherent-receiver.com company claims that it is possible to reach an unlimited number

of coherent channels design by utilising the principle of the tree structure and the
EXP_Cards [23].
36
2.9.1 N-Channel Coherent Receiver specification
• The ADC resolution: 8 bits

• Clock: 28.8 MHz
• Sample rates: 0.240 MHz, 0.288 MHz, 0.960 MHz, 1.200 MHz, 1.440 MHz, 2.016
MHz, 2.208 MHz, 2.400 MHz, 2.880 MHz
• Female connector antenna port: SMA
• Provided with R820T2 tuner: 24 MHz - 1766 MHz
• The USB powered bias tee: 4.5V
• The input RF noise figure: 3.5 dB
• Noise floor: –60 dBm
• The operation temperature: -10 to 60 ˚C
37
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
3.1 Testing RTL-SDR performance characteristics
This subsection investigates the RTL-SDR receiver noise floor. Additionally, an initial
validation testing was performed to measure the receiver parameters such as the output
SNR, receiver gain and the NF at different input powers.
3.1.1 Noise Floor
The noise floor of the RTL-SDR receiver is an important metric that used to illustrate
how much the receiver itself introduce noise to the system. The measured noise floor from
the RTL-SDR receiver is magnitude when its input is terminated [1]. The RTL-SDR noise
floor was tested by terminating the receiver input while connecting to MATLAB spectrum
analyser. The measured noise floor was approximate -55 dBm as shown in Fig. 3-1. This
result indicates that the input signal should have a higher power to be detectable at the input
of RTL-SDR receiver.
38
3.1.2 Measure Receiver Parameters
Noise figure is a significant parameter that used to define how much noise the receiver
will introduce to the system. The RTL-SDR receiver parameters such as gain and noise
figure can be calculated by conducting first a test on the signal generator to determine the
input SNR as shown in Table 3-1.
The RTL-SDRs does not have any advertised NF value, but there are some hobbyist
members tested the NF of it. They found that the NF of RTL-SDRs is varying from 13.6
dB to 17 dB [64] and [19]. The receiver gain and NF are determined at different input
powers which listed in Table 3-2. The average RTL-SDR gain and NF were 42.886 dB
and 13.828 dB respectively. The linear region of the receiver is shown in Fig. 3-2, the graph
illustrates that the receiver will begin to operate in the saturation region when the input
power regulated at -20 dBm.
39
3.2 Test three different types of antennas
Three different antennas will be tested in this subsection to investigate the differences
between directional and omnidirectional antennas. Three antennas were used in this
examination: Yagi-Uda antenna with 48 elements, omnidirectional antenna, and log
periodic antenna with 20 elements.
3.2.1 Yagi-Uda antenna
In Fig. 3-3 (a), Yagi-Uda antenna was tested in anechoic chamber room to characterise
its performance. Fig. 3-3 (b) shows the waveform geometry of DVB-T signal; the received
power level was -50.92 dBm. The test was completed using AEROFLEX Spectrum
Analyzer.
40
The measured RL and SWR at 498 MHz were -14.908 dB and 1:1.4597 respectively as
shown in Fig. 3-4.
3.2.2 Compact Log Periodic antenna with 20 elements
In Fig. 3-5 (a), the log periodic antenna was tested in anechoic chamber room to
characterise its performance, while in Fig. 3-5 (b) the received power level was -56.69 dBm
is shown.
41
shown in Fig. 3-6. Yagi-Uda antenna showed better SWR and signal power level compared
to the log periodic antenna.
3.2.3 Omnidirectional antenna
In Fig. 3-7 (a), the omnidirectional antenna was tested in anechoic chamber room to
characterise its performance, while in Fig. 3-5 (b) the received power level was -63.31 dBm
is shown. This antenna has poor reception where the received power was low.
42
The measured RL was -10.314 dB, while the SWR was 1:1.89 at 498 MHz as shown in
Fig. 3-8. The SWR result indicates that the reflected power will be significant. It can be
observed that the Yagi-Uda antenna was the best choice compared to log periodic and
omnidirectional antennas.
3.3 Test a various design for BPF
This subsection describes how a lumped element BPF was designed, simulated and
tested. Also, another microstrip BPF and LPF were examined.
43
3.3.1 Test lumped elements BPF with variable capacitors
Fig. 3-9 shows the BPF circuit diagram which was consisted of seven poles. The BPF
has an input and load impedances equal to 75 ohms. The components were tuned to
reasonable values.
The BPF frequency response is shown in Fig. 3-10 which indicates that the simulated
insertion loss (IL) is equal to -0.4277 dB at 498 MHz, the designed BPF board is shown in
Fig. 3-11, six variable capacitors were used to control the frequency response. The
measured BPF frequency response is shown in Fig. 3-12 which illustrates that this BPF was
not working. Several possible reasons could lead to this result, for example, components
values are not accurate, poor printed circuit boards (PCBs) quality, and soldering issues.
44
3.3.2 Examine the microstrip BPF and LPF
A microstrip BPF was designed to overcome the disadvantages of the lumped BPF. As
the microstrip BPF has a harmonic response where it is repeating itself, LPF is needed it to
cut the frequency response at the desired frequency. The BPF schematic and layout is
shown in Fig. 3-13, while the LPF schematic and layout is shown in Fig. 3-14. All the
equations and tables needed to convert from lumped element BPF to microstrip BPF is
provided in [37].
45
The frequencies responses for both BPF and LPF are shown in Fig. 3-15. The simulated IL
is -1.344 dB at 498 MHz.
46
Due to the limited time of this project, the PCBs could not be sent to the university supplier
as it would take more than one month. However, another option available was to print these
boards within a few days by sending it to any local companies in Portsmouth, but the
problem was the project budget. Since the boards need to be manufactured around 600
pounds, which were out of the project budget.
3.4 Decision about LNA
The chosen LNA for this project was ‘LNA4ALL’ as shown in Fig.1(a), which is
recommended for the RTL-SDR applications. LNA4ALL can cover frequency band from
HF to SHF, starting from 28 MHz to 2500 MHz. The decision of choosing this LNA was
depended on its low NF which is approximately equal to 1dB, the high gain, and the low
cost. The specifications of LNA4ALL are [65]:
• Frequency range from 24 MHz to 2500 MHz
• Noise figure is 1 dB
• Receive gain from 11 to 23 dB, depending on the operating frequency
• The IP3 is 34.75 dBm, tested in the range from 10 MHz to 3.5 GHz
• Power supply 6V-9V DC supply
• The consumption current between 55mA and 65mA
• Impedance 50 ohms
3.4.1 Measure the LNA Gain
Three different devices were used to measure the LNA gain as shown in Fig. 3-16 (b), they
are:
1) AEROFLEX Spectrum Analyzer with frequency range 1 kHz to 3 GHz

2) AEROFLEX IFR 2025 Signal Generator with frequency range 9 kHz to 2.51 GHz
3) FARNELL Triple Output Power Supply
As a part of measuring the LNA gain, two different cables were used with different losses.
The first cable (white cable) has a loss equal 0.99 dB and the second cable (black cable)
has a loss equal 1.54 dB. The total losses for both cables were 2.53 dB. The setup
parameters were:
• The power supply regulated to 7.22 Volt with current consumption equal to 53mA
47
• The spectrum analyser adjusted for Center Frequency at 498 MHz with RF level 0
dBm, and Span 20 MHz
• The signal generator tuned to Carrier Frequency at 498 MHz and RF level -40 dBm
From Fig. 3-17, the LNA gain can be obtained using the calculation below;
The measured gain for LNA = -20.11 dBm+40 dBm+2.53 dB= 22.42 dB
48
3.4.2 Test the LNA 1 dB compression point
The 1 dB compression point is one of the methods to determine the linearity of the
LNA. This measurement was required a signal generator and spectrum analyser. The centre
frequency of the spectrum analyser was adjusted to 498 MHz with a span equal to 20 MHz.
The input power of the signal generator has been setup to start from -103 dBm to 0 dBm.
In Table 3-3, the measurement results can be seen. It can be noticed in Fig. 3-18 that the
LNA begin to be saturated when the input power reaches -12 dBm.
49
3.5 Theoretical noise figure calculation for different six scenarios
Six scenarios were conducted to calculate the lowest NF for the whole system. The
calculation was completed by determining the system temperature value then converted it
to NF expressed in dB by using Table D1 (see Appendix D) [66]. Furthermore, it has
become practically to represent the received noise power through the antenna by the
effective antenna noise temperature expressed in ‘Kelvin’ by using the curves shown in
Fig.D1 (see Appendix D) [66]. In Fig.D2 the antenna was assumed to be properly designed,
the antenna noise temperature was selected at frequency 498 MHz and the beam elevation
angle from 10o to 90o under typical conditions. Moreover, the RTL-SDR R820T2 DVB-
T dongle has an average noise figure 13.828 dB according to the test completed in section
3.1.2. The NF can be reformed to an effective temperature using Table D1.
There are four cables were used to complete this calculation, and the losses of these cables
are listed in Table 3-4, and they were measured using a spectrum analyser and signal
generator. Furthermore, by using Table D1, the noise temperature can be obtained for each
cable. The cable loss of the antenna was neglected.
50
3.5.1 First Scenario
A simple setup is shown in Fig. 3-19, where the antenna was connected directly to the
RTL-SDR dongle by using cable one, then displayed by the MATLAB spectrum analyser.
The system temperature for the first scenario is 6871.6𝑜 using the below equation, and
the 𝑁𝐹𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 1 is 13.93 dB
3.5.2 Second Scenario

After examined the first scenario noise figure, another approach will be calculated by
using LNA between the antenna and the dongle as demonstrated in Fig. 3-20 to improve
the overall system noise figure and obtain higher SNR.
By comparing scenarios one and two, it can be noticed that the system noise figure in
scenario two is improved by 10.63 dB by adding the LNA to the system.
3.5.3 Third Scenario

While in this scenario the system noise figure raised to 4.43 dB compared to the system
noise figure in the second scenario due to the filter losses as illustrated in Fig. 3-21.
51
3.5.4 Fourth Scenario
In contrast with the third scenario, when the BPF became before the LNA as shown in
Fig. 3-22, the system noise figure increased to 8.67 dB.
3.5.5 Fifth Scenario

In the fifth scenario, two LNAs are connected to the system as shown in Fig. 3-23, to
obtain less system noise figure. It can be recognized by placing two LNA in the system that
the system noise figure decreased to 2.99 dB compared to the third scenario.
52
3.5.6 Sixth Scenario
In comparison with the fifth scenario, two cascaded LNAs followed by BPF were
connected as illustrated in Fig. 3-24, a little reduction can be obtained in the system noise
figure from 2.99 dB to 2.92 dB.
3.5.7 Comparison between the six scenarios

In Table 3-5, an NF summary for the six scenarios is listed. The lowest system NF is
2.92 dB, while the highest system NF was 13.93 dB. The fourth scenario was considered
to be the worst scenario as the input NF was 8.08 dB, while the maximum input NF for the
RTL-SDR receiver was 3.5 dB according to [18].
53
3.6 Testing the N-Channel Coherent Receiver characteristics
This subsection investigates the noise floor 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 and the expected of N-Channel
Coherent Receiver. Furthermore, it examines the effect of shielding the N-Channel
coherent receiver with a wooden box and a copper box.
3.6.1 Noise Floor
A testing was simulated using GNURadio model as shown in Fig. 3-25. The
measurement was conducted using two channels of the N-Channel coherent receiver to
examine the noise floor and the expected 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 , the other channels were terminated with
50 ohm impedance. N-Channeh Coherent Receiver was shielded using the wooden and
copper boxes. The first channel was connected to Yagi-Uda antenna, while the second
channel was terminated as shown in Fig. 3-26. The signal power level was -50 dB for
channel one, while the noise floor at channel two was -80 dB. The expected 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 was
30 dB.
54
3.6.2 Shielding the N-Channel Coherent Receiver
Three tests were conducted to check the effects of cross channel interference between
the channels. The cross channel interference has a significant effect on the received data
since the signal processing operation is depending on the differences between signals to
determine reflections. The first test was completed without shielding the N-Channel
Coherent Receiver by connecting a Yagi-Uda antenna to the first channel, while the other
channels were terminated. The waterfall spectrum is shown in Fig. 3-28, which indicates
that the first channel has an input power, while the other channels showed a reception with
some echoes.
55
From the previous test, it can be observed that there was a cross talk between the channels,
a wooden box was designed with copper tape at the bottom as shown in Fig. 3-29 to protect
and shield the device. It can be concluded from Fig. 3-30 that channels four and two were
not affected by channel one, while channel three still shows some interference. Since the
third channel was still exhibited to interference, an extra copper layer will add for extra
shielding.
56
The copper box was fabricated as shown in Fig. 3-31 for more shielding. Figure 3-32
indicates that the interference appeared in the third channel was reduced compared to the
previous test, but the interference still exists.
57
3.7 Project resources budget
The project budget list was an important purpose of this thesis. A listing of each
component cost in this project is shown in Table E (see Appendix E). Some resources used
in this project were not listed in this table such as spectrum analyser, vector network
analyser, power supply, MATLAB software and GNURadio software. These resources
were free to use on the university campus.
58
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
This Chapter explains the design requirements and components to implement BPF at
centre frequency 498 MHz. Additionally, it discusses the design procedures of Yagi-Uda
antenna with 13 elements and the design of uniform linear array using four elements.
4.1 BPF design using surface mounted elements
Surface Mounted Technology (SMT) is a technique utilised for fabricating electronics

circuits boards by soldering mounted components on the PCBs. One of SMT advantages is
that does not require drilling holes in the PCBs [67]. There were two main methods used to
calculate BPF components values; the first approach was using the normalised prototype
values given in Table 2-3, then convert these prototype values to the desired values using
the equations provided in section 2.4. The second method was using ‘iFilter’ feature that
installed with AWR design environment software as it is shown in Fig. 4-1. The second
method was chosen to design and implement the BPF circuit diagram is shown in Fig.4-2.
In Table 4-1, a summary of the BPF components values.
59
4.1.1 BPF specification
Various BPF was designed to obtain high performance with low loss.
• Lumped elements BPF using Chebyshev method

• Narrowband BPF
• Chebyshev ripple: 0.01 dB ripple
• Filter order: 5𝑡ℎ order
• Center frequency: 498 MHz
• Bandwidth: 200 MHz
• 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 : 75 ohms
• 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 : 75 ohms
• 𝑄𝐿 factor: 100
• 𝑄𝐶 factor: 1000
• Fabrication materials: Copper board and FR4
60
4.2 Yagi-Uda antenna with 13 elements design
The following subsection explains the development and construction of Yagi-Uda

antenna with the dimensions and specifications of each element. The calculations of Yagi-
Uda antenna was considered extremely hard to be completed by hand, especially with a
high number of directors. There are two methods were used to calculate the dimensions of
each element in the antenna. The first way was using the equations and prototype tables
given in [49] and [50]. The second method was a freeware calculator online specialises in
Yagi-Uda antenna design. The second approach was chosen to design Yagi-Uda antenna.
This free online calculator was developed by Martin E. Meserve [68].
A total of 13 elements were utilised to construct the desired design of Yagi-Uda antenna.
The obtained elements values from the online calculator were modified and adjusted to
achieve an appropriate design. The dimensions of each element in the antenna are shown
in Table 4-2. The driven element was chosen to be folded dipole as shown in Fig. 4-3 (b)
and it has specifications; length 26.5 cm, spacing 0.5 cm, and width 1 cm. The red point in
Fig. 4-3 refers to the feed location. The antenna elements will be placed on a boom with
length 170 cm and diameter 2 cm.
61
4.2.1 Yagi-Uda specification
• Number of elements: 13 elements

• Elements spacing: 10 cm
• Driven type: Folded dipole
• Elements type: Half-wave dipole
• Boom length: 170 cm
• Boom diameter: 2 cm
4.3 Uniform Linear Array with four elements of Yagi-Uda antennas design
The ULA design was constructed based on the given specifications in subsection 4.3.1.
Figure 4-5 (a) shows four commercially Yagi-Uda antennas available in the market were
installed on a wooden column with approximate length 2.5 meters. The wooden bar has
designed with different holes at spacing 0.5λ, 0.75λ, and 1λ. A MATLAB software tool
used to simulate the array and the simulation results shown in section 5.4. Due to the
limitation of anechoic chamber room size in the laboratory, some of the array parameters
did not measure.
62
4.3.1 Linear array specification
• Number of elements: 4
• Type of element: Yagi-Uda antenna with 10 elements
• Element spacing: 0.5λ or 0.75λ or 1λ
• Array geometry: horizontal linear array
• Frequency band: 471 MHz to 790 MHz
• Polarization: horizontal or vertical
63
MODELLING AND SIMULATION
This chapter illustrates the modelling and simulation of the BPF and two different Yagi-
Uda antennas. The BPF developed in chapter four was simulated using AWR design
environment software. Additionally, to demonstrate the performance of the two Yagi-Uda
antennas, a software model was generated using MATLAB. A simulation was examined to
investigate the performance of two different linear arrays. Also, an investigation was
completed regarding the effect of increasing the number of element and element spacing
on the array performance as shown in Table F5 (see Appendix F)
5.1 BPF Simulation
BPF was built and simulated in AWR design environment software. The circuit diagram
of the designed BPF in chapter four is shown in Fig. 5-1. There are several parameters to
consider in the manufacturing procedures such as the availability of standard components.
According to the availability limitations of the components in the university laboratory
stock, the components were tuned to obtain reasonable values as illustrated in Fig. 5-2.
64
5.1.1 Insertion loss vs Return loss
Return loss (RL) and IL are meaningful metrics for measuring the BPF performance.
The IL illustrates how much the filter attenuates the signal at a specific frequency. On the
other hand, the RL measures the impedance mismatch between the device’s termination
and also shows how much from the signal is reflected [38].
The frequency response of the schematic in Fig. 5-2 is shown in Fig. 5-3. The centre
frequency of the BPF was 498 MHz as shown in Fig. 5-3 with a -0.2727 dB IL and -21.52
dB RL. Additionally, the first mobile frequency band at 800 MHz was attenuated by -27.49
dB from the desired frequency.
65
5.1.2 Insertion Loss vs VSWR
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) describes how well the BPF ports matched the
impedance of the other devices in the system. VSWR can be calculated regarding EL.
VSWR can have values between one to infinity. When the impedance is perfectly matched,
the ratio will be 1:1. Larger impedance mismatch means more power will be reflected back
[69].
The designed BPF shows a good VSWR value with 1.187:1, which indicates that the
reflected power was not massive.
5.1.3 Phase Delay vs Group Delay
The phase delay is defined as the total time delay at each frequency. The group delay
represents the average time delay occurred by the composite signal at each frequency, and
it is used to measure the phase nonlinearity [78].
Figure 5-5 defines the phase delay and group delay, where the phase delay at 498 MHz was
3.809 ns, and the group delay at the same frequency was 5.264 degrees.
66
5.2 Yagi-Uda Antenna with 13 Elements Simulation
The designed Yagi-Uda in chapter four was constructed and simulated using MATLAB
to validate the design and show the performance. Parameters such as radiation pattern,
impedance, VSWR, RL, and reflection coefficient will be discussed to comprehend their
effects on other components in the system.
In Fig. 5-6, the designed Yagi-Uda antenna geometry is shown. It consists of thirteen
elements; one reflector placed at the bottom, one driven element located above the reflector,
and eleven directors arranged at uniform distances. The driven element contains the antenna
port which represents the antenna feed point, where the RF source is connected. The
antenna port is shown in the figure below as a red dot.
67
5.2.1 Radiation Pattern
In order to determine the antenna performance, the three-dimensional (3D) radiation

pattern is plotted in Fig. 5-7, while the two-dimensional (2D) radiation pattern is drawn in
Fig. 5-8. The simulated 3D radiation pattern indicates that the maximum directivity was
13.2 dBi at 498 MHz.
The HPBW was 79.2𝑜 and 33.2𝑜 in the azimuth and elevation directions respectively as
shown in Fig. 5-8. However, the directivity for both vertical and horizontal polarisation
was equal, since the length of elements were equal as shown in Fig. F1 (see Appendix F)
68
5.2.2 Impedance
In Fig. 5-9, the simulated input impedance of Yagi-Uda antenna at frequencies ranging
from 400 to 600 MHz is shown. The input impedance at 468 MHz was 102.2-20.76j. The
graph illustrates that the resonant frequency was 500 MHz and does not match the original
design it at 498 MHz. The resonant frequency is defined at which the reactance value of
the antenna is equal to zero. Series resonance is when the reactance values are negative
before the resonant frequency and are positive after the resonant frequency [50].
69
5.2.3 VSWR
VSWR is one method for measuring the impedance mismatch between the antenna and
transmission line. Because of impedance mismatch at the ports, the standing wave is
generated. VSWR is a positive scalar value and can be used to measure the antenna
bandwidth as it is often the frequency range when the VSWR is less than 2 [49].
In Fig. 5-10, the VSWR value was 1.29:1 at 498 MHz, which was considered a good ratio.
The VSWR value indicates that little power will be reflected at the desired frequency due
to the mismatch impedance at the ports.
70
5.2.4 Return Loss
The RL is one metric used to measure the efficiency of the delivered power to the
antenna from the transmission line. The higher the power delivered to the antenna, the
better the impedance matching is between the antenna and transmission line. The higher
the RL value, the less power is wasted [50].
The RL graph is shown in Fig. 5-11, which illustrates that the RL was equal to 19.93 dB at
498 MHz. The result indicates that approximately 1/20 of the transmitted signal was
reflected.
5.2.5 Reflection Coefficient
The reflection coefficient is known as S-Parameters or 𝑆11. Reflection coefficient is

another method used to describe how much power from the incident signal is reflected due
to mismatch impedance. The reflection coefficient measurement can also be used to define
the operating antenna bandwidth, as it is frequently defined as the frequency range where
the value of the reflection coefficient is lower than -10 dB [49].
The magnitude of the reflection coefficient at 498 MHz was -18.29 dB which indicates that
low power will be reflected as shown in Fig. 5-12. The lowest value of the reflection
coefficient in the figure below was -21 dB at 500 MHz.
71
5.3 Yagi-Uda Antenna (Y-1013UF-LTE aerial) with 10 Elements Simulation
In this section, the purchased Yagi-Uda antenna (Y-1013UF-LTE aerial) was simulated
using MATLAB by measuring the dimensions of the antenna practically. This simulation
was employed to investigate the performance of the antenna and compare it with provided
information in the antenna’s datasheet (see Appendix G). The antenna geometry, consisting
of 10 elements, is shown in Fig. 5-13.
72
In Fig. 5-14, the 3D radiation pattern of the Y-1013UF-LTE aerial antenna at 474 MHz
is shown, while in Fig. 5-15, the 2D radiation pattern at 474 MHz is provided. The
directivity of this antenna was 8.28 dBi at 474 MHz which is similar to the information
presented in the datasheet. The HPBW of this antenna was 80.3𝑜 in the azimuth direction
and 62𝑜 in the elevation direction.
The same antenna was simulated at 498 MHz, and the 3D radiation pattern is shown in Fig.
5-16, while the 2D radiation pattern is shown in Fig. 5-17. The simulated 3D radiation
pattern indicates that the maximum directivity was 8.17 dBi at 498 MHz.
73
The HPBW was 78.8𝑜 in the azimuth direction, and 61.5𝑜 in the elevation direction as
shown in Fig. 5-17. However, the directivity for both vertical and horizontal
polarisationwas equal, since the length of elements are equal as shown in Fig. F2 (see
Appendix F).
5.3.2 Impedance
The simulated antenna input impedance was completed at frequencies ranging from
400 to 600 MHz as shown in Fig. 5-18. The input impedance at 498 MHz was 181.7+14.26j.
74
The graph illustrates that the resonant frequency was at 494.3 MHz with zero reactance
value.
5.3.3 VSWR
Fig. 5-19 shows that the VSWR magnitude was 2.462:1 at 498 MHz, which was
considered a poor ratio. This value indicates that there is a high power will be reflected at
498MHz due to the mismatch impedance at the ports.
5.3.4 Return Loss
The RL plot is shown in Fig. 5-20, which illustrates the relationship between the RL
and the frequency. The RL magnitude was equal to 7.307 dB at 498 MHz. This result
75
indicates that 1/7.307 of the transmitted signal was reflected due to the impedance
mismatching and it was considered a high value.
The magnitude of the reflection coefficient at 498 MHz is -7.517 dB which indicates
that high power will be reflected as shown in Fig. 5-21. The lowest value of the reflection
coefficient was -8.3 dB at 500 MHz, which was still a high value.
5.4 Linear Array using Yagi-Uda Antenna with 13 Elements Simulation
The linear array geometry is shown in Fig. 5-22, which consists of four Yagi-Uda
antennas at spacing 0.5λ with each antenna including 13 elements.
76
In Fig. 5-23 (a), the linear array 3D radiation pattern at 498 MHz is shown, while in
Fig. 5-23 (b), the directivity on a rectangular plot at 498 MHz is provided. The directivity
of this array was 16.9 dBi at elements spacing 0.5λ. The 2D radiation pattern in the azimuth
and elevation directions are illustrated in Fig. 5-24. The HPBW was 18 degrees in the
azimuth direction, and 14 degrees in the elevation direction.
77
5.4.2 Active Impedance
The impedance value slightly varies from element to element in the array due to the
mutual coupling, as shown in Fig. 5-25. Mutual coupling is defined as any electromagnetic
interaction between array elements. The mutual coupling effects cannot be ignored in the
array construction; it causes many issues such as radiation pattern variations and can
modify the input impedance of each element in the array. The mutual coupling is inversely
proportional to the spacing between the array elements [70].
78
5.4.3 Return Loss
RL is considered an important parameter in the array design because when one element
in the array begins to radiate power, the other elements in the array begin to absorb a part
of its radiated power [71]. In Fig. 5-26, the RL of each element in the array is illustrated.
S-parameters is used to characterise the mutual coupling in the array. In Fig. 5-27, the
s-parameters for each element and between each two elements are plotted.
79
5.4.5 Adjusting the array at different elements spacing
The linear array at 0.75λ spacing geometry is shown in Fig 5-28 (a), while in Fig. 5-28
(b), the 3D radiation pattern at 498 MHz is shown. The directivity of this array was 18.3
dBi. The HPBW was 10.5 degrees in the azimuth direction, but was 9.80 degrees in the
elevation direction as shown in Fig. 5-29. The directivity was enhanced by 1.4 dBi
compared to the previous section, where the array spacing was 0.5λ. On the other hand, the
HPBW at 0.75λ was decreased by 7.5 degrees and 4.2 degrees in the azimuth and elevation
directions respectively compared to the HPBW at 0.5λ. In addition, the sides lobes numbers
were directly proportional to the element spacing in the array.
The linear array geometry at elements spacing 1λ is shown in Fig 5-30 (a), while in Fig. 5-
30 (b), the 3D radiation pattern at 498 MHz is shown. The directivity of this array was 19
80
dBi. The HPBW was 7.82 degrees in the azimuth direction and 7.53 degrees in the elevation
direction as shown in Fig. 5-31. The directivity was increased by 0.7 dBi in this case
compared to the previous case when the element spacing was 0.75λ. In contrast with the
HPBW at 0.75λ spacing, the HPBW at 1λ is decreased by 2.68 degrees and 2.27 degrees in
the azimuth and elevation directions respectively. The side lobes numbers were increased
again due to the array spacing increased.
81
5.5 Linear Array using Yagi-Uda Antenna (Y-1013UF-LTE aerial)
The linear array geometry is shown in Fig. 5-32, which consists of four Y-1013UF-
LTE aerials at spacing 0.5λ, with each antenna including 10 elements.
In Fig. 5-33 (a), the 3D radiation pattern of the linear array at 498 MHz is shown, while
in Fig. 5-23 (b), the directivity on a rectangular plot at 498 MHz is plotted. The directivity
of this array was 13.8 dBi at elements spacing 0.5λ. The HPBW was 15.6 degrees in the
azimuth direction and 15.1 degrees in the elevation direction as shown in Fig. 5-34.
82
5.5.2 Active Impedance
The impedance value of each element in the array is shown in Fig. 5-35. The impedance
variation was due to mutual coupling between elements in the array. If the results from
section 5.4.2 are compared with those of this section, the real impedance part of each
element in this section was doubled.
83
5.5.3 Return Loss
In Fig. 5-36, the RL of each element in the array is plotted. If the RL results from section
5.4.3 were compared with the result of this section, it could be concluded that 50% of the
RL was decreased due to the number of elements in each antenna in the array were reduced.
The s-parameters graph is shown in Fig. 5-37. The s-parameters magnitude for any
element in the array or between two elements can be obtained from the graph.
84
5.5.5 Adjusting the array at different elements spacing
The linear array at 0.75λ spacing geometry is shown in Fig 5-38 (a), while in Fig. 5-38
(b), the 3D radiation pattern at 498 MHz is shown. The directivity of this array was 14.1
dBi. The HPBW was 10.4 degrees in the azimuth direction and 10.3 degrees in the elevation
direction as shown in Fig. 5-39. The directivity was enhanced by 0.3 dBi compared to
section 5.5.1 when the element spacing was 0.5λ. On the other hand, the HPBW at 0.75λ
was decreased by 5.2 degrees and 4.8 degrees in the azimuth and elevation directions
respectively compared to the HPBW at 0.5λ. Also, the sides lobes numbers were increased
when the spacing was increased.
85
The linear array geometry at elements spacing 1λ is shown in Fig 5-40 (a), while in Fig. 5-
40 (b), the 3D radiation pattern at 498 MHz is shown. The directivity of this array was 14.2
dBi. The HPBW was 7.76 degrees in the azimuth direction and was 7.77 degrees in the
elevation direction as shown in Fig. 5-41. The directivity was enhanced by 0.1 dBi
compared to the previous case when the element spacing was 0.75λ, which is considered a
very poor enhancement. The HPBW at 0.75λ spacing compared to the HPBW at 1λ is
decreased by 2.64 degrees and 2.53 degrees in the azimuth and elevation directions
respectively. The side lobes were increased again because the array spacing increased.
86
MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS
This chapter presents the results of the simulated BPF that was examined in the previous
chapter. A comparison between the simulated and measured BPF was discussed.
Additionally, a measurement for the two chosen antennas was completed to determine their
performances. A simulation model was designed using MATLAB software to investigate
the received power level of each scenario purposed in chapter three. Comparison between
six scenarios was made to examine the higher SNR can be obtained. Furthermore, a
correlation test was completed after the two clocks of RTL-SDRs dongles were connected.
Finally, a simulation model was created using GNURadio software to measure the linear
array performance using the N-Channel Coherent Receiver. Two trials were conducted in
real life to examine the performance of PBR system using the dual RTL-SDRs dongles and
N-Channel Coherent Receiver as shown in the attached photos (see Appendix H)
6.1 Test and evaluate four different BPFs
Figure 6-1 shows the designed BPFs after soldering the components. The first three
BPFs were manufactured using matrix boards covered with a copper layer, while the last
BPF was produced on FR4 board.
87
The fabricated BPFs were tested with a signal generator and spectrum analyser, the
frequencies responses of these filters are shown in Fig. 6-2. Two cables were used to
measure the ILs of the BPFs, the combined losses from these cables were 2.13 dBm. The
measured ILs for the four BPFs were completed at 498 MHz which showed a higher IL
compared to the simulated version. After minus the cables losses, the IL of these BPFs were
-5.34dB, -6.39dB, -12.25dB, and -9.78dB respectively.
6.1.1 Practical issues with BPF design
It can be observed in Fig. 6-2 the differences between the frequencies responses of the
four BPFs. Several possible reasons could lead to this variation:
• The boards were cut by hand which causes slightly difference in the dimensions
• The soldering temperature on each capacitor or inductor in were not the same
• The capacitors and inductors have tolerance ratio which can affect the performance
• The Q factor of the design version was different from the practical values
88
6.2 Test the Log Periodic antenna (Reference Channel)
In Fig. 6-3 (a), the log periodic antenna was tested in anechoic chamber room to
characterise its performance. Figure 6-3 (b) shows the waveform geometry of the DVB-T
signal which indicates that the received power was -51.66 dBm.
shown in Fig. 3-4. The SWR result indicates that part of the input signal into the antenna
was reflected back.
89
6.3 Test the Yagi-Uda antenna (Surveillance Channel)
Yagi-Uda antenna was tested in anechoic chamber room as shown in Fig. 6-5 (a).
Figure 6-5 (b) illustrates that the received power level at 498 MHz is -53.95 dBm.
shown in Fig. 6-6.
90
6.4 Test the six scenarios performance on the system
The six scenarios were tested utilising a simulation model that designed using
MATLAB software as shown in Fig. 6-7.
6.4.1 Test the first scenario
The average received power was -34.331 dBm at 498 MHz, while the average noise
floor was -55 dBm as shown in Fig. 6-8. The measured SNR was 20.669 dB.
6.4.2 Test the second scenario
91
6.4.3 Test the third scenario
6.4.4 Test the fourth scenario
92
6.4.5 Test the fifth scenario
6.4.6 Test the sixth scenario
93
6.4.7 Comparison between the six scenarios
The output signals power and the system 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 for the six scenarios were summarised
in Table 6-1. It can be observied that the highest 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 was for the fifth scenario with
48.2028 dB. The block diagram of the fifth scenario can be shown in Fig. 3-23. From the
six scenarios tests, it can be noticed that the noise floor in all cases are equal to -55 dBm.
This result indicates that the RTL-SDR receiver noise is larger than the system noise.
After all the scenarios were examined, the recommended block diagram for the system is
shown in Fig. 6-14.
94
6.5 Test the two RTL-SDR dongles after connecting the clocks
Figure 6-15 shows the dual RTL-SDR receivers after modifying the circuits by
removing and desoldering the clock of one dongle, then connect the clock of the master
dongle to the desoldered dongle using cable.
Figure 6-16 shows the simulation model for dual RTL-SDR receivers to investigate the
coherent issue between the two dongles. The cross correlation function was completed
between the two dongles, and the result is shown in Fig. 6-17.
95
6.6 Test the linear array performance using the N-Channel Coherent Receiver
A simulation model was made using GNURadio software to test the linear array
performance using the N-Channel Coherent Receiver as shown in Fig. 6-18. The model
was setup at frequency 495 MHz with a sampling rate equal to 2.4 MSPS. The linear array
was tested with and without the LNA at elements spacing 0.75λ and 1λ.
96
Figure 6-19 (a) shows the system configuration, while the noise floor for the four channels
is illustrated in Fig. 6-19 (b). The noise floor in the four channels was -80 dB.
6.6.1 Test the linear array at 1λ elements spacing without LNA
The linear array was tested at 495 MHz with elements spacing 1λ. Received power
levels for channels 4, 3, and 2 were -50 dB, while for channel 1 was -48 dB as shown in
Fig. 6-20. The average 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 was 30 dB for each channel. In Fig. 6-21, waterfall
representations for the four channels are shown. The DVB-T channel ends at 494.25 MHz.
97
6.6.2 Test the linear array at 1λ elements spacing with LNA
In this case, four antennas were connected to LAN individually, then linked to the N-
Channel Coherent Receiver. The received power levels for the four channels were -36 dB,
-26 dB, -33 dB, and -30 dB respectively as shown in Fig. 6-22. The average 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 was
49 dB. This result indicates that the LNA amplifies the signal by 20 dB compared to the
previous measurement. In Fig. 6-23, the waterfall representations shows better resolution
and reception for the DVB-T signal. These differences in the received power between
98
channels were due to the characteristics of the DVB-T signal and the cross channel
interference.
6.6.3 Test the linear array at 0.75λ elements spacing without LNA
The linear array spacing was adjusted to 0.75λ. The received power levels for the four
channels were -45 dB, -49 dB, -53 dB, and -49 dB respectively as shown in Fig. 6-24. The
average 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 was 31 dB. In Fig. 6-25, the waterfall illustrations for the four channels
are shown.
99
6.6.4 Test the linear array at 0.75λ elements spacing with LNA
Four antennas were connected again to the LAN individually, but this time at spacing
0.75λ, then linked to the N-Channel Coherent Receiver. The received power levels for the
four channels were -34 dB, -27 dB, -30 dB, and -34 dB respectively as shown in Fig. 6-26.
The average 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 was 49 dB This result indicates that the LNA amplifies the signal by
18 dB compared to the previous measurement. In Fig. 6-27, the waterfall representation
shows better reception for the DVB-T signal compared to the previous section.
100
101
CONCLUSIONS
This thesis presents the suitability of using RTL-SDR receiver dongle for a DVB-T
based PBR. In order to perform this project, research was conducted in the field of PBR, a
study of existing DVB-T signals and transmitters in Portsmouth was completed, and an
investigation was carried out in the area of antenna types to define the most efficient
antenna for implementation. Additionally, a review of the RTL-SDR receiver and N-
Channel Coherent Receiver technologies was conducted.
An experimental investigation was completed on the RTL-SDR receiver dongle to

determine the noise floor, noise figure, and the gain at different input powers. The outcome
obtained from this examination for the noise floor, average noise, and average gain was -
55 dB, -13.828 dB, and 42.886 dB respectively. Moreover, an experiment on various types
of antennas was completed to determine which antenna was more suitable for this project.
Based on testing the return loss, standing wave ratio, received power levels; the Yagi-Uda
and log periodic antennas for surveillance, and reference channels respectively were used.
Due to the limited time allotted for this project, the designed Yagi-Uda antenna was not
implemented, but was simulated using MATLAB software. This simulation indicated that
the Yagi-Uda had forward directivity 13.2 dBi with HPBW 79.1and 33.2 degrees in the
azimuth and elevation directions respectively. Purchasing a commercial Yagi-Uda and log
periodic antennas was necessary to complete this project. The commercial Yagi-Uda
antenna was simulated using MATLAB with the simulation results revealing a maximum
forward directivity at 498 MHz is 8.17 dB.
Different BPFs were designed including lumped passive BPF, microstrip BPF, and BPF
using the surface mounted technology to obtain better SNR for the system. The lumped
passive BPF showed an abysmal result, and the microstrip BPF was not produced due to
the high cost. The BPF was implemented using surface mounted technology. The BPF had
a -5.34 dB return loss which is considered a reasonable result. Furthermore, a decision to
use an LNA with the BPF was taken to improve the output SNR for the system. The chosen
102
LNA was LNA4ALL which is well-known for its RTL-SDR applications. A complete
investigation was done on the LNA characteristics including gain, and 1 dB compression
point. In order to estimate the system noise figure and output SNR, six scenarios were
created. After testing and evaluation, the fifth scenario was chosen due to the high output
SNR 48.2028 dB and low noise figure 2.99 dB.
The N-Channel Coherent Receiver was examined to determine its noise floor and the
expected power level. The results indicate that the noise floor of the N-Channel is -80 dB,
while the received power level is -50 dB using Yagi-Uda antenna. The channels in N-
Channel Coherent Receiver suffered from cross channel interference, and for this, a
wooden box covered with a copper layer was made to reduce interfering signals. The results
indicate that cross channel interference was reduced between channels was accomplished,
but not eliminated. This interference may fail the device to detect reflection from a target
since the signal processing stage depends on the difference between signals.
A model was generated on MATLAB to examine the linear array performance using the
designed and commercial Yagi-Uda antennas. Due to the large size of the linear array, it
was not able to be tested in an anechoic chamber room. The aim was to compare the
simulated to the measured results. A simulation model was created using GNURadio
software to examine the linear array characteristics such as received power and the expected
output SNR. The linear array was tested by connecting it to the N-Channel Coherent
Receiver. The linear array was examined with and without LNA at two different element
spacing 0.75λ and 1λ. The obtained output SNRs without LNA at spacing 0.75λ and 1λ
were 31 dB and 30 dB respectively, while with LNA both cases were 49 dB. It was observed
that the number of sidelobes in the radiation pattern of the simulated linear array were
directly proportional to the number of elements and the spacing between elements in the
array.
Two different tests were carried out to investigate the performance of the PBR system using
two different methods including the dual coherent RTL-SDR dongles and N-Channel
Coherent Receiver. The first trial was conducted within QinetiQ company, while the second
trial was executed in Portsmouth city near the Southsea area. Both real world trials were
not able to detect any target information due to software failure.
103
7.1 Suggestions for future work
For future plans, the designed Yagi-Uda antenna will be implemented and used to form
the linear array to obtain higher directivity. In addition, a circular array will be designed
and implemented to investigate the differences in results compared to those obtained from
linear array. Development of the software will be carried out to test the PBR system.
Moreover, an investigation will be conducted to find methods that fully remove cross
channel interference between channels within the N-Channel Coherent Receiver.
104
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] M. Ryan, "Low Cost Passive Radar Through Software Defined Radio", Bachelor of
Engineering, Electrical & Electronic Department, University of Southern Queensland,
2016.
[2] I. Balajti, "“One radar-one equation” concept for radars of ATC," 2017 18th
International Radar Symposium (IRS), Prague, Czech Republic, 2017, pp. 1-13.
[3] G. Curry, Radar essentials. Raleigh, NC: Scitech Pub. Inc., 2012.
[4] M. Skolnik, Radar handbook, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008.
[5] Institution of Engineering and Technology. and W. Wirth, Radar Techniques Using
Array Antennas, 2nd ed. London: Institution of Engineering and Technology - IET, 2013.
[6] F. Heunis, "Passive Coherent Location Radar using Software-Defined Radio
techniques", Postgraduate, University of Cape Town, Department of Electrical
Engineering, 2010.
[7] M. Tømmer, "Design of a phased array antenna for a DVB-T based passive bistatic
radar", Postgraduate, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of
Electronics and Telecommunications, 2014.
[8] H. Griffiths and C. Baker, An Introduction to Passive Radar, 1st ed. Artech House,
2017.
[9] S. Kirby, L. Berkner and D. Stuart, "Studies of the ionosphere and their application to
radio transmission", Bureau of Standards Journal of Research, vol. 12, no. 1, p. 15, 1934.
[10] M. Ringer, G. Frazer and S. Anderson, Waveform analysis of transmitters of
opportunity for passive radar. Salisbury, S. Aust.: DSTO, 1999.
[11] H. Kuschel and D. O'Hagan, "Passive radar from history to future," 11-th
INTERNATIONAL RADAR SYMPOSIUM, Vilnius, Lithuania, 2010, pp. 1-4.
[12] P. Howland, "Editorial: Passive radar systems," in IEE Proceedings - Radar, Sonar
and Navigation, vol. 152, no. 3, pp. 105-106, 3 June 2005.
[13] D. E. Hack, "PASSIVE MIMO RADAR DETECTION", PhD, Air University, Air
Force Institute of Technology, Department of the Air Force, 2013.
[14] A. Aldowesh, M. Shoaib, K. Jamil, S. Alhumaidi and M. Alam, "A passive bistatic
radar experiment for very low radar cross-section target detection," 2015 IEEE Radar
Conference, Johannesburg, 2015, pp. 406-410.
[15] M. Edrich and A. Schroeder, "Multiband multistatic Passive Radar system for
airspace surveillance: A step towards mature PCL implementations," 2013 International
Conference on Radar, Adelaide, SA, 2013, pp. 218-223.
[16] M. Edrich and A. Schroeder, "Design, implementation and test of a multiband
multistatic passive radar system for operational use in airspace surveillance," 2014 IEEE
Radar Conference, Cincinnati, OH, 2014, pp. 0012-0016.
105
[17] K. Jamil, M. Alam, M. A. Hadi and Z. O. Alhekail, "A multi-band multi-beam
software-defined passive radar part I: System design," IET International Conference on
Radar Systems (Radar 2012), Glasgow, UK, 2012, pp. 1-4.
[18] C. Laufer, The hobbyist's guide to the RTL-SDR. [North Charleston, South Carolina]:
Createspace Independent Publishing Platform, 2015.
[19] "RTL-SDR Passive Radar", Rtl-sdr.com, 2017. [Online]. Available: http://www.rtl-
sdr.com/?s=rtl+sdr+passive+radar. [Accessed: 26- Jul- 2017].
[20] B. Silverwood (2014, 25 May). Low cost RTL-SDR passive multistatic DAB radar.
Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=l9V73d0nF4A
[21] Tejeez, "tejeez/rtl_coherent", GitHub, 2016. [Online]. Available:
https://github.com/tejeez/rtl_coherent. [Accessed: 14- Aug- 2017].
[22] M. A. Attalah, T. Laroussi, A. Aouane and A. Mehanaoui, "Adaptive filters for
direct path and multipath interference cancellation: Application to FM-RTL-SDR based
Passive Bistatic Radar," 2016 7th International Conference on Sciences of Electronics,
Technologies of Information and Telecommunications (SETIT), Hammamet, 2016, pp.
461-465.
[23] "Home", RTL-SDR (rtl2832u) multi-channel coherent receivers, 2017. [Online].
Available: http://coherent-receiver.com/. [Accessed: 01- Aug- 2017].
[24] W. Melvin and J. Scheer, Principles of modern radar. Edison, NJ: SciTech
Publishing, 2014.
[25] F. Gini, Waveform Design and Diversity for Advanced Radar Systems. Stevenage:
IET, 2012.
[26] J. Christiansen, "DVB-T based Passive Bistatic Radar", Norwegian Defence
Research Establishment, 2010.
[27] M. Radmard, M. Bastani, F. Behnia and M. M. Nayebi, "Advantages of the DVB-T
signal for passive radar applications," 11-th INTERNATIONAL RADAR SYMPOSIUM,
Vilnius, Lithuania, 2010, pp. 1-5.
[28] T. Pető, L. Dudás and R. Seller, "DVB-T based passive radar," 2014 24th
International Conference Radioelektronika, Bratislava, 2014, pp. 1-4.
[29] M. Cherniakov and D. Nezlin, Bistatic radar. Southern Gate (Chichester): John
Wiley & Sons, 2007.
[30] K. Cafe, "Doppler Frequency Shift Equations Formulas - RF Cafe", Rfcafe.com,
2017. [Online]. Available: http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/doppler.htm.
[Accessed: 18- Jul- 2017].
[31] P. BEZOUŠEK and V. SCHEJBAL, "Bistatic and Multistatic Radar
Systems", RADIO ENGINEERING, vol. 17, no. 3, 2008.
[32] DVB Project Office, "Digital Terrestrial Television", www.dvb.org, 2012. [Online].
Available: https://www.dvb.org/resources/public/factsheets/DVB-T_Factsheet.pdf.
[33] B. Butterworth, "Rowridge (Isle Of Wight, England) Full Freeview transmitter", UK
Free TV, 2004. [Online]. Available: https://ukfree.tv/transmitters/tv/Rowridge.
106
[34] E. ALI and A. ÖRSTADIUS, "Passive Radar Detection of Aerial Targets",
Postgraduate, Lund University, Faculty of Eengineering, Department of Electrical and
Information Technology, 2017.
[35] "UK digital television transmitter details", Ofcom, 2014. [Online]. Available:
https://www.ofcom.org.uk/spectrum/information/transmitter-frequency.
[36] "Television transmitter location maps", Ofcom, 2009. [Online]. Available:
https://www.ofcom.org.uk/spectrum/information/tv-transmitter-maps.
[37] A. Williams and F. Taylor, Electronic filter design handbook, 4th ed. New York,
N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, 2006.
[38] S. Winder, Analog and digital filter design, 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Newnes, 2002.
[39] C. Poole and I. Darwazeh, Microwave Active Circuit Analysis and Design, 1st ed.
Elsevier, 2016.
[40] G. Kalivas, Digital Radio System Design. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 2009.
[41] S. Gore and G. Phade, "Design Challenges and Performance Parameters of Low
Noise Amplifier", International Journal of Innovations in Engineering and Technology
(IJIET), vol. 3, no. 1, 2013.
[42] S. Sherman and D. Barton, Monopulse principles and techniques, 2nd ed. Norwood,
Mass.: Artech House, 2011.
[43] Sung-Hoon Moon, Dong-Seog Han, Hae-Sock Oh and Myeong-Je Cho, "Monopulse
angle estimation with constrained adaptive beamforming using simple mainlobe
maintenance technique," IEEE Military Communications Conference, 2003. MILCOM
2003., 2003, pp. 1365-1369 Vol.2.
[44] V.S. Bagad, Radar System, 1st ed. Technical Publications, 2009.
[45] W. D. Blair and M. Brandt-Pearce, "Monopulse DOA estimation of two unresolved
Rayleigh targets," in IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol. 37,
no. 2, pp. 452-469, Apr 2001.
[46] C. Allen, Class Lecture, Topic: "Radar Measurements II", Faculty of Engineering,
The University of Kansas, 2017.
[47] B. Mahafza, Radar systems analysis and design using MATLAB, 3rd ed. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2013.
[48] S. Ohshima et al., "Phase-comparison monopulse radar with switched transmit
beams for automotive application," 1999 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave
Symposium Digest (Cat. No.99CH36282), Anaheim, CA, USA, 1999, pp. 1493-1496
vol.4.
[49] W. Stutzman and G. Thiele, Antenna theory and design, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley, 2013.
[50] C. Balanis, ANTENNA THEORY: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN, 3rd ed. Hoboken, New
Jersey: Wiley, 2016.
[51] "IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas," in IEEE No 145-1973, vol., no.,
pp.1-18, Aug. 2, 1973.
107
[52] V. Zuniga, N. Haridas, A. T. Erdogan and T. Arslan, "Effect of a Central Antenna
Element on the Directivity, Half-Power Beamwidth and Side-Lobe Level of Circular
Antenna Arrays," 2009 NASA/ESA Conference on Adaptive Hardware and Systems, San
Francisco, CA, 2009, pp. 252-256.
[53] R. W. P. King, "The linear antenna Eighty years of progress," in Proceedings of the
IEEE, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 2-16, Jan. 1967.
[54] Robert S. Elliott, "Radiation Patterns of Dipoles, Loops, and Helices," in Antenna
Theory & Design, 1, Wiley-IEEE Press, 2003, pp.58-78.
[55] D. Pandavingh, M. Vermaire, M. Derks, R. Freije, E. de Groot, N. Leijen, B. Meyers
and B. Okken, "Design and Construction of a Yagi-Uda Antenna for the 433 MHz Band |
Antenna (Radio) | Coaxial Cable", Scribd, 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://www.scribd.com/document/318860568/Design-and-Construction-of-a-Yagi-Uda-
Antenna-for-the-433-MHz-Band.
[56] R. Carrel, "The design of log-periodic dipole antennas," 1958 IRE International
Convention Record, New York, NY, USA, 1961, pp. 61-75.
[57] R. Haupt, Antenna arrays. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
[58] S. Kumar and S. SHUKLA, Wave propagation and antenna engineering. Prentice-
Hall of India, 2015.
[59] M. Malanowski and K. Kulpa, "Digital beamforming for Passive Coherent Location
radar," 2008 IEEE Radar Conference, Rome, 2008, pp. 1-6.
[60] A. Dalli, L. Ze Nkouar, E. Adiba, M. Habibi and S. Bri, "Circular Array with Central
Element for Smart Antenna", Scientific & Academic Publishing, 2013.
[61] C. I. Coman, S. Gelsema and C. Stolk, "Array antennas for passive covert radar
applications," Proceedings of the Fourth European Conference on Antennas and
Propagation, Barcelona, Spain, 2010, pp. 1-4.
[62] K. Mahalingam and S. Michelini, "Analysis and Evaluation of Register Transfer
Logic Software Defined Radio Performance", Degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical
and Computer Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2016.
[63] R820T High Performance Low Power Advanced Digital TV Silicon Tuner Datasheet.
HsinChu: Rafael Microelectronics, 2017.
[64] Tomaž, "NOISE FIGURE MEASUREMENTS OF RTL-SDR
DONGLES", Tablix.org, 2015. [Online]. Available:
https://www.tablix.org/~avian/blog/archives/2015/03/noise_figure_measurements_of_rtl_
sdr_dongles/. [Accessed: 028- Aug- 2017].
[65] "LNA for all", Lna4all.blogspot.co.uk, 2017. [Online]. Available:
http://lna4all.blogspot.co.uk/. [Accessed: 18- Jul- 2017].
[66] U. S. NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, "ANTENNA AND RECEIVING
SYSTEM NOISE TEMPERATURE CALCULATION", Washington.D.C, 1961.
[67] I. D. P. Hermida and D. P. Kurniadi, "Simulation and realization of bandpass filter
(BPF) 456 MHz using thick film technology substrate-based alumina," 2016 International
108
Conference on Radar, Antenna, Microwave, Electronics, and Telecommunications
(ICRAMET), Jakarta, 2016, pp. 106-109.
[68] M. E. Meserve, "K7MEM - VHF/UHF Yagi Antenna Design", K7mem.com, 2017.
[Online]. Available:
http://www.k7mem.com/Electronic_Notebook/antennas/yagi_vhf.html. [Accessed: 06-
Aug- 2017].
[69] L. Paarmann, Design and Analysis of Analog Filters. Boston, MA: Springer US,
2003.
[70] "Mutual Coupling - MATLAB & Simulink - MathWorks United Kingdom",
Uk.mathworks.com, 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://uk.mathworks.com/help/antenna/ug/mutual-coupling.html. [Accessed: 08- Sep-
2017].
[71] S. Mohanna, A. Farahbakhsh, S. Tavakoli and N. Ghassemi, "Reduction of Mutual
Coupling and Return Loss in Microstrip Array Antennas Using Concave Rectangular
Patches", International Journal of Microwave Science and Technology, vol. 2010, pp. 1-
5, 2010.
109
APPENDICES
Appendix A
Agreed Project Definition
110
Appendix B
Certificate of Ethics Review
111
Appendix C
The main four types of linear array are:
1) Broadside Array (𝜽𝒎 = 𝟗𝟎𝒐 ); To achieve the best design in the broadside array,
the AF and the single element should be both pointed toward 𝜃𝑚 = 90𝑜 . Also, the
amplitude and phase excitation should be the same for all of the elements to obtain
the maximum AF of the ULA directed in the same axis of the array. Additionally,
to avert any grating lobe in the radiation pattern, the largest distance between the
elements have to be less than one wavelength.
2) Ordinary End-Fire Array (𝜽𝒎 = 𝟎𝒐 , 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 ); It is necessary to ensure that the
signal radiates only in one direction ethier 𝜃𝑚 = 0𝑜 or 𝜃𝑚 = 180𝑜 and the desirable
design is to be directed along the array axis. If the spacing between elements is one-
half of the wavelength, it means that the radiation occurred in the both directions
𝜃𝑚 = 0𝑜 and 𝜃𝑚 = 180𝑜 . To gurantee that there is only one maximum end-fire and
to avert any grating lobes, the distance between elements have to be less than one-
half the of wavelength.
3) Phased Array (𝟎𝒐 ≤ 𝜽𝒎 ≤ 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 ); The maximum radiation can be obtained in
different directions by adjusting the relative phase between the elements in the array
either in broadside or end-fire.
4) Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array (𝜽𝒎 = 𝟎𝒐 , 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 ); It was invented to
increase the directivity of the end-fire array without destruction of the end-fire
characteristics.
112
Appendix D
Table D1. Decibels, Power Ratios, and Effective

Temperatures
113
Figure D2. Antenna temperature for typical conditions,
Dashed curves are for maximum and minimum cosmic
and atmospheric noise
114
Appendix E
Project Budget
The project budget is listed in the table below, which illustrates the cost of each
component.
115
Appendix F
Yagi-Uda antenna with 13 elements
The directivity for both vertical and horizontal polarisations was equal as it shown in Fig.
F1 for vertical polarisation and in Fig. F2 for horizontal polarisation.
Figure F1. Vertical polarisation
Figure F2. Horizontal polarisation
116
Yagi-Uda antenna (Y1013UF/LTE)
The directivity for both vertical and horizontal polarisations was equal as it shown in Fig.
F3 for vertical polarisation and in Fig. F4 for horizontal polarisation.
Figure F3. Vertical polarisation
Figure F4. Horizontal polarisation
117
An investigation on the performance of linear array was conducted using Simulink which
is integrated with MATLAB software. In order to examine the array performance at
different spacing and a various number of elements, the sensor array analyser application
was used. It can be concluded from the table below that by increasing the no. of elements
w.r.t the same spacing the directivity increased, and the side lobes also increased.
Furthermore, by increasing spacing between elements w.r.t the same no.of elements, the
directivity increased and the side lobes also increased.
Table F5. Investegation the linear array
118
Appendix G
Yagi-Uda antenna (Y1013UF/LTE) datasheet
119
Log periodic antenna datasheet
120
Appendix H
The first trial was conducted at QinetiQ company. Figure H1 shows the set up of N-
Channel Coherent receiver connected to four LNAs then to the linear array.
Figure H1 shows the set up for the system
Figure H2 shows the linear array pointed to rowridge transmitter
121
Figure H3 shows that the surveillanceis pointed to aircraft path and the reference antenna is
pointed to rowridge transmitter
The second trial was conducted in Portsmouth city at Southsea area. Testing done by both
reference and surveillance channels.
Figure H4 shows the surveillanceis antenna is pointed to aircraft
122
Figure H5 shows the location of the aircraft shown in figure H4, and a screenshot was taken
using Flightradar24 application to identify the parameters of aircraft
123

MSC Thesis

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MSC Thesis

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ultra Low-Cost Passive Software Defined Radar

This Thesis is Submitted in Partial Submission for the

An examination was conducted to check the received signal characteristics. As a result of

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ................................................................................. I

Figure 2-1. A typically passive bistatic radar system .......................................................... 9

Table 2-1. The parameters of bistatic radar geometry ....................................................... 10

FR : Pattern propagation factor between 𝑅𝑥 and target path

As demand for the RTL-SDR receivers increased, development of this technology

Multichannel coherent RTL-SDR receivers showed vital importance to the designers of

Nowadays, Coherent-receiver.com can produce up to sixteen coherent channels which are

1.4 Thesis Objectives

1.5 Thesis Outline

The purpose of chapter three was to perform an experimental investigation of different

2.1 Passive Bistatic Radar

2.1.1 Bistatic Radar Geometry

2.1.4 Bistatic Doppler Effect.

Where ꚍ is the time delay, and 𝑓𝑑 is the doppler frequecny shift.

2.2 Multistatic Radar

2.3.1 DVB-T signal

2.3.3 DVB-T transmitter properties

The nearest DVB-T transmitter location to Portsmouth city is Rowridge transmitted

2.5 Low Noise Amplifier

LNA is considered a significant component of any receiver circuit in the modern

2.6 Monopulse Techniques

Monopulse is also referred as a simultaneous lobe comparison technique; simply it is a

2.6.1 Amplitude Comparison Monopulse

According to the IEEE, The amplitude comparison monopulse (ACM) is defined a

Where 𝜃 is defined as the angle of arrival as illustrated in Fig. 2-12 (b).

2.7.1 Antenna basic concepts

2.7.2 Dipole antenna

2.7.2.1 Half wave dipole antenna

2.7.2.2 Folded dipole antenna

2.7.4 Yagi-Uda antenna

The Yagi-Uda antenna is efficient in real life applications as it can be operated in

2.7.5 Log Periodic dipole antenna

2.7.6.2 Uniform Circular Array

2.8 RTL-SDRs Receiver Dongle

2.8.1 RTL-SDR receiver specification

• The frequency range: 24 MHz -1766 MHz

2.9 N-Channel Coherent Receiver

N-channel Coherent Receiver utilises the RTL-SDR V3 dongles to produce a coherent

The Coherent-receiver.com company claims that it is possible to reach an unlimited number

• The ADC resolution: 8 bits

3.1 Testing RTL-SDR performance characteristics

3.1.1 Noise Floor

3.2.1 Yagi-Uda antenna

3.2.2 Compact Log Periodic antenna with 20 elements

3.2.3 Omnidirectional antenna

3.3 Test a various design for BPF

3.4 Decision about LNA

3.4.1 Measure the LNA Gain

1) AEROFLEX Spectrum Analyzer with frequency range 1 kHz to 3 GHz

3.5.2 Second Scenario

3.5.3 Third Scenario

3.5.5 Fifth Scenario

3.5.7 Comparison between the six scenarios

3.6.1 Noise Floor

4.1 BPF design using surface mounted elements

Surface Mounted Technology (SMT) is a technique utilised for fabricating electronics

• Lumped elements BPF using Chebyshev method

The following subsection explains the development and construction of Yagi-Uda

• Number of elements: 13 elements

5.1 BPF Simulation